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APPLIED MECHANICS
VOLUME 7
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ADVANCES IN
APPLIED MECHANICS
Editors
H. L. DRYDEN TH. VON K ~ R M ~ N
Managing Editor
G. KUERTI
Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio
Associate Editors
F. H. VAN DEN DUNCEN L. HOWARTH
VOLUME 7
1962
ACADEMIC PRESS NEW YORK AND LONDON
COPYRIGHT 0 1982, BY ACADEMIC P R E S S INC.
ALL RI GHTS R E S E R V E D
PRINTED
IN THE UNITEDSTATES
OF AMERICA
TO VOLUME
CONTRIBUTORS 7
THE EDITORS
July, 1962
Vii
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Contents
CONTRIBUTORS 7
TO VOLUME ....................... v
PREFACE. ............................... vii
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.
I1 Hypersonic Slender-Body Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I11. Flows Associated with Power-Law Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
IV . Flows Associated with Slightly Perturbed Power-Law Shocks . . . . . 26
.
V Integral Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
VI . Validity of Self-similar Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
.
VII Further Discussion of Integral Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
.
VIII Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 56
. The Development of the Equilibrium Crack Theory . . . . . . . . . .
I1 62
I11. The Structure of the Edge of an Equilibrium Crack in a Brittle Body . 69
IV. Basic Hypotheses and General Statement of the Problem of Equilibrium
Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 76
V . Special Problems in the Theory of Equilibrium Cracks . . . . . . . . 90
.
VI Wedging; Dynamic Problems in the Theory of Cracks . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 125
. Physical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 132
. Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 151
. Particular Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I11 183
IV. Elastic-plastic Non-homogeneous Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
ix
X CONTENTS
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11. Basic Equations of Magneto-hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
111. Electromagnetic and. Mechanical Effects ; Dimensionless Parameters . . . 224
I V. Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
V. Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
VI . Alfvbn Waves in Systems of Finite Extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
VII . Gravity Waves : Rayleigh-Taylor Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
VIII . Gravitational Instability: Jeans Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
IX . Steady Flow between Parallel Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
X . Flow due t o an Oscillating- Plane: Rayleighs Problem . . . . . . . . . 286
XI . Steady Two-dimensional Inertial Flow in the Presence of a Magnetic Field . 300
Appendix A : The Hydromagnetic Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Appendix B : Relativistic Magneto-Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
AUTHORINDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
SUBJECTINDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Hypersonic Flow over Slender Bodies
Associated with Power-Law Shocks
BY HAROLD MIRELS
Lewis Research Center+
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Cleveland. Ohio
Page
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
I1. Hypersonic Slender-Body Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I11. Flows Associated with Power-Law Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1. Basic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Alternative Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Stream-function formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lagrangian formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Sedov formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Analytic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Blast wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Newtonian theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Sharp-blow solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Approximate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
.
4 Nature of the Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
.
IV Flows Associated with Slightly Perturbed Power-Law Shocks . . . . . 26
1 . Basic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Boundary-layer effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Angle-of-attack effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Effect of blunting the nose of very slender wedges and cones . . 33
3. Effect of #0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
V. Integral Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1. Continuity Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
General case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Hypersonic slender body approximations . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Slender blunt-nosed bodies a t infinite Mach number . . . . . . 39
2. Momentum Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
General case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Hypersonic slender body approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
VI . Validity of Self-similar Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1. Infinite Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2 . Finite Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1
2 HAROLD MIRELS
I. INTRODUCTION
11. HYPERSONIC
SLENDER-BODY
THEORY
The equations of motion for hypersonic flow over slender bodies (e.g. [a])
are summarized herein. Two dimensional and axisymmetric flows are
considered with (Z,?)and (G,d) being the
streamwise and transverse coordinates and
velocities, respectively. The superscript
bar indicates a dimensional quantity.
The equations of motion for an inviscid,
non-conducting fluid are :
apil a p --
continuity: +7 + o re = 0,
FIG.1. Flow across oblique shock.
--
(2.la)
(2.lb) x-momentum: 6 -
ati
az
+ d- aa
a?
+ 1 apaa = 0
1 ap
(d.lc) r-momentum : G-
a0
ax
+d-
a? + ar = 0,
ag
Ty
(2.ld)
energy : (c a + c P)(k)
= 0,
ar py
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 5
(2.2b)
(2.2c)
(2.2d)
p = fi/prnZimw, u = (a - G m ) / d m P ,
(2.3a)
p =p / p m , 21 = 77/27,6.
av av 1 ap
(2.4b) r-momentum: -+
ax
v-+
a7
--=O,
p ar
(2.6~)
(2.6d) ps = 7+
Y-
1+
2
Y-
[ 2
(M6R')-2
I' ,
v,=u, =o
'q p,= I
=
where D ( x ) D ( f ) / p , ~ 7 ~ ~ 6 ~ ( L is
6 )the
" + ~forebody drag up to station x ,
D(0)is the finite drag addition (if any) a t x = 0 and p b is the surface pressure.
For u = 0, (2.7) gives the drag of a symmetric two-dimensional body (rather
than half this value). The integration in (2.7b) is conducted at constant x .
Forebody drag in a steady hypersonic flow corresponds to energy addition
in the equivalent unsteady flow. Thus, the integral in (2.7a) may be inter-
preted as the energy addition by a piston (note, t'b = d r b / d x ) and (2.7b)
may be interpreted as the net energy perturbation up till time t = x for
unsteady flows of the type indicated in Fig. 4. The derivation of (2.7) is
discussed in more detail in Section V.2.
8 HAROLD MIRELS
111. FLOWS
ASSOCIATEDWITH POWER-LAW
SHOCKS
1 . Basic Equations
(3.2)
L
Note that 6 and L are not independent and that the characteristic geometric
parameters are m and C bL(l-"). Thus S and L always appear in the
combination SL('-") in the treatment of power-law shocks. I t is assumed
that S2 << 1 so that hypersonic slender body theory is applicable.*
* The assumption P<< 1 or (M6)-2 + 0 is violated at the nose of power law bodies
when vn # 1. The effect of this violation is discussed in Chapter VI.
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 9
so that
(3.5) -.a
av
The variable y is the ratio of Y to the local shock ordinate and equals 1 a t
) (2.6e), with ( M 6 ) - 2 = 0, suggest that the
the shock. Equations ( 2 . 6 ~ to
dependent variables be expressed as
(3.6) p = ,2re(m - 1) F, p=$, v=rnfm-ly,
where F, I), and y are functions of 7 . Substitution into (2.4) then yields
(3.7a) (a, -
(3.7b)
The boundary conditions a t the shock, y = 1, (from (2.6) and (3.6)) are
2
~ ( 1=F(l)
) = ~
*(1) = y+l.
y+l Y-1
The parameter p is here a function of m, namely
(3.9) p E-
a+l
= ___ ( -
- 2 [RR/(R)2]
a+l m
1 - 1).
Equations (3.7) and (3.8) completely define the flow associated with a
power-law shock. Any streamline through the shock may be considered as
defining a body, and the flow between this streamline and the shock can be
found from a numerical integration of (3.7) and (3.8). Unless otherwise
stated, the body will be taken to be that corresponding to the streamline
through the origin (Fig. 5 ) . This body shape, for E > 0, is given by y = r / b or
(3.10) Yb = qbEm,
10 HAROLD MIRELS
(3.11) fP=v
(so that (2.6a) is satisfied). Comparing (3.3) and (3.10) shows that the body
is similar to the shock and the ratio of their ordinates is q b . Both follow a
power-law variation with 6,
The pressure distribution on the body can be found from (3.0) and (3.3) as
(3.12) p b = (dR/dE)'Fb = (drb/dt)'Fbl'qb',
where
1
(3.13~)
(3.13d)
TABLE1. QUANTITIES BODYSHAPEAND SURFACE
DEFINING PRESSURE ASSOCIATEDWITH A POWER-LAW
SHOCK
(ZERO ORDERPROBLEM)
Y P Numerical solution Approximate solution (Eqs. (3.41)) Approximate solution
(Eqs. (3.7)) (Eqs. (5.16))
a=o u=1 a=O a = l a=O a = l a=O,l
~ _ _ _
qb F b rlb F b co Do %'b F b co Da Tlb Fb rlb %'b Fb
1.15 0 0.930 0.930 0.965 0.948 0 1.255 0.930 0.930 -2.53 2.05 0.965 0.947 0.930 0.964 0.930
1/3 0.891 0.761 0.945 0.775 2.93 1.535 0.891 0.766 +1.636 1.317 0.945 0.774 0.886 0.941 0.764 m
X
1/2 0.852 0.675 0.924 0.688 5.18 1.800 0.852 0.672 3.64 1.642 0.924 0.682 0.843 0.918 0.680
5/8 0.803 0.611 0.898 0.621 7.16 2.13 0.801 0.598 5.53 1.981 0.897 0.608 0.789 0.888 0.618
bz
I
3/4 0.716 0.546 0.845 0.553 8.52 2.68 0.710 0.520 7.11 2.53 0.846 0.531 0.698 0.835 0.555 0
7/8 0.535 0.481 0.735 0.484 6.16 3.80 0.513 0.442 5.68 3.62 0.724 0.453 0.514 0.717 0.493
L O 0.41.5 0 0.411 0.465 7.67 0 0.412 0.465 7.13 0 0.410 0 0 0.430
1.4 0 0.833 0.833 0.915 0.875 0 1.556 0.833 0.833 -1.019 2.11 0.915 0.872 0.833 0.913 0.833
1/3 0.759 0.666 0.875 0.696 0.962 1.678 0.760 0.679 $0.383 1.228 0.875 0.704 0.755 0.869 0.667
1/2 0.695 0.581 0.839 0.607 1.240 1.779 0.695 0.584 0.757 1.485 0.839 0.611 0.688 0.829 0.583
5/8 0.623 0.518 0.796 0.538 1.296 1.888 0.619 0.504 0.930 1.631 0.795 0.529 0.613 0.783 0.521
3/4 0.513 0.454 0.725 0.467 1.167 2.04 0.499 0.415 0.949 1.798 0.719 0.438 0.501 0.708 0.458
7/8 0.333 0.390 0,589 0.392 0.817 2.30 0.284 0.320 0.757 2.03 0.561 0.337 0.322 0.567 0.396
1 0 0.325 0 0.311 0.417 3.50 0 0.316 0.417 2.92 0 0.302 0 0 0.333
1.67 0 0.749 0.749 0.870 0.811 0 1.788 0.749 0.749 -0.625 2.16 0.870 0.805 0.749 0.865 0.749
1/3 0.658 0.587 0.819 0.634 0.535 1.788 0.660 0.605 +0.170 1.161 0.819 0.645 0.660 0.812 0.582
1/2 0.585 0.507 0.776 0.544 0.644 1.770 0.586 0.512 0.365 1.405 0.776 0.554 0.588 0.767 0.499
5/8 0.509 0.446 0.727 0.474 0.655 1.762 0.505 0.432 0.452 1.450 0.726 0.469 0.513 0.717 0.437
314 0.404 0.386 0.652 0.403 0.608 1.752 0.385 0.340 0.483 1.457 0.644 0.370 0.408 0.639 0.314
7/8 0.248 0.326 0.518 0.326 0.504 1.738 0.186 0.239 0.459 1.436 0.480 0.257 0.252 0.502 0.312
1 0 0.264 0 0.241 0.375 2.49 0 0.250 0.375 1.867 0 0.255 0 0 0.249
Reference ~ 7 1 POI ~1 ~ 7 1
12 HAROLD MIRELS
(3.14)
TABLE2. EVALUATION
OF I b FOR BLASTWAVE, p = 1
Y (0. + - 1)Ib
(3.15a) _ -_ -
'?N 2
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 13
2. Alternative Formulations
(3.16)
(3.17)
(3.18) PlpY = w ,
where w is a function of 6. Considering conditions at 7 =1 yields
(3.19)
(3.20)
14 HAROLD MIRELS
(3.21a)
(3.21b)
(3.21c)
(3.23)
where (xi,Ri) are the coordinates of a streamline a t its intersection with the
shock (Fig. 5 ) . If x / x , , r / R j and I(q) are tabulated as functions of q, in the
course of integrating (3.22), each streamline and its drag are defined.
Equations (3.21) and (3.22) are somewhat simpler than (3.7) and (3.8)
in that the problem has been reduced to finding a single dependent variable 0
in terms of q. Equations (3.21) and (3.22) were used by Mirels [17] as a
guide to find approximate analytical solutions. These are discussed in
Section 111.3.
and the streamline 8 = 0 to the mass flow between the shock and the
streamline 8 = 0. The present formulation may also be considered in effect
to be a Mises transformation in that a stream function is used as an in-
dependent variable.
The dependent variable considered herein is
(3.25) f &!LeF
2
so that f = 1 at 0 = 1. If is fixed, f is the ratio of the local pressure to the
value directly downstream of the shock. Equations (3.21c), (3.21b), and
(3.2la) show, respectively,
(3.26a)
(3.26b)
(3.26~)
(3.27a)
it follows that
(3.27b)
V - m dz
(3.29a) ~-
2 dV
dlny - z - (V - m)2
(3.29b) -
dV +
V ( V - 1 ) ( V - m ) - [(l a ) V - 4 2
dl n (V - m)gL - - (a + 1)V
(3.2%) -
d In y V-m
where = 2(1 - m)/y. The shock location corresponds to V = 2m/(y + 1)
and z +
2y(y - l ) m 2 / ( y 1)2.The streamline through the origin is defined
by V m for ,8< 1 and V = m l y for ,8 = 1.
Equations (3.29) are particularly useful for studying the singularities
and the general properties of the self-similar flows associated with-power law
shocks. For details, the reader is referred to Sedov [12]. General properties
of self-similar flows are discussed in 111.4.
3. Analytic Solutions
Blast wave. Sedov obtained an analytic solution of (3.29a) for the case
of a blast wave (/I
= 1 or m = 2/(a +
3)). His solution is
(3.30) z = ( y - 1)V2(m - V)/2(V - m/y).
Equation (3.30) was deduced by noting that the energy between a similarity
line (i.e., q = constant) and the shock is constant when fi = 1 (see (3.13d)).
Thus the transfer of energy across a similarity line is zero. This can be
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 17
+ +
expressed in the form [ F / ( y- 1) ($p2/2)](p- q) Fp, = 0, which
leads to (3.30).
Following.the notation of [ l l ] , the blast wave solution may be ex-
pressed as
(3.31~)
0 =m [ y + 1 + u(y - l)], @ =m
2y - 0
(3.32a) em----F3
2 - F3
(3.32~)
(3.32d)
18 HAROLD MIRELS
(3.34a)
(3.34c)
(3.34d)
(3.35)
to the solution for E = 0. While both solutions indicate that most of the
mass is concentrated at the shock wave, (3.35) gives l;lb = 0, while (3.33)
gives l;lb = 1. This nonuniform convergence was discussed in [31], by a
similar comparison of blast-wave and Newtonian theory. The nonuniform
convergence, at 8 = 0, also occurs for fi > 1 as may be deduced from the
discussion in Section 111.4.
For small E and p < 1, (3.32) and (3.34) give (after substituting
into (3.13~))
(3.36)
(3.37a)
The streamline through the shock point (xi,Ri) is (from (3.23) and (3.37a))
(3.37b)
-
3 1
(3.38b) for x+w.
32 xi1/
The drag is finite except for the streamline going through xi = 0.
8-
3-
FIG.6. Streamline through (xi, Ri) for sharp blow problem (Eq. 3.37b).
FIG. 7. Flow associated with sharp blow problem (u = 0). (a) Steady flow de-
scribed by (3.37). (b) Qualitatively similar steady flow. ( c ) Equivalent unsteady flow.
TABLE3. SHOCK-SHAPE
PARAMETER
FOR SHARP-BLOW
PROBLEM
~~
(3.39)
For the sharp-blow problem, F6 is zero, and therefore the integral (a measure
of the net v-momentum at any section) must be zero. Substitution of (3.37)
into the integral verifies this property for y = 7/5. Thus, there must be no
net v-momentum downstream of x if the flow in Fig. 7(b) is to be qualitatively
similar to the sharp-blow problem.
The free layer flow discussed in [ l l ] (for u = 0 , l ; y = 1 ; M = 00,
6 = unrestricted) approaches, with increasing x, a power-law shock with
p = 2 and is thus a special case (for u = 0) of the sharp-blow problem.
(However, for the u = 0 free layer flow, there is finite v-momentum addition
at x = 0 and the v-momentum remains constant for x > 0.)
Approximate solutions. An approximate analytical solution of the blast
wave problem ,8 = 1 was obtained by Taylor [3] for u = 3 and by Sakurai [5]
for u = 1, 2. These have been generalized by Mirels [17] for all /3 <
1 using
the following approach.
The asymptotic form for 8 , near 8 = 0, is (from (3.22a))
22 HAROLD MIRELS
where
(3.41b)
and y near 1). Sufficient results are presented to evaluate the accuracy of
the approximate method for various values of 3f, and y . The constants
C,, Do and q b presented in Table 1 can be used in (3.41) to obtain the varia-
tion of 8, F , t,h, and q~ with q.
FIG. 8. Schematic representation of flow fields and surface pressures for power law
shocks (a = 0, y = 1.4). (a) Flow fields.
t'
1 OSAWLE POINT
OCRlTlCAL POINT
.2 '\
-- I I
4 .6 .8 1.0 1
b
FIG. 8 concluded. Schematic representation of flow fields and surface pressures for
power law shocks (a = 0, y = 1.4). (b) Surface pressure.
downward near the shock and concave upward near the body. Thus, at
fixed x , the pressure first decreases and then increases in going from R
to rb (Fig. 8(b)). When p = pSs = 413, two flows are possible as noted
in [21]. These are designated cases (6) and (7) in Fig. 8. The two pos-
sibilities arise because (3.28) has a singular point (in particular, a saddle
point) at O S p = (1/7)3/2. The corresponding value of q is qsp = - 112.
In both cases the solution for O s p < <
6 1 is f = 6 as indicated in Fig. 8(b).
However, when continuing the solution for 0 6 < <
O S p , two paths are
possible. For one, case (6), f increases with decreasing 6 to the value
f = 0.1101 at 0 = 0 [21]. The other possibility is case (7), for which f
decreases with decreasing 8 according to f = 0. Case (7) then corresponds
to the sharp-blow problem. The locus of the saddle point, in the physical
plane (Fig. !(a)) is indicated by the dashed curve r S p = qspxm. Cases (8)
and (9) correspond to p slightly greater and much greater than Pse, respec-
HYPERSONIC F L O W OVER SLENDER BODIES 25
tively. For p > pss, the solution for f (starting at 0 = 1) first decreases
with decreasing 8 but then reaches a critical point (dfld8 = co) beyond
which f becomes a multivalued fundtion of 8 (Fig. 8(b)). This multivaluedness
is not physically admissible, and the solution starting at 8 = 1, f = 1 cannot
be continued past the critical point, as is indicated by the dashed curves
in Fig. 8(b). If the value of q at the critical point is designated by qc, the
curve rC = qcxmis a limit line in the physical flow. The solution for flow
through a power-law shock cannot be continued past this line.
A physical interpretation of the limit line can be readily given. I t is
a line of constant q which is also a Mach line. This is shown as follows. The
slope a t any point along a line of constant q is
The slope of the Mach line a t any point is (only the upper family need be
considered)
dr -
_ - ~ + a a m x ~ - ~
(3.44)
dx
where a is the local speed of sound. Equating (3.43) and (3.44), a line of
constant q will be a Mach line when
(3.46)
and noting that the denominator of (3.28a) is zero at this point. Thus,
defining a power-law shock uniquely determines the flow up to but not
beyond the limit line. The flow can be continued past this line only when it
corresponds to a singular point (as in cases (6) and ( 7 ) of Fig. 8).
Figure 8 is representative of the flow field for u = 0 and y > 1. For
1 < p < pss, q b is finite and negative, while for p > pss there occur limit
lines. Note that the shock shape is relatively insensitive to the body shape
when is negative. For example, when y = 715, m varies only over the
small range 213 to 3/5 as q b goes from 0 to - 0 0 .
For (T = 1 and y > 1, the flow associated with a power-law shock is
confined to q 2 0 and a limit line occurs in the flow field for all > 1
(e.g., [19]). Cases (1) to (4), represent the flows for CT = 1, -. 1 < p <1,
while case (9) represents the u = 1, p > 1 case. There is no flow to compare
with the cr = 0 sharp-blow problem (except when y = 1).
26 HAROLD MIRELS
IV. FLOWS
ASSOCIATED PERTURBED
WITH SLIGHTLY POWER-LAW
SHOCKS
1. Basic Equations
Fp:xm
where q b , O is tabulated (as q,) in
N
R=xm(l+r2a2x 1 Table 1, etc. The effect of a small
R/HM Ro8 x powerlaw shock perturbation is denoted
by a subscript 2 in agreement with
'0
.
R4
b#a9b$m the notation of [18]. The shock shape
may then be expressed as (Fig. 9)
X (4.1) R = zm(l +E ~ u ~ x ~ ) ,
FIG. 9. Power law perturbation of
where E2 iS Small.* The problem iS to
power-law shock and corresponding
body shape (0 < p < I ) . find the flow field associated with this
shock. The body streamline (corre-
sponding to 0 = 0) can be shown to have the form
* However, E~ should be larger than 6* since terms of order 6*have been neglected
in obtaining the hypersonic slender body equations used herein.
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 27
(4.3a)
(4.3b)
(4.3c)
where po,p2,F,, etc. are functions of 7. The quantities v0,Fo, and t,bo are
the same as v, F, and JI of Chapter 111. Substituting (4.3) into (2.4) and
collecting terms of order cZo and eZ1 yield, respectively, the zero-order
equations (3.7) and the perturbation equations. The latter are [18]
U
- Po +Pi + +1h
(4.4a) P2
~-
v - To
- .-
$2 +
$0
($+17 0)
V-Po
P2 I v
(0
v - Po
*2
*O
- 0,
(4.4b) ~-
V2
- 1 _o F_2 +
F
71 - Po (17 - Po)2$0 Fo v -Po 71 - Po
+
where p = N / [ m ( u l)]. It is convenient to satisfy the shock boundary
conditions a t the zero-order shock location, v = 1. The boundary condi-
tions are
TABLE4.RESULTS INTEGRATION
OF NUMERICAL OF PERTURBATION
EQUATIONS
(EQ.(4.4))
(Data from ref. [la]
Y P o=o o=l
(4.6a)
(4.6b)
Analytic procedures are required near l;)b,o, since this is a critical point of
the differential equations. Numerical results for a2 and Fb,2 are given in
Table'4 for a variety of physical problems which are discussed later.
If a2 is known, the shock shape corresponding to a given body perturba-
tion, and vice versa, is found from (4.1) and (4.2). The pressure distribution
on the perturbed body is
2. Applications
where
(4.9b)
30 HAROLD MIRELS
JI + J s
gw J2
Js
0 -0.14 0.495 0.134
0 0.470 0
0.60 0.4235 - 0.257
2.00 0.383 - 0.538
1 0 0.470 2.69
0.05 0.452 2.53
0.10 0.435 2.48
0.20 0.408 2.41
0.40 0.370 2.33
0.60 0.336 2.27
0.80 0.312 2.24
2(1 - m )
y 2m(o+ 1) - 1 '
p = - p3 -
(4.11a)
4 2(a + 1)
where
(4.12b) E2 = -up.
Assuming E~ << 1, the resulting flow (in the upper half plane) is found from
the equations with N = 1 - m, or
(4.13) p =pi2
* The boundary layer effect is of interest provided it is larger than order 6a and
larger than the entropy layer effect discussed in Section VI.l.
32 HAROLD MIRELS
(4.16)
(4.19a)
(4.19b)
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 33
The location of the center of pressure depends only on u and m, for given x .
The lift of slender axisymmetric bodies (not necessarily power-law bodies)
has been treated by Cole [40] using Newtonian theory. Gonor [41] has
considered the special case of a lifting cone. The effect of power-law perturba-
tions of the centerline of power-law bodies is also discussed in [18].
Effect of blunting the nose of very slender wedges and cones. The effect
of blunting the nose of very slender wedges and cones is now considered.
It is assumed that the wedge or cone is sufficiently slender so that the major
FIG. 10. Hypersonic flow past blunted slender wedge or cone. (a) Actual flow.
(b) Hypersonic slender body approximation.
contribution to the drag is a t the nose. The zero-order flow is then a constant-
energy (,d = 1) flow. The divergence of the body downstream of the nose
induces a small perturbation in this zero-body flow, which can be found
from the equations of Section IV.l.
Fig. 10 illustrates the flow under consideration. The body shape, in
dimensional variables, is
(4.20) fb = fN + 663,
where Sb is the vertex semi-angle of the wedge or cone. An equivalent body
which has zero area a t 3 = 0 but has the same area divergence downstream
+
of 3 as does (4.20) is given by f { + l = (6b%)'+1 2ufNdbR. In non-
dimensional variables, the latter becomes
(4.21b) --
6bx for 0 = o or u = 1, YNdIXdb<< 1.
6
Equation (4.21b) is the hypersonic slender body approximation of a blunted
slender cone or wedge. Both the physical flow and the approximation are
illustrated in Fig. 10. The approximation is poor near x = 0.
34 HAROLD MIRELS
3. Effect of (M6)-2 # 0
Equations (4.25) are in the form of (4.3) with N = 2(1 - m),or equiyalently,
(4.26) p =P.
Thus, substitution of (4.25) into (2.4) yields perturbation equations which
are identical to (4.4) with p = /? and with the subscript 1 replacing the
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 35
v 1 =
-2
m 2
+ q 2 - ( U + v + -
y f l
4uy
Y+l
] a,,
(4.27a)
(4.27b)
(4.27~)
The flow at the body surface must satisfy
(4.28) P)l(Vb) = O*
since the body is unperturbed from its zero order power-law shape.
For a given body, a, is determined such that (4.4) (with p = P ) and (4.27)
yield a solution satisfying (4.28). To avoid trial-and-error choices for a,
in a numerical integration of (4.4) and (4.27) it is advisable to decompose
each dependent variable and its boundary condition into two parts, one
independent of a, and the other proportional to a,
(4.30) = - 9l31(~b)/~l,2(~b).
Numerical results for a, and Fb,l are given in Table 6. Similar results are
presented in [lo] for u = 1. (The latter appear to be somewhat in error,
particularly for a,, as noted in [17].) The surface pressure and shock shape
are found from
tures from free-stream values. Equations (4.30) and Table 6 indicate that
the surface pressure and the shock ordinate are increased by non zero values
of E ~ . The surface pressure perturbation is independent of x .
Y P a=O a = l
a1 Fb.1 a1 Fb,l
METHODS
V. INTEGRAL
Hypersonic slender body theory, which assumes d2 << 1 and (Md)-2 not
near one, was used in Chapters I11 and IV to find the flow associated with
power law and perturbed power law shocks and bodies. In order that the
equations of motion yield similarity solutions it was necessary to further
assume that ( M C ~ was) - ~ either zero or very small. The treatment of more
general bodies and Mach numbers requires either a numerical integration
of the full equations of motion or the use of integral methods. Some integral
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 37
methods are outlined herein. The object is to provide a means for finding
the flow over more general body shapes than considered in Chapters I11
and IV. Also, the integral formulation will be used in Chapter VI to estimate
the error introduced by disregarding the violation of the hypersonic slender
body assumptions at the nose of power-law shocks.
The development in the remainder of this article is in terms of dimensional
quantities and the superscript bar is omitted.
1. Continuity Integral
All the variables on the right hand sides of (5.4) can be expressed in
terms of shock shape except v and f . If a reasonable variation of v and f
with 8 is assumed, (5.3) can be solved to find the body shape corresponding
to a given shock, and vice versa. No other assumptions are involved. For
example, it may be possible to assume that at each x the variation of f with
0 depends only on the local value of p and is given by the zero-order sim-
ilarity solutions. In problems of hypersonic flow over slender bodies the
term involving z' is negligible.
+
where E = ( y - l ) / ( y 1) is not necessarily small. Equations (5.5)and (5.3)
yield (3.26a) if it is noted that for power law shocks, Ri' = 19-p/~R', and if
the limit of infinite Mach number is taken.
The Newtonian theory of Cole [42] assumes E<< 1, (MRi')-2/(y- 1)=0(1),
E ( M R ' ) -<<
~ 1, E ( M R ~ ' )<<- ~1. U'ith these assumptions (5.5) and (5.3)
become
+
To the same order f = 1 - p(1 - 0)/2, where ,d = - 2 [ R R " / ( R ' ) 2 ] / ( o 1).
Equation (5.6) gives the body shape corresponding to a given shock shape.
The shock and body ordinates, R and rb, are nearly equal. Thus if r b is
given and R is t o be found, the derivatives of R and Ri can be replaced by
derivatives of rb and Yb,,, respectively, in (5.6) and in the expression for f .
The latter form is the one used by Cole [42] who in addition takes the
exponent l / y in (5.6) to be 1.
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 39
2 (R)2 _
ps - 1
--Ps -_,
pmum2
-
5 1 +( ~ 1 ~ Pm E
(5.7)
% -
_ -I-- 2 R12 vs
-
2 R
um y + 1 1+(R)2 um y + l 1+(R)2
_
p - -1
pm
-
E
[(_ R) 1
Ri 1
+ (R,)2f]
+ (R)2
* If the exponent l/y is replaced by 1 in (5.6) the integral diverges for p = 1 and
therefore does not exhibit the correct limiting behavior for y near 1 . Replacing l/y
by 1 is equivalent to assuming isothermal rather than isentropic flow along a streamline
as was discussed b y Freeman [31].
40 HAROLD MIRELS
2. M o m e n t u m Integral
axI(#
faces of the control surface indicated
in Fig. 12. The result gives
rb(x12
(5.10) D(x)
2~ - (Pm + pm~m2)
0
Ra+1
FIG.12. Control surface for momen-
turn integral.
* --
O f 1
+ pu2)Pdr,
'b
'b
(5.11)
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 41
1 Rafl
(5.12) -
y ( y - 1)M2 fJ 1 + '
where terms of order d2 have been dropped and D ( x ) has been replaced by
the sum of the finite drag addition at x = 0 (if any) and the surface pressure
drag downstream of x = 0. Equation (5.13) is the dimensional form of (2.7).
This equation was used by Chernyi to study non-self-similar hypersonic
flows over blunt nosed bodies [15, 161. Chernyi's method, described in [22],
is now outlined.
Chernyi assumes that the pressure and velocity may be expressed in the
form
2
(6.14a)
Hm
V
-
y+l
R'[1 - (MR')-2] + O(&Rf),
(5.14b)
Equations (5.14) are correct in the limit E << 1. However, they are also
valid directly behind the shock for all E . Chernyi lets p be constant, a t
42 HAROLD MIRELS
its wall value (0 = 0 ) , when evaluating the integral on the right hand side
of (5.13). This procedure is valid for ,B small since the term containing 0
is then negligible in (5.14b). I t is also valid for P = 1 and E << 1 since most
of the fluid is concentrated at the shock and the region from the base of the
becomes (for M -
shock to the wall is essentially at the wall pressure. W'ith fi = fib, the integral
do)
(5.15a)
i
*h
[. . . ] Y " ~=
YR"+'RI2Ib,
where
(5.16b) F b = 2 / ( y $- 1) - P/2.
Numerical values for qb and F b are listed in Table 1 for various values of
u, y , and P. These agree within about 4% with the exact numerical solu-
tions of (3.7). Hence (5.16) provides simple and relatively accurate estimates
of 156 and Fb for the entire range of u, y , and P of interest. Values of I b
obtained from (5.15~)are listed in Table 2. These are correct within 4% for
+
u = 0 and 10% for u = 1. Since z b is raised to the l/(u 3) power in (3.15a)
an error of less than 3O/, results from the use of (5.15~)therein.
Chernyi numerically integrated (5.13), with (5.14) and M - do, to find
the hypersonic flow over blunt-nosed slender wedges and cones [15, 161.
His solutions are not limited to small departures from a blast wave flow
as are the more exact perturbation solutions of Section IV.2. The parameters
evolved in [lB, 161 have been used in [43] to correlate numerical data
obtained from characteristic solutions of the hypersonic flow over blunt
nosed plates at angle of attack.
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 43
In this range of ,8 the body shape associated with the power-law shock is
given correctly, to order R12, by the zero-order similar solution and is a
power-law body. However, for ,8 in the range y / ( y +1) < p <
1, the
calculation of body shape must take the entropy layer properly into account
if it is to be correct to order The latter range of p decreases as y
increases. I t includes blast-wave and nearly blast-wave flows. The body
shape can be found from a numerical integration of (5.9) or by approximate
methods based on that equation.
Equation (6.3) may be compared with the corresponding entropy-layer
thickness obtained from the zero-order similar solution (3.26a)
Sychev [25] has found the body shape associated with an axisymmetric
blast wave by numerically integrating (5.9). He chose R = 2/g,y = 1.4,
and used Sedovs exact solution [12] to relate f and 8. The resulting body
shape is given in Fig. 14(a), and the ratio Y b / R is given, as a function of x ,
in Fig. 14(b). The latter may be contrasted with the zero-order similarity
result rblR = 0. The actual body shape associated with a blast wave has
considerable thickness when compared with the similar solution. When
blast-wave theory is used to estimate hypersonic flow over a blunt-nosed
circular-
-
cylinder (with axis parallel to the stream direction) the shock shape
R = VZx corresponds to a cylinder radius rN = l . 6 / 2 / G 1.6 for y = 1.4
(3.15a). The difference between the body shape indicated in Fig. 14(a) and
rl
12 -
0 8 16 24 32
a b
-
FIG.14. Body associated with blast wave R = v 2 x , u = 1, y = 1.4, M -+ m (from
ref. [25]). (a) Shock and corresponding body. (b) Ratio of body to shock ordinates.
Yb = rN -
1.6 may not be very significant with regard to surface pressure
and shock shape since blast-wave theory indicates very little mass flow in
the region near the body and is relatively insensitive to small changes in
body shape (4.8).
The direct problem is now considered. Given a power-law body, in the
limit M-+ bo, what is the corresponding shock shape and surface-pressure
< +
distribution ? When L,? y / ( y l), the zero order similar solutions are
+
applicable. But when p > y / ( y I), these solutions are in error. One method
for finding the shock shape and pressure distribution is to perturb the zero-
order similar solution to account for the excessive size of the entropy layer.
This may be done by solving the perturbation equations of IV.l, using an
equivalent body which is somewhat smaller than the given power-law
body. The equivalent body to be used with the equations of IV.l should
equal the cross-sectional area of the actual body minus the difference between
the area of the entropy layer as given by the zero-order similar solution (6.5)
and the actual entropy-layer thickness (6.6). This gives
where E~ -
(- 1)[ ( y - l ) / ( y - ,L?)]d2(y-B)YB,
Yb.eq is the equivalent body, Ro
is the zero-order shock and q b , O is the zero-order body to shock radius ratio.
46 HAROLD MIRELS
Equation (6.7) can be reduced to the same form as (4.2) and the procedure
of IV.l can be used to find the shock shape and surface pressure corresponding
to the original power law body. (Note that R,/6 in (6.7) corresponds to
mx*l in (4.2).) The shock and surface-pressure perturbations are of the
form given in (4.1) and (4.7) with N = 2(y - P)(m - l)/yP. These perturba-
tions cannot be evaluated exactly since E~ is known only to within an order
of magnitude. Inasmuch as E~ is negative, the perturbed shock is closer to
the body and the surface pressure is lower than indicated by the zero-order
solution.
The above discussion regarding power-law shocks and bodies in the limit
M+ bo may be summarized as follows. When 0 p < < +
y / ( y 1) the
similarity solutions describe the flow downstream of the nose to order (R)2.
The shock and body shapes are similar. When y / ( y 1) < p + <
1, the
body associated with a given power-law shock (indirect problem) is thicker
than indicated by similarity theory, due to the excessively low fluid density
near the wall in the similarity solution, but the surface pressure is correctly
+
given. For the direct problem and y / ( y 1) < p <
1 the shock associated
with a given power-law body is closer to the body* and the surface pressures
are somewhat lower than indicated by the similarity solution. For all p,
the flow asymptotically approaches the similarity solution as x + bo (R+ 0).
DISCUSSION
VII. FURTHER OF INTEGRAL METHODS
+ -
inside the entropy layer. Eq. (7.1) is found from ( 5 . 8 ) by assuming
(Ri)2/[1 (Ri)2] 1 and (R)2<< 1 . If the local value of R is sufficiently
small so that (7.1) is satisfied, the hypersonic slender-body form of the
momentum integral is valid regardless of the degree of nose blunting. If (7.1)
is satisfied, the continuity integral can be written
Re
Cheng [23] has simplified the procedure for finding the flow over ar-
bitrarily shaped blunt-nosed bodies. He assumes (7.1) is satisfied, M-+w
and E << 1. In addition, he assumes that the cross-sectional area of the
entropy layer is large compared with the cross-sectional area of the disturbed
flow between the entropy layer and the shock (Fig. 15). The latter assump-
tion may be expressed, from (7.2)
The left-hand side assumes that most of the drag is added at the nose. The
right-hand states that most of the energy of the transverse flow is in the
form of internal energy corresponding to the pressure Pa. (The first error
term on the right hand side is the error due to the pressure departing from
pb at points outside the entropy layer and the second error term is the ratio
of the net transverse kinetic energy to the net internal energy, which is
small for E << 1.) Neglecting the error terms, (7.6) is the same as (7.5) except
that the constant is evaluated, viz
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 49
Equation (7.7) is relatively simple and has been solved in [23] for a variety
of problems involving blunted flat plates. Studies of shock-boundary layer
interactions were also made using this equation.
In (7.7) the lateral displacement between the shock and the body is due
entirely to the entropy layer. The cross-sectional area of the entropy layer
is inversely proportional to the local pressure in order to conserve mass
(continuity approach) and to conserve the internal energy (momentum
integral approach). Rut the local pressure depends on the shock shape
parameter B. Hence a consistent solution relating shock shape, pressure, and
cross-sectional area is obtained from (7.7). This is similar to the strong
interaction between shock waves and boundary layers wherein a consistent
solution is also required ( e g , 11111). The effect of the downstream body
shape rb is to laterally displace the entropy layer and thus effect the final
self-consistent solution. Since (7.7) is derived directly from the momentum
integral equation, recourse to the continuity integral was unnecessary.
However, the continuity integral provided additional insight into the flow
process. Equating (7.7) and (7.3) also provides an estimate of Re, namely
(RI/YN)u+lM CD,.
I t should be noted that the continuity integral is more sensitive to the
details of the upstream shock shape than is the momentum integral. In
order to integrate (7.2) across the entropy layer, it is necessary to estimate
both the value of Re and the variation of R,' in the range 0 < < R, Re.
The latter estimates define the variation of density across the entropy layer
and thereby its thickness. However, in the momentum-integral method,
the internal energy in the entropy layer depends only on the pressure f i b
and on the cross-sectional area. The details of the density distribution are
not required. Hence, the momentum integral is relatively insensitive to
the upstream shock shape and provides more information (assuming the nose
drag is known) concerning the downstream flow than does the continuity
integral.
VIII. CONCLUDINGREMARKS
Several investigators [26, 28, 43, 441 have computed the inviscid hyper-
sonic flow over blunt-nosed plates and circular cylinders using the method of
characteristics and have compared the results with blast-wave theory. Since
the method of characteristics provides an exact solution (within the accuracy
of the computational procedure) it can be used to gauge the accuracy of
blast-wave theory. The results of Vaglio-Laurin and Trella [28] are discussed
herein. Reference [28] determined the axisymmetric flow about three
configurations with long cylindrical afterbodies namely a sphere-cylinder
60 HAROLD MIRELS
I
&* t
,..I
havior (i.e., y = 1.4 or thermodynamic
equilibrium). However, in order to cor-
relate the afterbody surface pressures
associated with the less blunt sphere-
cone-cylinder combinations, the value
of rN used in M2Cg;rN/x had to be
reduced. A procedure for obtaining
the effective value of y N was suggested
in [28] which resulted in good pressure
correlation.
FIG.16. Nose configurations studied The blast wave predictions for
in [28].
shock shape and for the flow between
the body and the shock were less
satisfactory. Only the spherical nose configuration resulted in the
parabolic shock indicated by the zero order blast wave theory. Moreover,
the latter correlation required that the x coordinate be measured from
the apex of the nose, that the y coordinate be displaced outward from
the axis by (2/5)rN and that the coefficients in the blast wave predic-
tion be evaluated for gas conditions appropriate to the shock point at which
the streamline is deflected approximately 20. This is the streamline which
[28] considers as bounding the entropy layer. The shock shape associated with
each sphere-cone-cylinder combination could be correlated for different flight
conditions by an equation of the form y - yo = ( C O , / I ~ ) ~ -
/ ~ xo)"'
( X where
xo,yo and m depend on nose shape and Ib, which expresses the effect of gas
behavior, is selected consistent with conditions at the shock point where the
streamline is deflected 20.
HYPERSONIC F L O W OVER SLENDER BODIES 51
The disturbed flow between the 20 streamline and the shock satisfies
the requirements of hypersonic slender body theory and was correlated for
different flight conditions by non-dimensionalized flow variables such as
those noted in (2.3). The correlation existed for the thermal-equilibrium
flows as well as the flows with constant y in accordance with the hypersonic
similitude discussion of Cheng [24]. The flow in the entropy layer has gone
through a strong shock and does not satisfy the hypersonic slender body
requirements. As a consequence, the entropy layer flow did not exhibit
similitude.
It may be concluded that blast-wave theory provides a good guide for
estimating the inviscid hypersonic flow over the afterbodies of blunt nosed
bodies particularly for distances far downstream of the nose. However,
refinements are necessary for a more accurate determination of the flow a t
stations which are not far downstream of the nose. The nose shape plays
a greater role than accounted for in blast wave theory. The influence of
the nose shape is most strongly felt in the entropy layer. In future devel-
opments it is expected that this influence will be taken into account to a
greater extent and that reliable analytic estimates of the complete flow
field about blunt nosed bodies will be possible.
Experimental studies have been made of the hypersonic flow over slender
blunt-nosed bodies [e.g., 10, 23, 45-48]. Viscous boundary layer effects
complicate the problem of relating the experimental shock shapes and surface
pressure to the predictions of blast wave theory. A full discussion is beyond
the scope of the present study. Reference [23] is recommended for the reader
who is interested in the experimental correlations of blast wave theory.
NOTATION
P -
___
- 2 RR
[ ]
.+ 1 Ra
-
a+l [ - 1 1 for power-law shock
*
v Similarity variable for 3, (3.6)
Similarity variable for p, (3.6)
Subscripts :
b Evaluated a t body surface
c Critical point, dflde = w
e Associated with streamline bounding entropy layer
S Downstream side of shock
SB Sharp blow
SP Singular point (saddle point)
0 Zero order solution (slender power-law shock)
1 Perturbation due to el # 0
2 Perturbation due t o 8% # 0
rn Free-stream conditions
( ) Prime indicates differentiation with respect to independent variable
(usually q or n )
References
1. HAYES,W. D., On hypersonic similitude, Quart. Jour. Appl. Math. 5, 105-106 (1947).
2. VANDYKE,M. D., A study of hypersonic small-disturbance theory. N A C A R e p .
1194 (1954). (Supersedes N A C A T N 3173.)
3. TAYLOR, G. I., The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion, Pt. I,
Theoretical discussion. Proc. Roy. Soc. ( L o n d o n ) , ser. A , 201, 159-174 (1950).
4. TAYLOR, G. I., The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion, Pt. 11.
The atomic explosion of 1945. Proc. Roy. Soc. ( L o n d o n ) , ser. A , 201, 175-188
(1950).
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 53
27. FELDMAN, S., On trails of axisymmetric hypersonic blunt bodies flying through
the atmosphere, Jouv. Aero. Space Sci. 28, No. 6 (1961).
28. VAGLIO-LAURIN, R., and TRELLA,M., A study of flow fields about some typical
blunt-nosed slender bodies, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, PIBAL REP O RT
No. 623, AFOSR 2, Dec. 1960.
29. MIRELS,H., Similarity solutions for inviscid hypersonic flow over power-law and
related bodies, Amer. Rocket SOC.,Preprint 1111-60, 1960.
30. LATTER,R., Similarity solution for a spherical shock wave. Jour. AppZ. P h y s .
26, 954-961 (1955).
31. FREEMAN, N. C., A note on the explosion theory of Sedov with application t o the
Newtonian theory of unsteady hypersonic flow, Jour. AerolSpace Scz. 27, 7 7 (1960).
32. BROCHER,E. F., Comments on the behavior of Sedov's blast wave solution as
y -+ 1, Jour. AerolSpace Sci. 27, 12 (1960).
33. VON HOERNER,S., Losungen der hydrodynamischen Gleichungen mit linearem
Verlauf der Geschwindigkeit, Z s . Natuvfor. 10a. 687 (1955).
34. HAFELE, W., Zur analytischen Behandlung ebener, starker, instationarer StoD-
wellen, 2s. Naturfor. 10a, 1006 (1955).
35. ZHUKOV.A. I., and KASHDAN,IA. M., Dvizhenie gaza pod deistviem kratko-
vremennogo impul'sa (The Motion of a Gas Under the Action of a Short Lived
Impulse), Akust. Z h . 2 , 352 (1956).
36. GUDERLEY,G., Starke kugelige und zylindrische VerdichtungsstbDe in der Nahe
des Kugelmittelpunktes bzw. der Zylinderachse, Luftfahrtforschung 19, 302 (1942).
37. BERTRAM,M. H., and FELLER,W . V., A simple method for determining heat
transfer, skin friction, and boundary-layer thickness for hypersonic laminar
boundary-layer flows in a pressure gradient, N A S A M E M O 5-24-59L, 1959.
38. COHEN,C. B., and RESHOTKO, E., Similar solutions for the compressible laminar
boundary layer with heat transfer and pressure gradient, N A C A T R 1293, 1956.
39. SMITH,A. M. O., Rapid laminar boundary-layer calculations by piecewise applica-
tion of similar solutions, Jour. Aero. Sci. 23, 901-912 (1956).
40. COLE, J. D., Lift of slender nose shapes according to Newtonian theory, Rep.
P-1270, Rand Corp., Feb. 1958.
41. GONOR,A. L., Hypersonic flow around a cone at a n angle of attack, Zzv. A N U S S R ,
O . T . N . , No. 7 , 102 (1958). (Translated b y Morris D. Friedman, Inc.)
42. COLE, J . D., Newtonian flow theory for slender bodies, Jour. Aero. Sci. 24, 448
(1957).
43. BARADELL, D. L., and BERTRAM, M. H.. The blunt plate in hypersonic flow. N A S A
T N D-408 (1960).
44. CASACCIO, A., Theoretical pressure distribution on a hemisphere cylinder combina-
tion, Jour. Aero/Space Sci. 28, No. 1 (1959).
45. HENDERSON, A., JR., and JOHNSTON,PATRICK J., Fluid-dynamic properties of
some simple sharp- and blunt-nosed shapes a t Mach numbers from 16 to 24 in
helium flow, N A S A M E M O 5-8-59L, 1959.
46. CREAGER, M. O., The effect of leading-edge sweep and surface inclination on the
hypersonic flow field over a blunt flat plate, N A S A M E M O 12-26-58A. 1959.
47. BERTRAM, M. H., and HENDERSON, A., JR., Effects of boundary-layer displacement
and leading edge bluntness on pressure distribution, skin friction, and heat
transfer of bodies at hypersonic speeds. N A C A T N 4301, 1958.
48. VAS, I. E., and BOGDONOFF, S. M., Mach and Reynolds number effects on the
flows over blunt flat plates a t hypersonic speeds, Princeton University Rept. 529,
ARL Tech. Note 60-164, 1960.
The Mathematical Thsory of Equilibrium Cracks in Brittle Fracture
BY G . I . BARENBLATT
Institute of Geology and Development of Combustible Minerals of the U.S.S.R. Academy
of Sciences. Moscow. U.S.S.R.'
Page
.
I Introduction ............................ 56
I1. The Development of the Equilibrium Crack Theory . . . . . . . . . . 62
I11. The Structure of the Edge of an Equilibrium Crack in a Brittle Body . . 89
1. Stresses and Strains Near the Edge of an Arbitrary Surface of Dis-
continuity of Normal Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2 . Stresses and Strains Near the Edge of an Equilibrium Crack . . . . . 73
3 . Determination of the Boundaries of Equilibrium Cracks . . . . . . . 74
.
IV Basic Hypotheses and General Statement of the Problem of Equilibrium
Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1. Forces of Cohesion; Inner and Edge Regions; Basic Hypotheses . . . 76
2 . Modulus of Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 . The Boundary Condition a t the Contour of an Equilibrium Crack . . 81
4 . Basic Problems in the Theory of Equilibrium Cracks . . . . . . . . 82
5 . Derivation of the Boundary Condition a t the Contour of an Equilibrium
Crack by Energy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8. Experimental Confirmation of the Theory of Brittle Fracture; Quasi-Brittle
Fracture ........................... 85
7 . Cracks in thin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V. Special Problems in the Theory of Equilibrium Cracks . . . . . . . . . 90
1. Isolated Straight Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2 . Plane Axisymmetrical Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 . The Extension of Isolated Cracks Under Proportional Loading; Stability
of Isolated Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4 . Cracks Extending to the Surface of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5. Cracks Near Boundaries of a Body; Systems of Cracks . . . . . . . 107
.
8 Cracks in Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
VI . Wedging; Dynamic Problems in the Theory of Cracks . . . . . . . . . 114
.
1 Wedging of an Infinite Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2 . Wedging of a Strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3 . Dynamic Problems in the Theory of Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References ................................ 125
56
56 G . I . BARENBLATT
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years the interest in the problem of brittle fracture and, in
particular, in the theory of cracks has grown appreciably in connection with
various technical applications. Numerous investigations have been carried
out, enlarging in essential points the classical concepts of cracks and the
methods of analysis. The qualitative features of the problems of cracks,
associated with their peculiar non-linearity as revealed in these investiga-
tions, makes the theory of cracks stand out distinctly from the whole range
of problems in the present theory of elasticity. The purpose of the present
paper is to present a unified view of how the basic problems in the theory
of equilibrium cracks are formulated, and to discuss the results obtained.
FIG.1. FIG.2.
The object of the theory of equilibrium cracks is the study of the equilib-
rium of solids in the presence of cracks. Consider a solid having cracks
(Fig. 1) which are in equilibrium under the action of a system of loads. The
body, able to sustain any finite stresses, is assumed to be perfectly brittle,
i.e. to retain the property of linear elasticity up to fracture. The possibility
of applying the model of a perfectly brittle body to real materials will be
discussed later.
The opening of a crack (the distance between the opposite faces) is always
much smaller than its longitudinal dimensions; therefore cracks can be
considered as surfaces of discontinuity of the material, i.e. of the displacement
vector. Henceforth, unless the contrary is stated, plane cracks of normal
discontinuity are considered, i.e. cracks are pieces of a plane bounded by
closed curves (crack colztozlrs), at which only the normal component of the
displacement vector has a discontinuity. The case when the tangential
component of the displacement vector is discontinuous a t the discontinuity
surface can be treated in the same manner.
One might think that the investigation of the equilibrium of elastic
bodies with cracks can be carried out by the usual methods of the theory
of elasticity in the same way as it is done for bodies with cavities (Fig. 2).
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 57
FIG.3. FIG.4.
Thus, when all loads acting upon a body are given, the problem of the
theory of equilibrium cracks may be formulated as follows: for a given
position of initial cracks and a given system of forces acting upon the body
one requires the determination of the stresses, the strains, and the contours
of cracks so as to satisfy the differential equations of equilibrium and the
boundary conditions, and to insure finiteness of stresses (or, which is the
same, a smooth closing of the opposing faces at the crack edges). If the
position of the initial cracks is not given, then, since according to our model
the body can sustain any finite stress, the solution of the problem formulated
above is not unique. This is only natural because at one and the same load
in one and the same body there need not be any cracks, or there may be
one crack, or two, and so on.
In the general case of curved cracks, the shape is determined not only
by the load existing at a given moment but also by the whole history of
loading. If however, the symmetry of the body and the applied monotonically
increasing loads assure the development of plane cracks, then the contours
of cracks are determined by the current load alone. All the results at
present available in the theory of cracks correspond to particular cases of
this simplified formulation of the problem.
A given system of forces acting upon the body should in general include
not only the loads applied to the body. The following example illustrates
what is meant. Let us attempt to determine the contour of an equilibrium
crack in the case of the loads represented in Fig. 1. If, in accordance with
the usual approach in the theory of elasticity (as in the case of the cavity
shown in Fig. 2), the surface of the crack is considered to be free of stresses,
the result will be paradoxical: whatever contour of the crack we would
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 59
take, the tensile stresses at its edge are always infinite. Consequently, there
cannot exist an equilibrium crack; however small the force of extension
may be, the body that has a crack breaks in two!
Such an obvious lack of agreement with reality can be easily explained:
simply using the model of an elastic body, we have not taken into considera-
tion all forces acting upon the body. It appears that - and this is also one
of the main distinctions between the problems of the theory of cracks and
the traditional problems of the theory of elasticity - for developing an
adequate theory of cracks it is necessary to consider molecular forces of
cohesion acting near the edge of a crack, where the distance between the
opposite faces of the crack is small and the mutual attraction strong.
Although consideration of forces of cohesion settles the matter in principle,
it complicates a great deal the analysis. The difficulty is that neither the
distribution of forces of cohesion over the crack surface nor the dependence
of the intensity of these forces on the distance between the opposite faces
are known. Moreover, the distribution of forces of cohesion in general
depends on the applied loads. However, if cracks are not too small, there is
a way out of the difficulty: with increasing distance between the opposite
faces the intensity of forces of cohesion reaches very quickly a large maximum,
which approaches Youngs modulus and then diminishes rapidly.
Therefore two simplifying assumptions can be made. The first is that the
area of the part of the crack surface acted upon by the forces of cohesion
can be considered as negligibly small compared to the entire area of the
crack surface. According to the second assumption the form of the crack
surface (and, consequently, the local distribution of forces of cohesion)
near the adges, a t which the forces of cohesion have the maximum intensity,
does not depend on the applied load.*
The intensity of the forces of cohesion has the highest possible value for
a given material under given conditions. This happens for instance a t all
edge points of a crack formed at the initial rupture of the material as the load
increases. For most real materials cracks are irreversible under ordinary
conditions. If an irreversible crack is produced by an artificial cut without
subsequent expansion or is obtained from a crack that existed under a greater
load by diminishing the load, then the intensity of forces of cohesion a t the
crack contour will be lower than the maximum possible one. The forces of
cohesion that act a t the surface of a crack compensate the applied extensional
loads and secure finiteness of stresses and smooth closing of the crack faces.
With an increase in extensional loads the forces of cohesion grow, thus adjust-
ing themselves to the increasing tensile stresses, and the crack does not
* Sh. A . Sergaziev very neatly compared cracks for which these assumptions are
satisfied with zippers.
60 G . I. BARENBLATT
FIG. 5.
1.2. The intensity of forces of cohesion is less than the maximum.
3,4. The intensity of forces of cohesion is equal to the maximum.
where G ( t ) is the intensity of the forces of cohesion acting near the crack
edge, t is the distance along the crack surface taken along the normal to the
crack edge, and d is the width of the region subject to the forces of cohesion.
For those contour points, at which the second assumption applies, this
integral represents a constant of the given material under given conditions
(temperature, composition, and pressure of the surrounding atmosphere, etc.),
which determines its resistance to the formation of cracks. It can be shown
that the quantity K is related to the surface tension of the material To,
the modulus of elasticity E , and Poisson's ratio v by means of the simple
equation
Furthermore, for all points of the crack edge at which the intensity of
forces of cohesion is a maximum, the stress-intensity factor N , entering in
+ Quite a similar situation arises when a body moves over a rough horizontal
surface under the action of a horizontal force. The motion of the body begins only after
the force exceeds the highest possible value of the friction for the given body and the
given surface.
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 61
(1.1) and calculated without taking into account the forces of cohesion
should be equal to Kln. For all points of the edge at which the intensity
of forces of cohesion is below the maximum, the stress intensity factor
calculated without considering forces of cohesion is smaller than Kln.
The foregoing considerations elucidate sufficiently the nature of the
forces of cohesion involved in this problem, and it is now possible to formulate
the fundamental problem of the theory of equilibrium cracks.* When the
symmetry of the body, of the initial cracks, and of the monotonously in-
creasing forces insures development of a system of plane cracks, this problem
can be stated as follows.
Let a system of contours of initial cracks be given in a body. I t is required
to find the stress and displacement fields corresponding to a given load as
well as a system of contours of plane cracks surrounding the contours of the
initial cracks (and perhaps coinciding with them partly).
Mathematically the problem consists in constructing such a system of
contours that the factor of intensity of the tensile stress, calculated without
taking into account the forces of cohesion, should be equal to K l n at all
edge points, not lying on the contours of the initial cracks, and should not
exceed K l n a t all points of contours, lying on the contours of the initial
cracks.
The foregoing formulation of the problem eliminates from our direct
consideration the molecular forces of cohesion (they enter only through
the constant K ) . Therefore stress and strain fields furnished by the solution
of this problem will not be realistic in a small neighbourhood of the crack
edges.
When cracks are reversible, or when the applied load is great enough to
cause the contours of all the cracks to expand beyond the contours of the
initial cracks, the form of the latter evidently is no longer of any importance.
The equilibrium state corresponding to the highest possible intensity
of forces of cohesion a t least at one point of the crack contour can be stable
or unstable. Accordingly, further extension of the crack with increasing
load proceeds in essentially different ways. In the case of stable equilibrium,
a slow quasi-static transition of the crack from one equilibrium state to
another takes place, when the load is increased gradually. If the equilibrium
is unstable, the slightest excess over the equilibrium load is accompanied by
a rapid crack extension that has a dynamic character. In some cases, when
there exist no neighbouring stable states of equilibrium, this leads to the
complete rupture of the body. The theory of cracks developed in such a
way that problems of this latter type were mainly treated until recently.
OF THE EQUILIBRIUM
11. THE DEVELOPMENT CRACKTHEORY
the body. As the load increases, cracks existing in the body do not expand
at first when the load is small; upon reaching a certain load they begin to
expand, the expansion depending on the manner in which the load is applied.
In some cases cracks expand rapidly up to complete rupture of the body with
the load maintained constant, in other cases they expand slowly, stopping
as soon as the increase of the load is suspended. Since the opening of a crack
is usually small compared to its longitudinal dimensions, it is natural to
represent a crack as a cut; but then the tensile stresses at the crack edges
in Inglis problem are infinite, and in general the same thing happens in the
problem treated by Muskhelishvili. Clearly solutions with infinite tensile
stresses at the edges of a crack are unacceptable in a physically correct
model of a brittle body. Thus, direct application of the classical scheme of
the theory of elasticity to the problem of cracks leads to a problem which
is incomplete and yields physically unacceptable solutions.
A. A. Griffiths papers [3, 41 are rightly considered fundamental for the
theory of cracks of brittle fracture. The important idea, first advanced in
these papers is that an adequate theory of cracks requires the improvement
of the model accepted for a brittle body by the consideration of molecular
forces of cohesion acting near the edge of a crack.
Griffith treated the following problem : An infinite brittle body stretched
by a uniform stress Po at infinity has a straight crack of a certain size 21.
I t is required to determine the critical value of Po at which the crack
begins to expand. The molecular forces of cohesion were considered as
forces of surface tension being internal forces for the given body; their
effect on the stress and strain field was neglected.
Under this condition the change dF of free energy (total potential
energy in Griffiths terminology) of a brittle body with a crack, compared
to the same body under the same loads but without a crack, is equal to the
difference between the surface energy of the crack U and the decrease in
strain energy of the body due to formation of the crack W . For the crack
to expand, the change in free energy of the body must not grow with an
increase in the size 21 of the crack. Thus, the parameters of the critical
equilibrium state are obtained from the condition
a(u- w) = 0.
ai
But the surface energy of the crack U is equal to the product of the
surface area of the crack and the energy To required to form the unit surface
of the crack. Under certain sufficiently general assumptions, the quantity To,
the surface tension, can be considered constant for a given material under
given conditions. Therefore, according to Griffith, the determination of
the critical load reduces to the determination of the quantity aWla1, the
elastic energy release rate. Analysing the simplest case, Griffith calculated
64 G . I . BARENBLATT
this quantity by using Inglis results [l] and obtained relations determining
the critical values of tensile stress in the forms
near its ends, did not permit him to obtain an adequate result. Incidentally,
the comments on Griffiths theory contained in this paper cannot be accepted
as well justified either. Frenkel criticizes Griffith because of the instability
of the equilibrium in the case of a straight crack in a uniform tensile stress
field (considered by Griffith) and he ascribes this instability to Griffiths
wrong idea about the form of the crack ends. This is not true. The conclusion
about stability or instability of equilibrium of a crack does not depend on
considerations concerning the structure of the crack ends. As will be shown
later, instability of a crack in a uniform field occurs even when allowance
is made for smooth closing of cracks a t the ends; it is a part of the problem
itself rather than a consequence of the peculiar crack shape assumed.
Frenkels conclusion concerning the existence of a stable state of equilibrium
in addition to the unstable one is due to his incorrect replacement of the
uniform state of stress by another one.*
In a paper by A. R. Rzhanitsyn [37] an attempt was made to solve the
problem of a circular crack in a body subjected to a uniform tensile stress
under consideration of the molecular forces of cohesion distributed over
the crack surface and with smooth closing of the crack. Unfortunately the
application of inadequate methods (averaging stresses and strains) did not
allow the author to obtain the correct conditions of equilibrium.
An idea first suggested by S. A. Khristianovitch [38] was of great impor-
tance for the proper understanding of the structure of cracks near their ends.
Khristianovitch considered, in connection with the theory of the so-called
hydraulic fracture of an oil-bearing stratum, an isolated crack in an infinite
body under a constant all-round compressive stress a t infinity, maintained
by a uniformly distributed pressure of a fluid contained inside the crack.
The problem was treated in the quasi-static formulation. In solving it,
Khristianovitch hit upon the indefiniteness of the crack length. He noticed,
however, the following circumstance. Under the assumption that the fluid
fills the crack completely, tensile stresses a t the end of the crack are always
infinite, whatever the size of the crack. But if the fluid fills the crack only
partially, so that there is a free portion of the crack surface which is not
wetted by the fluid, then at one exceptional value of the crack length tensile
stresses a t the ends of the crack are finite. I t turned out that for this value
of the crack length (and only for this one) the opposite faces of the crack
close smoothly at its edges. Khristianovitch advanced a hypothesis of
finiteness of stresses or, which is the same, of smooth closing of the opposite
faces of a crack a t its edges as a fundamental condition determining the
size of a crack. The use of this hypothesis made it possible to solve a number
of problems concerning formation and expansion of cracks in rocks [38--431.
* Besides these basic shortcomings there are some errors in calculations in [5]
indicated in [37].
68 G. I. BARENBLATT
In all these papers, however, molecular forces of cohesion were not taken
into account directly. Now in dealing with cracks in rock massifs it is quite
permissible to neglect forces of cohesion. The estimates show that the effect
of rock pressure is far greater here than the action of forces of molecular
cohesion, particularly if the natural fissuring of rocks is taken into considera-
tion. Under other conditions (in particular, in many cases when massifs
are simulated in laboratories) forces of cohesion play an important part and
their consideration is of great significance in analysing the conditions of
equilibrium and expansion of cracks.
A very interesting early work by H. M. Westergaard [44] should be
mentioned in connection with these investigations (see also [13]). On the
basis of the analogy with the contact problem noted by the author, it is
stated that there is no stress concentration at the end of a crack in such
brittle materials as concrete. The same paper gives formulas which describe
correctly stresses and strains near the ends of equilibrium cracks of brittle
fracture in the absence of forces of cohesion. However, Westergaard did
not connect the condition of finiteness of stress with the determination of
the longitudinal dimension of a crack, which he assumed to be given.
I n papers [45, 461 by G. R. Irwin (see also [47, 48, 49, 331) an important
formula was established that correlates the strain-energy release rate
with the stress intensity factor near the ends of a crack in a problem of the
classical theory of elasticity. On the basis of this formula the strain-energy
release rate was determined, and the conditions of fracture were obtained
for several new cases of loading and position of cracks [47, 50, 32, 51, 521.
Beginning with the work of Griffith, in most of the theoretical inves-
tigations problems of a similar type were treated: the equilibrium state,
.,in which the intensity of forces of cohesion at the contour is a maximum,
turns out to be unstable, and the condition for the onset of expansion of a
crack coincides with the condition for the beginning of complete fracture
of the body. Thus the condition for onset of the expansion is identified in
some papers with the onset of rapid crack propagation and fracture for all
cracks. In general, that is not true. Cracks actually may be stable so that
the beginning of crack development is not necessarily connected with the
fracture of a body; and one should not imagine that stable cracks are rare,
that they are not encountered in practice and are difficult to produce
experimentally. As the experimental investigations carried out by numerous
authors beginning from I. V. Obreimov [8] show, the extension of cracks
is stable in many cases throughout the greater part of the process of fracture.
A. A. Wells [30] obtained stable cracks over a certain range of extensional
forces in steel plates under combined external tensile stresses and internal
stresses due to welded seams. F. C. Roesler [53] and J. J. Benbow [54]
investigated stable conical cracks in glass and silica. The same authors [ Q ]
obtained stable cracks in wedging a strip of organic glass. Recently
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 69
As has already been pointed out, one can construct a formal solution of
the differential equations of the theory of elasticity, which satisfies the
boundary conditions corresponding to the applied load, if one prescribes
arbitrarily a surface of discontinuity of the displacement. In the present
section the behavior of the solutions of the equations of elasticity near the
edge of a surface of discontinuity of displacement is investigated. For
simplicity we shall restrict ourselves here to surfaces of discontinuity of
normal displacement, appearing as plane faces bounded by closed curves
(contowrs).
Near an arbitrary point 0 a t the contour of such a surface, let us take
a vicinity whose characteristic dimension is small compared to the radius
of curvature of the contour at the point 0. Deformation in this vicinity
can be considered as plane and corresponding to a straight infinite cut in
70 G. I. BARENBLATT
FIG.8.
The stress and displacement fields can be presented as the sum of two
fields (Fig. 6), the first of which corresponds to a continuous body under
loads applied inside the body; the second belongs to a body with a cut,
symmetrical loads being applied at the surface of the cut only. The shape
of the deformed surface of the cut is determined by the second state of
stress, since normal displacements at the place of the cut for the first state
of stress are equal to zero by symmetry.*
The analysis of the first state of stress can be carried out by the usual
methods of the theory of elasticity and is of no special interest; we shall
consider this state of stress as given. Let us assume that the line of the cut
corresponds to the positive semi-axis x ; the normal stresses, g ( x ) , applied
at the surface of the cut in the second state of stress, represent the difference
between the stresses applied a t the surface of the cut in the actual field,
G ( x ) , and the stresses at the place of the cut, P ( x ) , corresponding to the first
state of stress.
Applying Muskhelishvilis method [18] to the analysis of the second state
of stress, we obtain the relations determining stresses and displacements
(34 +
ax(2) a,(2)= 4 Re @(z),
This convenient method of reducing the load to a load distribution over the
discontinuity surface was developed in the most general form by H. F. Bueckner [33].
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 71
x =3 - 4v,
where z = x + are the components of the stress tensor
i y ; U,(~),U~(~),CT~,!
of the second state of stress; d2),d2)are the displacement components
along the x and y axes corresponding to the second state of stress;
+
,u = E / 2 ( 1 Y) is the shear modulus, E is Young's modulus, and v is
Poisson's ratio. The analytical functions p,u,@,Qare expressed by formulas
(3.4)
@ ( z ) = . n ( z ) = p'(z) = o ' ( z ) = w 1 [VFy
2ni v z
~,
(3.5)
(3.7)
where s1 is the small distance of the point considered from the end of the cut
(Fig. 6 ) . Similarly, we have for the distribution of normal displacements of
points a t the surface of the cut near its end
where s2 is the distance of a surface point of the cut from its end, and negative
and positive signs correspond to the upper and lower faces of the cut,
respectively (Fig. 6 ) .
72 G . I. BARENBLATT
This result also fully elucidates the distribution of normal tensile stresses
and normal displacements near the contour of an arbitrary surface of normal
discontinuity. Indeed, the following formulas are readily obtained from
relations (3.7) and (3.8):
where uy is the tensile stress at a point of the body a small distance s1 away
from the contour of the discontinuity surface, lying in the osculating plane
to the contour of the discontinuity surface through the point 0; N is the
4" a f" b
f" C
0 X
FIG. 7.
stress intensity factor, a quantity dependent on the acting loads, on the the
configuration of the body and of the discontinuity surfaces in it, and on the
coordinates of the point 0 considered; G(0) is the magnitude of the normal
stress applied to the discontinuity surface at 0 (Fig. 6 ) ; s2 is the small
distance of a point of the discontinuity surface from its contour. Depending
on the sign of N , there are in general three possibilities.
If N > 0 , an infinite tensile stress acts a t the point 0. The shape of the
deformed discontinuity surface and the distribution of normal stresses uy
near the point 0 are represented in Fig. 7a.
If N < 0 , then an infinite compressive stress acts at the point 0; the
shape of the deformed discontinuity surface and the distribution of stresses
near 0 are represented in Fig. 7b. The opposite faces of the crack overlap
in this case, and it is quite evident that this case is physically unrealistic.
Finally, if N = 0 , the stress acting near the contour is finite and tends
to the normal stress applied at point 0 of the contour if 0 is approached.
Thus the stress ay is continuous at the contour, and the opposite faces of the
discontinuity surface close smoothly (Fig. 7c).
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y O F E Q U I L I B R I U M CRACKS 73
The investigation of the stress and strain distribution near the edge of
the surface of normal discontinuity was begun by Westergaard [44, 131
and Sneddon [14, 151 and continued later by the author [40], by Williams
[17], and by Irwin [45-471. In view of the character of the stress states
considered in [14, 15, 45-47] results were obtained only for the
case N > 0.
FIG. a.
Consider a possible state of the elastic system, which differs from the
actual state of equilibrium only by a slight variation in the form of the
crack contour in a small vicinity of the arbitrary point 0 (Fig. 8). The new
contour is a curve that encloses the point 0 lying in the plane of the crack.
This curve is tangential to the former contour of the crack at points A and B
close to 0 ; everywhere else the contours of all the cracks remain unchanged.
In view of the closeness of the points of tangency A and B to the point 0,
the initial contour of the crack at the portion A B can be considered as
straight. The distribution of normal displacements of the points of the new
crack surface and the distribution of tensile stresses a t these points prior
to the formation of the new crack surface are, according to the above, given,
to within small quantities, by
4(1 - y 2 ) N N
(3.10)
~
v = T Vh-y, a,=
E VY
- 1
b h
where 6s is the area of the projection of the new crack surface on its plane.
The condition of equilibrium of the crack requires that 6 A vanishes;
this together with (3.11) implies that N = 0. Thus we arrive a t a very
important result characterizing the structure of cracks near their contours :
1. T h e tensile stress at the contour of a crack i s finite.
2. The o#posite faces of a crack close smoothly at its contour.
I t appears, therefore, that contrary to Griffiths conception the form of
a crack near its edge is as represented in Fig. 4. Since the only acting forces
at the surface of a crack near its contour are forces of cohesion, it follows
from (3.9) that the tensile stress at the crack contour is equal to the intensity
of forces of cohesion at the contour. In particular, if there are no forces of
cohesion, the tensile stress at the crack contour is equal to zero.
The condition of finiteness of stresses and smooth closing of the opposite
faces a t the edges of a crack was first suggested as a hypothesis by
S. A. Khristianovitch [38], to serve as a basic condition that determines the
position of the crack edge. The proof of this condition given above follows
[60] mainly. Formula (3.11) for the case of plane stress was first proved by
Irwin [45, 461 irrespective of finiteness of stresses and smoothness of closing
(see also the review by Irwin [47] and the paper by Bueckner [33]). The
early paper by Westergaard [44] contains a statement concerning the absence
of stress concentration at the end of a crack in brittle materials like concrete,
but the condition of finiteness of stress that appears in this work was not
connected with the determination of the size of the crack.
We have confined ourselves here to the examination of cracks of normal
discontinuity only for simplicity of treatment. Analogous reasoning, in
particular the proof of finiteness of stress a t the crack edge, can be extended
without any substantial changes to cover the general case in which also the
tangential displacement components have a discontinuity a t the crack
surface.
cracks and a given system of forces acting upon the body, it is required to
find stresses, deformations, and crack contours in the elastic body so as to
satisfy the differential equations of equilibrium and the boundary conditions,
and to insure finiteness of stresses and smooth closing of the opposite faces
at the crack contours.
We shall illustrate the solution of this problem by an elementary example
of an isolated straight crack in an infinite body under all-round compressive
stress q a t infinity and with concentrated forces P applied at opposite points
of the crack surface (Fig. 9).
The solution of the equilibrium equations satisfying the boundary condi-
tions can be obtained by Muskhelishvili's method [18] for an arbitrary crack
length 21. Stresses and displacements
are expressed by formulas (3.1)-(3.3)
with
@(z) =
-
4c2
(3.12)
(3.13)
Finiteness of stress and smooth closing of the crack at its ends are assured
simultaneously by the condition
P
(3.14) 1=-,
n4
which determines the crack size under given loads P and q.
Let us now attempt to determine the size 21 of an isolated straight crack
in an infinite body stretched by uniform stress Po at infinity in the direction
perpendicular to the crack. If the crack surface is assumed to be free of
76 G . I . BARENBLATT
stress, then one can easily show that the tensile stress a t the prolongation
of the crack near its edge depends on the distance s1 as follows:
(3.15) Po v 1 .
UY =--
V2S,
hence it appears that for no 1 the stress uy will be finite a t the crack end and
there does not exist an equilibrium crack! This paradoxical result is due to
the fact that we did not take into account the molecular forces of cohesion
acting near the crack edges and thus did not completely account for the
loads acting upon the body. The consideration of these forces and the
definitive formulation of problems in the theory of equilibrium cracks of
brittle fracture are discussed in the following section.
-
to about one and a half of b, the intensity f grows and reaches a very high
maximum f, VETo/b E/10; after that it diminishes rapidly with
N
The maximum intensity fm defines the theoretical strength, i.e. the strength
of a solid if it were a perfect crystal. The actual strength of solids is usually
several orders of magnitude lower because of defects of crystal structure.
For amorphous bodies the relation between the intensity of forces of cohesion
and the distance has qualitatively the same character.
Data at present available, which confirm the above character of the
relation between the intensity of forces of cohesion and the distance, lead
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 77
to the following conclusion. I t has long been known that the strength of
thin fibers exceeds considerably that of large specimens of the same material
[62, 631. Experiments carried out recently with filamentary crystals of some
metals revealed an exceptionally high strength approaching the theoretical
value [63]. I t is supposed that this phenomenon is due to the relatively
small amount of structural defects in thin fibers and filamentary crystals.
Furthermore, numerous direct measurements of the intensity of molecular
forces of cohesion for glass and silica [64-661 were made recently. The
of the molecular forces of cohesion acting on this part of the surface is great.
Of course, the boundary between the edge and inner region of the crack
surface is conventional to a certain extent. For very small cracks there may
be no inner region of the crack a t all.
Since the distribution of the forces of cohesion over the surface of the
edge region is not known beforehand, a substantial part of the loads applied
to the body is not known. I t is thus impossible to handle the problem of
cracks directly in the way it was stated in Chapter 111. But the following
method of solving problems of cracks is possible in principle: the distance
between the opposite faces of a crack is found at each surface point as a
function of the unknown distribution of forces of cohesion over the surface.
Assuming the relation f ( y ) between forces of cohesion and distance as given,
a relationship can be obtained which determines the distribution of forces
of cohesion over the crack surface.
Such an approach is not practicable. First, the relation f ( y ) is not known
to a sufficient extent for a single real material. Even if it were known, the
problem would constitute a very complex non-linear integral equation, the
effective solution of which presents great difficulties even in the simplest
cases.*
Attempts were made to prescribe the distribution of forces of cohesion
over the crack surface in a definite manner, but these attempts cannot be
considered sufficiently well founded.
For sufficiently large cracks, consideration of which is of principal
interest, the difficulty connected with our lack of knowledge of the distribu-
tion of forces of cohesion can be avoided without making any definite
assumptions concerning this distribution. In this case the general properties
of the relation between forces of cohesion and distance allow the formulation
of two basic hypotheses which not only simplify essentially the further
analysis, but permit the determination of contours of cracks, although the
forces of cohesion are finally altogether excluded from consideration as
loads acting upon the body.
First hypothesis: The width d of the edge region of a crack i s small compared
to the size of the whole crack.
This hypothesis is acceptable because of the rapid diminution of forces
of cohesion with the increase in the distance between the opposite faces of
* In papers of M. Ya. Leonov and V. V. Panasyuk [69, 701 the relation f ( y ) is approx-
imated by a broken line, and on the basis of this approximation a linear integral equa-
tion for the normal displacements of the crack surface points is derived. It is solved
approximately, the representation of the solution being not quite successfully selected
SO that the form of the crack at its end appears wedge-shaped with a finite edge angle.
In fact, as was shown above, the edge angle must be zero. The shortcoming of these
papers lies also in t h e application of the results obtained by the methods of mechanics
of continua to cracks whose longitudinal dimensions are only of the order of several
intermolecular distances.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 79
= intersection
' with a plane normal to the crack contour.
80 G. I . BARENBLATT
2. Modulus of Cohesion
where G(t) is the distribution of forces of cohesion different from zero only
< <
in the edge region 0 t d .
According to the second hypothesis, the distribution of forces of cohesion
and the width d of the edge region at those points of the contour, where the
intensity of forces of cohesion is a maximum, do not depend on the applied
load; the integral in (4.2) represents then a constant characterizing the given
material under given conditions. This constant will be denoted by K :
(4.3)
.=IT. d
G(t)dt
I t was termed the modulzls of cohesion since this quantity characterizes the
resistance of the material to an extension of its cracks, caused by the action
of forces of cohesion. As will be shown below, the quantity K is the only
characteristic of the forces of cohesion, that enters in the formulation of the
problem of cracks.
The dimension of the modulus of cohesion is:
where [I;],[I.],[MI, and [TI denote the dimensions of force, length, mass,
and time, respectively. Constants of a similar dimension are encountered
in the contact problem of the theory of elasticity [71, 72, 731. It is no
coincidence, that there exists a profound connection between the contact
problem and problems in the theory of cracks of brittle fracture; it seems
that this was first pointed out in the papers of Westergaard [44, 131.
1
(4.5) N, = -- K;
7c
K
(4.7) cry =
- + 0(1),
Vs
where s is the (small) distance from the contour point considered. Satisfying
(4.6) a t least a t one point of the contour is the condition that the crack is in
the state of mobile equilibrium.
One should not connect, in general, the reaching of the state of mobile
equilibrium by the crack with the onset of its unstable rapid growth and
still less with complete fracture of the body. A mobile-equilibrium crack
may be either stable or unstable. Only in case of instability is the condition
for the onset of rapid crack propagation given by (4.6). However, not even
in this case is complete fracture of the body unavoidable, since the transition
from the unstable state of equilibrium to the other, stable one, is possible.
Numerous examples illustrating various possibilities will be discussed in the
following chapter.
82 G. I. BARENBLATT
If a crack is irreversible and there are points on its contour where the
intensity of forces of cohesion is less than maximal,* then the second
hypothesis is not applicable a t such points. Since cohesive forces that act
in the edge region of the crack surface are smaller near such points than those
acting near points of the type considered above, it follows from (4.2) that
- N , < K l h ; and since N o = - N,, we have for these points
K
(4.6 a) No<--.
n
As the load increases, forces of cohesion in the edge region grow; they
compensate the increase in the load and insure finiteness of stress and smooth
closing at the crack contour. However, the crack does not expand at a given
contour point until the forces of cohesion become maximal. The second
hypothesis now becomes applicable, and condition (4.6) is satisfied.
In determining the form of contours of equilibrium cracks, conditions
(4.6) and (4.6a) permit us to exclude the forces of cohesion altogether from
the consideration of the loads acting upon the body. Instead, we work with
their overall integral characteristic, the modulus of cohesion. Special
estimates show [57, 581 that the influence of molecular forces of cohesion
on the stress and displacement field is essential only in the neighbourhood
of the edge in a region of the order of magnitude d . Forces of cohesion thus
determine the structure of cracks near their ends, and the forms of crack
contours depend on them only through the integral characteristic K .
@
and by the body boundary Z under
boundary conditions corresponding
to the given load. The contours I'
must be determined so that condi-
tion (4.6) is satisfied at points of
these contours not lying on r,,and
condition (4.6a) at points of rlying
FIG. 12.
on I',.
If the cracks are reversible or if the applied loads are sufficiently great
so that the contours T do not coincide with I', at any point, then the form
of the initial contours is of no importance. It is then possible, without
prescribing the initial cracks, to formulate directly the problem of deter-
mining the contours I' of equilibrium cracks of a given configuration so that
r.
condition (4.6) is satisfied at each point of Here we assume that the initial
cracks are such that they are compatible with the realization of the given
configuration of cracks when the load increases. This problem will be called
problem B.
(4.8) SA = SU - SW.
to the above, in forming a new crack surface the edge region is displaced
without deformation; the work against the forces of cohesion per unit of
newly formed surface is then constant and equal to the surface tension To.
Therefore, 6U = 2T0SS, because two surfaces form in rupture. Together
with (4.9)and (4.10),we have
(4.11) No = ETo
n(1 - v2) *
(4.12)
21 D Po 21 D
inches inches psi POv' inches inches psi
analyse all this work here in detail and shall dwell only on several of the most
characteristic papers, referring for details and discussion of other numerous
investigations to the special publications [62, 55, 74-78].
Griffith's paper [3]gives descriptions and results of the following exper-
iments. Cracks of various length 21 were placed on spherical glass bulbs and
cylindrical tubes, whose diameter D was sufficiently great so that a special
verification showed no influence of the diameter on the experimental results.
After the tubes and bulbs had been annealed to relieve residual stresses
86 G. I. BARENBLATT
produced by making the cracks, they were loaded from the inside by hydraulic
pressure up to fracture. The breaking stress Po corresponding to each crack
length 21 was measured.
According to the foregoing theory it appears that the breaking stress Po
at which a given crack becomes unstable
(onset of mobile equilibrium) can depend
only on the crack length 21 and the modulus
of cohesion K . From dimensional analysis
[79] it follows that Po = a K / v c where a is
a dimensionless constant. Consequently,
+,Vdmust be constant for a given material
(in full accord with (2.1)).
'" Griffith's experiments, which are tab-
ulated here, confirm the constancy of this
quantity and thus the foregoing theoretical
scheme.
FIG. 13.
1. Steel indentor.
The remarkably elegant experiments of
2. SDecimen. Roesler [53] and Benbow [54], in which
3. Steel support. stable conical cracks were produced, are of
special interest for the confirmation of the
theory of brittle fracture. The scheme of these experiments is presented
in Fig. 13; the photograph of conical cracks in fused silica, borrowed
FIG. 14.
from Benbow's paper [54], is given in Fig. 14. The cracks were formed
by the penetration into a specimen of glass [53] and fused silica [54]
of a cylindrical steel indentor with a flat end. In accordance with the
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 87
above, the diameter s of the base of a conical crack can depend only on
the diameter do of the indentor base, the force P pressing the indentor, the
modulus of cohesion K , and Poissons ratio v. Since the correct formulation
of the corresponding problem of elasticity theory does not include Youngs
modulus, it should not be included in the number of determining parameters
of the crack problem. Dimensional analysis yields
(4.13)
I I I
FIG. 15.
(4.14)
(4.15) T = To + T,.
A formal extension to quasi-brittle fracture is made as follows (Fig. 16,
the plastic deformation zone near the surface is shaded). Imagirfc the whole
plastic region cut out and shift the crack end to the end of the plastic region.
This can be done, if the forces exerted by the plastic zone upon the elastic
zone are considered as external forces applied to the crack surface. After
that the previous reasoning remains unchanged, if the plastic zone is assumed
as thin and use is again made of the hypothesis concerning the invariability
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 89
of the edge region (which here includes the boundary of the elastic and plastic
zones). The modulus of cohesion is now expressed as
(4.16)
(4.17)
Note that the value of a, at the yield point near the crack end may
differ from that a t the yield point obtained in tensile tests with large
specimens.
The concept of quasi-brittle fracture is somewhat related to the concept
of the plastic particle a t the ends of notches with a zero radius of curvature,
advanced in a classical monograph by H. Neuber [80].
In the following we shall speak of cracks of brittle fracture, bearing in
mind the possibility of extending the results to the case of quasi-brittle
fracture. Of course, in this latter case it is necessary to take into considera-
tion the irreversibility of cracks of quasi-brittle fracture.
If the state of stress can be assumed to be plane, then all relations derived
previously for the case of plane strain hold also for thin plates, if only E is
replaced by E(l - v2) and the modulus of cohesion is assumed to have some
other value K,. Repeating the derivation of formula (4.12)for the plane
stress state we obtain
(4.18) K I 2= n E T .
The experiments show that the surface energy density T in the case of
quasi-brittle fracture increases with a reduction in the plate width [48],
which is due to a broadened plastic-strain zone near the crack surface. An
approximate theoretical analysis of this phenomenon was attempted by
I. M. Frankland [81].
Bearing in mind the complete analogy of the analysis of plane stress and
plane strain we shall in the following consider only plane strain.
90 G. I. BARENBLATT
V. SPECIALPROBLEMS
IN THE OF EQUILIBRIUM
THEORY CRACKS
are the values of the stress intensity factors for points a and b, respectively.
Satisfying condition (4.6) at these points, we obtain relations that determine
the coordinates of the crack ends a and b :
b
(5.2) 1p(d
a
ve-~
x - a dx = K v b - a, [p(x) v
E d x =K V G .
In particular, if the applied load is symmetrical with respect to the crack
middle, where we place the origin of coordinates, then - a = b = 1, and
Eqs. (5.2) become one relation determining the half-length of the crack 1 :
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 91
(5.3)
FIG.17.
(5.4) f i ( x ) = E
-
41
2 sin d
n A n x
l
I v =4 2AnsinnB, x =lcosO.
n=l n= 1
problem was first treated by Griffith [3, 41. In this case p ( x ) Po and
equation (5.3) yields
Relation (5.6) appears in Fig. 17 as the dotted line. One sees that the
size of a mobile-equilibrium crack diminishes with increasing tensile stress,
which is indicative of the instability of mobile equilibrium in this case.
Despite this instability the size I defined by (5.6) has a physical meaning:
If there is a crack of length 21, in a body, to which constant tensile stress Po
is applied at infinity, then a t I,< I this crack does not expand (and closes
if it is a reversible crack) while at I, > I it grows indefinitely. Thus, the
equilibrium size is in a certain sense critical (this will be discussed in more
detail in Section V,3). It is obvious that instability of mobile equilibrium in
this case fully corresponds to the substance of the matter and, contrary to
the opinion expressed by Frenkel [5], is not connected with Griffiths incorrect
ideas about the geometry of the crack ends.
If stresses vanish at infinity, and if a crack is maintained by a uniformly
distributed pressure applied over a part of its surface (0 x < < I,) while the
remaining part of the crack surface (I, < <x I ) is free of stress, then the
half-length of the mobile-equilibrium crack I is given by the relation [58]
(5.7)
Note that (5.6) and (5.8) may be obtained, disregarding the value of the
numerical factor, by dimensional analysis. For example, the size of a crack
maintained by concentrated forces is determined only by the magnitude P
of these forces and the overall characteristic of the forces of cohesion, K .
It is obvious that the modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio do not enter
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 93
FIG.18.
(5.9)
(the origin of coordinates is taken in the middle of the crack). Using (5.3),
we obtain the relation determining the crack size in the form
(5.10)
A plot of PIKVZ versus the relative length of the crack IIL for v = 0.25
is shown in Fig. 18. As can be seen, at P > Po two lengths of a mobile-
equilibrium crack correspond to each value of P , the smaller decreasing and
the greater increasing with increasing P. States of mobile equilibrium cor-
responding to the smaller equilibrium length are unstable ; the corresponding
branch of the load-length diagram in Fig. 18 is shown by the dotted line.
States corresponding to the greater length are stable (solid line in Fig. 18).
94 G. I . BARENBLATT
The smaller size I, is the critical size at a given load P ; initial cracks present
in the body and smaller than 21, do not expand under the action of applied
loads of magnitude P (in case of reversible cracks they close), and those
which are greater expand until the crack reaches the second (stable) equilib-
rium size.* At P < Po equation (5.10) has no solution. This means that,
whatever length of the initial crack we take, it will not develop into a mobile-
equilibrium crack at the given load. The size of a mobile-equilibrium crack lo
different from zero corresponds to the critical value of forces Po.
FIG. 19.
(5.11)
2(1 + v ) ( 2 B- A -___4)
Aq/A-B+2
+ yo
+
+
( 1 + v ) ( B A ) ( 2 B- A - 4)
A 3 ( A B - 2) V A - B T ]
+-nv% .
9 --,Y l=z,
1
B = y o z + l z + 1, A =VBZ-412.
0 - L
* Note that, because of dynamic effects accompanying the expanding of the initial
cut, the crack actually may overshoot the stable equilibrium state to %me extent.
This will be discussed later in more detail.
t Computation of the integrals and numerical calculations for the graphs in Fig. 20
were made by V. Z. Parton and E. A. Morozova.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 95
1.0 L
05 -
FIG.20.
and unstable crack in the other, gave values of the stress intensity factor
close to each other. (A somewhat lower value of this factor at the end of
the stable crack can be explained by the considerable dynamic effects which,
according to the authors, occur in the transition from the unstable state to
the stable one.) Thus it may be supposed that the deviation observed is due
to some peculiarity of the specimen. Altogether, these experiments confirm
directly the proposed general scheme.
This discussion can be readily extended to straight cracks in an anisotropic
medium, placed in the planes of elastic symmetry of the material. The
problem of a straight crack in an orthotropic infinite body subjected to a
uniform stress field was treated by T. J. Willmore [21] and A. N. Stroh [83].
In [83], the results of [16] were also extended to cover the case of a straight
crack in an anisotropic body under an arbitrary stress field, and the stress
intensity factors at crack ends were found for this problem. Paper [84]
brings the solution of the general problem concerning a straight mobile-
equilibrium crack in an orthotropic body subjected to an arbitrary stress
field symmetrical with respect to the line of the crack.
(5.12)
(5.13)
This equation was established in [56, 571. Its derivation is based on the
application of the method of Fourier-Hankel transforms, developed by
I. N. Sneddon [14, 151 for solving axisymmetrical problems of elasticity.
In particular, if a mobile-equilibrium crack is kept open by a uniform tensile
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 97
stress at infinity Po, then p(r) Po and the radius of an equilibrium crack
is given by
(5.14)
This problem was first solved by R. A. Sack [20] by the energy method;
his method is quite similar in principle to Griffith's [3, 41 treatment of the
corresponding plane problem.
If there is no tensile load at infinity, and if the crack is kept open by a
uniformly distributed pressure Po over a part of its surface (0 Y < < ro)
while the remaining part of the crack surface (ro Y < < R ) is free, then the
radius of the mobile-equilibrium crack is found from the relation
(5.15)
Here, just as in the plane case, the radius of the loaded part of the crack
surface ro must not be less than the critical radius for a given pressure Po,
which is defined by (5.14). In particular, if a disk-shaped crack is maintained
open by equal and opposite concentrated forces P applied a t its surface,
then the radius of a mobile-equilibrium crack is determined by the formula
(5.16)
Relations (5.14) and (5.16) can be obtained, except for the numerical
factor, from dimensional analysis (cf. (5.6) and (5.8)).
If a disk-shaped crack is kept open by equal and opposite forces P whose
points of application are 2L apart along the common line of action, then the
radius of a mobile-equilibrium crack R is determined from the equation
P L2
(5.17) -
KL3I2
The above solutions were obtained in [56, 571 ; the interpretation of the
relations obtained is quite similar to the corresponding cases for a straight
crack.
crack is given, which illustrates the general procedure of solving this problem.
Under proportional loading the tensile stresses at the place of the crack,
but in a continuous body subjected to the same load, are proportional to the
loading parameter I ; hence p ( x ) = A / ( x ) and p ( r ) = A/(,f(r)in the cases of
straight and disk-shaped cracks, respectively. Introducing the dimensionless
variable 5 equal to x/1 and r / R in these cases, respectively, one obtains
relations (5.3) and (5.12) in the form
(5.18) p =q(c),
Suppose that the tensile loads applied to the body on each side of the
crack are bounded and, for definiteness, equal to AP. Then the following
relations are valid :
m m
-m 5 @(x)dx= IP,
0
5 P
f(c6)dE = -
2c '
(5.21)
m m
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 99
Eqs. (5.21) and (5.19) yield asymptotic representations for the functions ~ ( c )
when c -+00 :
(5.22)
(5.23)
(5.24) adc> o .
* If the crack is irreversible, then with an increase in its size no reverse closing
takes place, but no further expansion of the crack takes place either. Equilibrium is
attained in this case because of diminution of forces of cohesion acting in the edge
region of the crack.
100 G . I . BARENBLATT
(5.25)
4 cz c 0 Go GI c2
FIG.21.
5.28)
both factors N , and Nb are less than K l n so that the crack expands neither
to the right nor to the left. A t P = P, the factor Nb becomes equal to K / n ,
FIG.22.
mobile equilibrium is reached and the end b begins to move to the right.
The advance depends on the magnitude of the applied force according to
the relation
(5.29)
we have N a < Kln, and the left end does not move. At P = P2,we have
-
b = a,, a symmetrical crack in mobile equilibrium, and a t P > P, the
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 103
FIG.23.
2(L + R),so that the influence of the cavity proper is almost unnoticeable.
Furthermore, in the case of small crack lengths the conditions of mobile
equilibrium are obviously determined by the tensile stresses directly a t the
3-
I
I
I
I
2 -\
FIG.24.
0
-
1
1 2
uniaxial tension,
I
---
3 a
1
all-round tension.
FIG.25.
'w Wigglesworth [85] investigated the
case of an arbitrary distribution of nor-
mal and shearing stresses over the faces
of the crack. For a symmetrical distribu-
tion of stresses he reduced the problem to an integral equation for the
complex displacement w ( x ) = zc(x) + i v ( x ) of points of the crack surface:
I X
(5.31)
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 105
+
Here L ( x , t ) is a singular integral operator and p ( x ) = a ( x ) it(%);a(x) is
the distribution of normal stresses; t ( x ) is the distribution of shearing stresses.
Equation (5.31)is solved in the paper by an integral-transform method.
Detailed calculations are made for the case when the surfaces of the crack
and boundary are free of stresses, the tensile stress Po being applied a t
infinity parallel to the boundary of the half-space.
For stresses near the crack end the author obtains in this special case the
following relations :
which together with (4.6)gives the expression for the length of the mobile-
equilibrium crack in the form
K2 K2
(5.34) 1= 1.61,.
n2(0.793)Po Po
Irwin [51] investigated only the last special case. He represented the
unknown solution as the sum of three fields. The first field corresponds to
a crack (- 1 x < < I, y = 0) in an infinite body subjected to constant
tensile stress Po a t infinity, the second field corresponds to the same crack
under normal stresses Q ( x ) symmetrical with respect to the x and y axes
and applied at the crack surface, the third field corresponds to a half-space
x 0 without crack, a t the boundary of which ( x = 0) the distribution of
normal stresses P ( y ) , symmetrical with respect to the x axis, is given.
Satisfying the boundary conditions at the free boundary and the crack
surface, Irwin obtained for P ( y ) and Q ( x ) the system of integral equations
I
(5.35)
xy2
d y =Q(x),
0
106 G. I. BARENBLATT
2K2 K2
(5.36) I= = 1.69 7 ,
7c2 1.0952P02 Po
which differs, as is seen, insignificantly from the more exact relation (5.34).
H. F. Bueckner [50] treated a problem of one straight crack reaching
the boundary of a circular cavity in an infinite body. No stress is applied at
infinity and at the boundary of the cavity, the surface of the crack is free
of shearing stresses, normal stresses are applied symmetrically and vary
according to a given law - p ( x ) . Such a form of the problem arises in the
analysis of rupture of rotating disks. Like Wigglesworth [85], Bueckner
proceeds independently from a singular integral equation for the lateral
displacements of points of the crack surface. He considers a one-parameter
family of particular solutions of this equation, corresponding to certain
special distributions p , ( x ) . In the general case it is recommended to represent
P ( x ) as a linear combination of P , ( x ) :
n=m
n=o
= 0.159 P a,
2K2
(5.38) 1= 0
7c2 1.132$02 K2
which is in good agreement with (5.34) and (5.36).
In [50] Bueckner also treated a problem of a crack reaching the surface of
an infinitely long strip of finite width under an arbitrary load, symmetrical
with respect to the line of the crack (Fig. 25b). He showed that it is possible
to replace with a high degree of accuracy the integral equation occurring
in this case by one with a degenerated kernel. The numerical solution
obtained by Bueckner in the special case when the load is produced by
couples M , applied on both sides of the crack at infinity, gives the relation
between the length of a mobile-equilibrium crack and the load; it is rep-
resented by the curve in Fig. 26.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 107
As has already been pointed out, in all cases discussed in the present
section mobile-equilibrium cracks are unstable. Thus, when loads increase,
extension of an initial crack does not take place until it reaches mobile
equilibrium, after which the body fractures. In these problems the load a t
which an initial crack reaches mobile
equilibrium coincides with the breaking
load, which is in general not true.
In the paper by D. H. Winne and
B. M. Wundt [32] some of the solutions
presented in this section were employed
for the analysis of fracture of rotating
notched disks, and of notched beams in
I I
bending. The experiments conducted I I I I
0 a5 I
by Winne and Wundt, analysed on L
the basis of these calculations, revealed
close coincidence of the values of surface- FIG.26.
energy density T (or, which amounts
to the same, of the moduli of cohesion K ) determined from the angular
speed, a t which fracture of rotating notched disks occurs, and from the
loads a t which fracture of notched beams in bending occurs. This confirms
that the quantities T and K are characteristics of the material and do not
depend on the nature of the state of stress.
a b
i
I
f l t
010
t I h
FIG. 27.
(5.39)
m-t
-m
(5.41)
(5.42) __
K?Z -
-
v2 nl
-cot -
n 2L
Relation (5.40) for various u is presented in Fig. 28. The solid and dotted
lines denote, as usual, stable and unstable branches. As is seen, for u 2 ucw 0.5
there are no stable branches, hence for distances between points of applica-
tion of forces exceeding 2Lln m 0.64 L mobile-equilibrium cracks are always
unstable. Quite similarly to the analysis in Section V.3 (extension of an
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 109
t \ N
\
\
0 0.5 1
10 T
L
FIG.28.
In the first approximation only the shearing stresses vanish at the lines
of symmetry (shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 27b, which correspond to
the boundaries of the strip); the normal stresses are different from zero.
To obtain the second approximation, the first approximation is addcd to
the solution for an uncracked strip, at the boundaries of which the normal
stresses are given; their distribution is chosen in such a manner as to com-
pensate the normal stresses at the boundary obtained in the first approxima-
tion. Now the boundary condition is no longer satisfied at the crack surface.
To obtain the third approximation, the second approximation is added to
the solution for the exterior of a periodical system of cuts, a t the surface of
which the distribution of normal stresses is equal to the difference between
the given stresses and those obtained in the second approximation, and
so on.
110 G. I. BARENBLATT
FIG.29.
the reduction of any such problem to quadratures. Let us here consider the
simplest example: it is the problem of the extension of two collinear straight
cracks of the same length in an infinite body, stretched by a uniform stress
p at infinity (Fig. 29). This problem was treated by Willmore [21]; it also
occurs in a paper by Winne and Wundt [32] (the authors refer to a private
communication by Irwin). According to the solution presented in [21],
the sizes of the cracks remain unchanged at p < pl, where
a
(5.43) , a=-<l.
b
Here K, E are standard notations of elliptic integrals.
At p = 9, the cracks attain an unstable state of mobile equilibrium,
after which the inside edges of the cracks join and form a crack of length 2b.
The further extension of the crack depends on whether the bracketed
expression in (5.43) is greater or less than unity. If it is less than unity,
which happens for a < 0.027, the size of the crack resulting from the joining
of the inside edges is less than the size of the mobile-equilibrium crack
corresponding to the load p,. In this case the crack remains unchanged up
to the load p , = VTK/n]/b,after which the body fractures. If it is greater
than unity, complete fracture of the body occurs immediately upon reaching
the load p,. Assuming b - a = 21 and making b - + 00 in (5.43), we obtain
in the limit (5.6), as expected. The solution given in [32] leads to the
same qualitative results. However, it cannot be accepted as correct because
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 111
h, = v2 [ f i ( t ) tt2 v-Ea2d t - C]
x Va(b2- a*)
b b
(5.44)
As is seen from these examples, collinear cracks weaken each other
and reduce their stability. Ya. B. Zeldovitch noticed that in the case
FIG.30.
6. Cracks in Rocks
2
FIG. 31.
sure q at infinity is maintained open
by a flowing viscous fluid injected into
it (Fig. 31). Themain peculiarity of the
problem is that the fluid does not fill
the crack completely: there is always
a free part of the crack on both sides of the wetted area. The pressure Po
in the flowing fluid troughout the wetted area of the crack can be considered
constant in first approximation. Indeed, a t the end of the wetted area an
abrupt narrowing of the crack takes place, and almost all of the pressure
drop will occur there. The problem is called so, because the actual fissure,
idealised by this problem, is located in a vertical plane, and q represents
the lateral pressure of the rocks. In comparison with the action of lateral
rock and fluid pressures the action of the forces of cohesion may be
MATHEMATICAL T H E O R Y OF E Q U I L I B R I U M CRACKS 113
hence
(5.48)
As calculations show, for values 1,/1 close to unity which are usually
encountered in practice, the opening of the crack is almost constant all
along the wetted area of the crack; the crack closes rapidly along the free
part. - This problem of the vertical crack was first stated and solved in
a paper by Zheltov and Khristianovitch [38].
The problem of the horizontal crack [40] is stated as follows. In a heavy
half-space at a certain depth N a horizontal disk-shaped crack is formed by
injecting viscous fluid as before; the surface of the crack is again divided
into a wetted part (0 r < <
R,) and a free part (Ro< Y <
R ) , and the
fluid pressure p in the wetted part may again be considered as constant.
Forces of cohesion, as in the preceding case, are neglected. Under the
assumption that the depth of the crack position H is sufficiently great, the
boundary condition at the boundary of the half-space need not be taken into
account. The condition of finiteness of stresses a t the crack contour yields
in this case
(5.49)
where y is the specific weight of the rock. For the volume of the injected
fluid one obtains
(5.50) T/ =
4(1 - y 2 ) # R 3
fp
(2) v(z) [
- , =z3
2
--
3
z
-
3
-
3(1 +
z
v-)]'
* The condition that forces of cohesion be negligibly small is K/gvl<< 1. It is in
general not satisfied in laboratory scaling.
114 G . I. BARENBLATT
(5.52)
Thus, if the depth of the crack position, the fluid pressure, and the
specific weight of the rock are known, Ro/R can be found according to (5.49).
Then the crack radius is obtained from (5.51) and a knowledge of the total
volume of the injected fluid V , after which the determination of the remaining
parameters does not encounter any difficulties.
In [40, 411 problems were also treated concerning horizontal cracks in
a radially varying pressure field caused by the higher lying rocks. Under
certain conditions a complete wetting of the crack surface (i.e. the absence
of a free part) may in this case occur.
Yu. P. Zheltov [43] proposed an approximate method for solving the
problem of the horizontal crack in a radially varying vertical pressure field.
A comparison between the results obtained by this method and the exact
solutions for certain cases showed quite satisfactory agreement.
By using the method of successive approximations Yu. A. Ustinov [94]
estimated the influence of the free boundary in the problem of the horizontal
crack. If the depth is larger than twice the crack radius, the influence of
the free boundary is negligibly small.
The problem of a crack formed by driving a horizontal wedge of constant
thickness into a heavy space was treated in [39].
The solution of the problem of the vertical crack was extended by Zheltov
[42] to cover the case when the rock is permeable and the injected fluid
flows through the rock.
PROBLEMS
VI. WEDGING;DYNAMIC I N THE THEORYOF CRACKS
1. Wedging of an Infinite B o d y
- /
c/ B' "/////TI
Y
FIG.32.
point 0; the position of the point 0 with respect to the front point of the
wedge C is not known beforehand and must be determined in the course of
solving the problem. If the wedge has a rounded front part (Fig. 32a). the
position of the points of departure of the crack surface from the wedge,
B and B', is not prescribed and must also be determined in the course of
solving the problem. If the wedge has a truncated front part (Fig. 32b)
as e.g. in the case of a wedge of constant thickness, the position of the points
of contact is quite definite; they coincide with the corners of the wedge
front. I t is evident that the stress at the points of departure is in this case
infinite. We shall a t first assume that there is no friction a t the surface
of contact between wedge and body.
The field of elastic stresses and strains satisfies the usual equations of
static elasticity in the exterior of the crack. In view of the assumed
slenderness of the wedge, the boundary conditions may be transferred from
the crack surface proper to the x-axis. Without considering forces of cohesion,
the boundary conditions are
uxy=o, u,=O (O,<X<l,, y=0),
(6.1)
v = ff ( x - ZJ, uxy =0 (12 Q x < 00, y = 0);
116 G. I . BARENBLATT
where 5 =.vG, and the root may assume positive and negative values for
displacements of the upper and lower face. The second condition (6.1) yields
the fundamental integral equation of the problem :
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 117
Eh
(6.7) A =
2(1 - v2) *
Now the following expression for the tensile stresses a t the prolongation
of the cut results from the solution:
t - x
118 G. I . BARENBLATT
Relations (6.8) and (6.10) are finite equations which determine the
unknown constants I, and 1,.
In the particular case of constant wedge thickness f ( t ) h, condition
( 6 4 , which is no longer valid, is replaced by the relation 1, = I,, and (6.10)
gives the following expression for the length of a free crack in front of a
square wedge :
(6.11)
In 1951 other special forms of the wedge are also treated such as a wedge
rounded-off with a small radius of curvature and a wedge rounded-off
according to a power law. Investigation of the first example shows that
I I I
FIG. 33.
roundness affects slightly the length of the free crack in front of the wedge.
I n [95] also a case when Coulomb friction acts on the faces of the wedge is
treated.
In [84] wedging of an anisotropic body by a semi-infinite rigid wedge is
studied.
I. A. Markuzon [98] treated a problem of wedging an infinite body by
a wedge of finite length 2b (Fig. 33). In case of constant thickness of the
wedge 2h, the relation between crack length 21 and wedge length 2b, other
things being equal, is as represented in Fig. 34 (1, is the length of a free
crack for an infinite wedge defined by (6.11))-
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 119
(6.12)
2. Wedging of a Strip
considered, as it was done by Ya. I. Frenkel [5]. The fact is that the lon-
gitudinal dimension of the edge region cannot be assumed to be large
compared to the shaving thickness; hence a shaving cannot be considered
as a thin beam in the region where the forces of cohesion are acting.
To illustrate the approximate approach based on the methods of simple
beam theory, we discuss the paper by Benbow and Roesler [ 9 ] in more
detail. Note that in this work possibilities and limits of applicability of the
above approach are most clearly pointed out.
The fdllowing statement of theproblem is considered (Fig. 36). A strip
of finite width b is wedged symmetrically so that the crack passes along the
i
FIG. 35. FIG. 36.
1. a Body being wedged. 1. a Body being wedged.
1. a Wedge. 2. Grips.
middle line of the strip. At the end of the strip, compressive forces Q / 2
are applied to insure straight crack propagation; the wedging force P
produces a crack length 1 and initial width h.
Having obtained an expression for the strain energy from dimensional
considerations, the authors write the equilibrium condition for the crack in
the form
T ha
(6.13)
E l
so that for a given material the quantity h2/1 is uniquely determined by the
quantity bll. The experiments made with specimens of two different plastics
[ 9 ] give a conclusive proof of the existence of such a one-one relation.
For small b/Z, i.e. for long cracks, it is possible to obtain an asymptotic
form of relation (6.13) by considering both halves of the strip as thin beams
fixed a t the section corresponding to the crack end. The expression for the
strain energy of the strip is in this case
(6.14) U = 3h2B/13,
(6.15) - -au
=2Tn or
T - 3h2b3
---.
ai E 6414
By comparing the second formula (6.15) with (6.13), an asymptotic
expression for @(b/l) can be found as b/l ---t 0 :
3 b 3
(6.16)
Q=&) *
(6.17)
* Unlike [36J, plane strain is here considered rather than the state of plane stress.
122 G . I. BARENBLATT
where p is the density of the body, 1 the half-length of the crack, V the rate
of crack expansion, and k a dimensionless factor which Mott considered
constant and left indefinite. Adding to the static-energy equation (2.1)
the derivative with respect to I of the kinetic energy (6.18) and assuming the
remaining terms in (2.1) to be the same as in Griffiths static problem,
Mott found the rate of crack expansion
(6.19)
(6.20)
of resonance when the Rayleigh velocity is approached is not specific for the
problems of cracks: the investigation of the problem of a punch moving
along the boundary of a half-space, carried out by L. A. Galin [72] and
J. R. M. Radok [log], reveals [95] that the same resonance phenomena
occur, when the velocity of the punch approaches the Rayleigh velocity.
I t appears that the limiting character of the Rayleigh velocity is most
directly illustrated by a problem of wedging. Obviously the maximum
possible rate of crack propagation can be reached in wedging a body by a
moving wedge. The analysis of this problem shows [95] that with increasing
velocity of the wedge the length of the free crack in front of the wedge
decreases and tends to zero when the Rayleigh velocity is approached.
For larger wedge velocity a free crack does not form in front of the wedge.
Hence the maximum rate with which a crack can expand is equal to Rayleigh
velocity.
K. B. Broberg [107, 1081 treated the problem of a uniformly expanding
crack of finite length in an infinite body subjected to a uniform tensile
stress field. The solution obtained by Broberg is an asymptotic representa-
tion for great values of time of the solution of the problem treated by Mott [36]
and Roberts and Wells [ l o l l . However, unlike [loll, Brobergs solution
was obtained on the basis of the exact methods of the dynamic theory of
elasticity. Independently of [102-104, 57, 95, 1051 and in full accord with
the results of these investigations, Broberg obtained that the rate of crack
expansion in his problem, equal to the ultimate rate of crack expansion in
the problem considered in [36, 1011, coincides with the Rayleigh velocity.
Note the papers by B. A. Bilby and R. Bullough [lo91 and F. A.
McClintock and S. P. Sukhatme [110] which treat uniformly moving cracks
of finite and infinite length, respectively, a t the surface of which symmetrical
shearing stresses parallel to the crack edge were applied. Instead of plane
strain we have in this problem what is often called anti-plane strain: one
displacement component, parallel to the crack edge, is different from zero.
The investigation of such cracks reduces to the solution of a single
wave equation (reducing to Laplaces equation for equilibrium cracks).
Cracks under anti-plane strain conditions are of considerable interest, being
the simplest model for which an effective solution is possible for many prob-
lems, which are intractable for cracks under plane-strain conditions because
of the great mathematical difficulties.
An analysis of the dynamics of crack propagation on the basis of the
approximations of the simple beam theory was carried out by J. J. Gilman
[ l l ] and J. C. Suits [ l l l ] .
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 125
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is very grateful t o Prof. Ya. B. Zeldovitch and Prof. Yu. N. Rabotnov
(USSR Academy of Sciences) and Dr. S. S. Grigorian for the invariable interest and
attention given t o his work on cracks and for a number of valuable advices. He recalls
with appreciation the valuable discussions with Prof. S. A. Khristianovitch (USSR
Academy of Sciences). The author considers it his pleasant duty to express his sincere
thanks t o Prof. G. Kuerti (USA) and Prof. G. G. Chernyi for the amiable assistance
in writing this review. Credit is also given t o I. A. Markuzon who assisted the author
in compiling the bibliography.
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(M. A. Lavrentev. ed.), pp. 21-38. SIAM, Philadelphia, 1961.
62. ALEXANDROV, A. P., ZHURKOV, S. P., The Phenomenon of Brittle Fracture.
GTTI, M., 1933 (in Russian).
63. GARBER, R. I., and GUINDIN, I. A., Strength physics of crystalline bodies, Uspekhi
fizicheskikh nauk 70, 57-110 (1960) (in Russian).
64. DERYAGIN, B. V., ABRIKOSOVA, I. I., and LIFSHITZ,E. M., Molecular attraction
of condensed bodies, Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk 64, 493-528 (1958) (in Russian).
65. DERJAGUIN, B. V., and ABRIKOSSOVA, I. I., Direct measurements of molecular
attraction of solids, J . Phys. Chem. Solids 6 , No. 1/2, 1-10 (1958).
128 G. I. BARENBLATT
66. JONGH,J. G. V., DE, Measurements of Retarded van der Waals-Forces. Thesis,
Abels, Utrecht, 1958.
67. BORN,M. and KUN HUANG,Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices. Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1954.
68. LEIBFRIED, G., Gittertheorie der mechanischen und thermischen Eigen-
schaften der Krystalle, i n Handbuch der Physik, B. VII, I (S. Fliigge, ed.),
p. 104-324. Springer, Berlin, 1955.
69. LEONOV,M. YA., and PANASYUK, V. V., Development of the finest cracks in a
solid, Pvikladna rnekhanika 6 , 391-401 (1959) (in Ukrainian).
70. PANASYUK, V. V., Determination of stresses and strains near the finest crack,
Nauchn. zapiski In-ta mashinovedenia i avtomatiki A N U S S R 7 , 1 1 4 1 2 7 (1960)
(in Russian).
71. LANDAU, L. D., and LIFSHITZ,E. M., Theory of Elasticity. Pergamon Press,
London, 1960.
72. GALIN,L. A , , Contact Problems of the Theory of Elasticity. GITTL, M., 1953
(in Russian).
73. SHTAERMAN, I. YA., Contact Problem of the Theory of Elasticity. GITTL, M.,
1949 (in Russian).
74. PARKER, E. R., Brittle Behavior of Engineering Structures. Wiley, New York,
1957.
75. DAVIDENKOV, N. N., Impact Problem in Metallography. Izd. AN SSSR, M.-L..
1938 (in Russian).
76. PASHKOV, P. O., Fracture of Metals. Sudpromgiz, L., 1960 (in Russian).
77. POTAK,YA. M., Brittle Fracture of Steel and Steel Parts. Oborongiz, M.. 1955
(in Russian).
78. AVERBACH, B. L., and 0th. (eds.), Fracture. Wiley, New York, 1959.
79. SEDOV,L. I., Similarity and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics, 4th ed.
GITTL, M., 1957 (Transl. from 4th ed., Acad. Press, New York, 1959).
80. NEUBER, H., Kerbspannungslehre. Grundlagen fur genaue Spannungsrechnung.
Springer, Berlin, 1937.
81. FRANKLAND, I. M., lriaxial tension a t the head of a rapidly running crack in a
plate, Paper A S M E , No. APM-11 (1959).
82. MASUBUCHI, K., Dislocation and strain energy release during crack propagation
in residual stress field, Proc. 8th Japan Nath. Congv. A p p l . Mech. pp. 147-150
(1958/1959).
83. STROH,A. N., Dislocations and cracks in anisotropic elasticity, Phil. Mag.,
V I I I ser. 3, 625-646 (1958).
84. BARENBLATT. G. I., and CHEREPANOV, G. P., On the equilibrium and propagation
of cracks in an anisotropic medium, Prikl. matem. i mekhan. 46, 46-55 (1961)
(in Russian).
84a. KACHANOV. L. M., On kinetics of crack growth, Prikl. matem. z mekhan. 26.
498-502 (1961) (in Russian).
85. WIGGLESWORTH, L. A., Stress distribution in a notched plate, Mathematika 4,
76-96 (1957).
86. SHERMAN, D. I., A method of solving the static plane problem of the theory of
elasticity for multiconnected regions, Trudy Seismologicheskogo Institutu
Akademii Nauk S S S R , No. 54 (1935) (in Russian).
87. MIKHLIN,S. G., The plane problem of the theory of elasticity, Trudy Seis-
rnologicheskogo Institutu Akademii Nauk S S S R , No. 65 (1935) (in Russian).
88. BARENBLATT. G. I., and CHEREPANOV, G. P., On the influence of body boundaries
on the development of cracks of brittle fracture, Izvestiya A N S S S R , O T N ,
ser. mekh. i mash., No. 3, 79-88 (1960) (in Russian). Correction. The same
journal, No. 1 (1962).
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS 129
89. KOITER,W. T., An infinite row of collinear cracks in an infinite elastic sheet,
Ingenieur-Archiv 28. 168-172 (1959).
90. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., Basic boundary-value problems in the theory of elasticity
for a plane with straight-line cuts, Soobschenia A N Gruz. S S R 8, 103-110 (1942)
(in Russian).
91. SHERMAN, D. I., A mixed problem in the theory of potential and in the theory
of elasticity for a plane with a finite number of straight-line cuts, Doklady
A N S S S R 2 7 , 330-334 (1940) (in Russian).
92. WUNDT, B. M.. A unified interpretation of room-temperature strength of notched
specimens as influenced by their size, Paper A S M E , No. 59-MET-9 (1959).
93. YUSUFF,S., Fracture phenomena in metal plates, Paper presented at the X t h Intern.
Congr. A p p l . Mech., Stresa (1960).
94. USTINOV,Yu. A., On the influence of the free boundary of a half-space on the
crack propagation, Izvestia A N S S S R , O T N . ser. mekh. i mash., No. 4, 181-183
(1959) (in Russian).
95. BARENBLATT, G. I., and CHEREPANOV, G. P.. On the wedging of brittle bodies,
Prikl. matem. i mekhan. 24, 667-682 (1960) (in Russian).
96. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of
Elasticity. 2nd ed. Izd. AN SSSR, M.-L., 1935 (in Russian).
97. BITSADZE, A. V., On local deformations of elastic bodies in compression,
Soobschenia A N Gruz. S S R 3, 419-424 (1942) (in Russian).
98. MARKUZON, I. A., On the wedging of a brittle body by a wedge of finite length,
Prikl. matem. i mekhan. 26, 356-361 (1961) (in Russian).
99. KUZNETSOV, V. D., Surface Energy of Solids. GITTL, M., 1954 (Transl.,
H. M. Stat. Office, London, 1957).
100. YOFFE,E., The moving Griffith crack, Phil. Mag., Vff ser. 42, 739-750 (1951).
101. ROBERTS, D. K., and WELLS,A . A,, The velocity of brittle fractures, Engineering
178, 820-821 (1954).
102. STROH,A. N., A theory of the fracture of metals, Advances i n Physics 6, 418-465
(1957).
103. CRAGGS, I. W., On the propagation of a crack in an elastic-brittle material, J . Mech.
Phys. Solid5 8, 66-75 (1960).
104. DANGDINHAN, Elastic waves by a force moving along a crack, J . Math. and
Phys. 38, 246-256 (1960).
105. BAKER,B. R., Dynamic stresses created by a moving crack, Paper presented at
the X t h Intern. Congr. A p p l . Mech., Stresa (1960).
106. RADOK,J. R. M., On the solutions of problems of dynamic plane elasticity,
Quart. A p p l . Math. 14, 289-298 (1956).
107. BROBERG, K. B., The propagation of a brittle crack, Paper presented at the X t h
Intern. Congr. A p p l . Mech., Stresa (1960).
108. BROBERG, K. B., The propagation of a brittle crack, Arkiu for Fysik 18. 159-129
(1960).
109. BILBY,B. A,, and BULLOUGH, R., The formation of twins by a moving crack,
Phil. Mag., V I I ser. 45, 631-646 (1954).
110. MCCLINTOCK, F. A., and SUKHATME, S. P., Travelling cracks in elastic materials
under longitudinal shear, J . Mech. Phys. Solids 8, 187-193 (1960).
111. SUITS,J. C., Cleavage. ductility and tenacity in crystals. Discussion, i n Fracture
(B. L. Anderson, and 0th.. eds.), pp. 223-224. Wiley, New York, 1959.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Plasticity Under Non-Homogeneous Conditions
Page
.
I Physical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1. Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2 . Plastic Non-homogeneity of Real Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3. Definition and Classification of Non-homogeneous Elastic-plastic Bodies . 148
I1. Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1. Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2 . Basic Assumptions and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3. The Possibilities of Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4. Equations of Equilibrium of a Non-homogeneous Body in Curvilinear
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5 . The Geometry of Slip Lines and Trajectories of Principal Stresses . . . 160
.
6 Biharmonic States of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7. Analytical Solutions in Particular Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8. Approximate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
.
9 Inverse and Semi-inverse Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
I11. Particular Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
1. General Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 183
2 . Axially Symmetric Problems . . . . . . . . ............ 185
3. Spherically Symmetric Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4. Torsion of Prismatic Bars . . . . . . . . . ............ 189
.
5 Rotating Circular Disc . . . . . . . . . . ............ 190
..
1 Physically Non-Linear Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Loose and Cohesive Granular Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
203
131
132 W. OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
I. PHYSICAL
FOUNDATIONS
1. Introductory Remarks
* A method was also indicated for a practical realization of this theoretical assump-
tion [73 f], [73 h]. [73 i], [73 j].
Analogous problems under more general assumptions have been treated recently
(see Chap. I11 of this survey). The following general remark m a y be of interest here.
The plastic non-homogeneity can result in effects which, if compared t o those involved
in plastic homogeneity, may exhibit essential quantitative and even qualitative dif-
ferences. Many such results were obtained in the course of the investigations presented
in t h e papers which are quoted in this survey.
134 W . OLSZAK; J . RYCHLEWSKI A N D W . URBANOWSKI
* Many valuable informations are to be found in [I1 I]. This book, however, appeared
only when this survey article was already in print and, therefore, could not be reviewed
here.
136 W. OLSZAK, J , RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
I I I I I
2 3 4
10 qaneutron/cm - 5 6 7
FIG.1. Influence of neutron flux on the shear yield limit for monocrystals of copper, [46].
100000
C
J
c
0
0
60000 I
I
0
t
'I
Y
4
60000
F
&
*
2 40000
20000
2
I
r
a large increase, and subsequently a kind of saturation.
425000
100000 I I
0 2 4 6
Megrated Neutron Flux (nvt; > I MeV)-
FIG.3. Influence of neutron flux on the plastic properties of silicon-carbon steel, [125].
Evidently, the results for structural metals are more interesting. The
results of investigations for a few types of stainless steels, [l25],are presented
in Fig. 2. We note a 2 to 2.5-fold increase when nvt = 8.1Ox9neutron/cm2, and
the same trend of the phenomenon.
The increase of the yield limit and strength for a silicon-carbon steel
A-212B is shown in Fig. 3.
Plastics used in reactor engineering exhibit a far greater variety of
phenomena under neutron bombardment. For instance, the yield limit
for some plastics increases quite strongly, while for others it decreases or
remains unaltered.
138 W. OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W . URBANOWSKI
0 20 30 40
True stmin ,% ---+
FIG.4. Change of the stress-strain graph for nickel due to radiation in a reactor (A -
ordinary sample, B - radiated sample, N loaon/cm2, > 1 MeV, T m SO'C), [7], [21].
c O 14 H
T
I-
1ooooo
80000
t 6oom
G
@"
- 40000 - looooo~-+
20000
0 4 8
Total Elongation, per cent - ,I2
E
FIG.5 . Change of the tension graph for stainless austenite steel due to neutron bom-
bardement. [125].
I t is known that the basis of the neutron transport theory is the Boltzmann
equation. The relevant theory includes effective integration methods for
this equation and various approximate procedures. In our case the essential
point is to assume a sufficiently exact and sufficiently effective approxima-
This assumption is not very accurate; we shall, however, make i t for the time being.
140 W . OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W . URBANOWSKI
(1.3) K =K .
[p(r) t ] ,
For many, perhaps even for most of the cases, the diffusion approximation
is entirely satisfactory. Making the same assumptions as before, and,
moreover, assuming that the sources do not significantly depend on position,
we have instead of the integral equation the partial differential equation
(1.4)
(1.5)
The fact that the energies of neutron flows we are interested in are of the
order of 1-2 MeV calls for the expressions (1.2) + (1.5) to be handled
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 141
with some care. The numerical data should be taken from investigations
concerning fast-neutron reactors.
The foregoing considerations will now be illustrated by an elementary
example, which, however, is of considerable importance. Suppose that
the semi-space x 3 0 is subject to a parallel neutron flow the intensity of
which is independent of time. We assume that no generation of neutrons
occurs in the body (absence of nuclear reactions). Making use of the theory
of diffusion we have
whence
FIG.6. Influence of temperature on the strength for some of the most frequently used
structural steels, [128].
tC - 10
FIG.7. Influence of temperature on the yield limit and strength for steel O H N l M , [44 b].
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 143
on the temperature is shown in Fig. 7, 144 b]. Similar graphs for an aluminum-
alloy-clad sheet 2024- T3 is presented in Fig. 8, [as]. In the case of uranium,
a decrease of the yield limit was observed, from upr= 25.10-s psi a t room
temperature, to upz= 18.10-3 psi for 600" F, and a decrease of strength
from uWrt = 90.10-3 psi at room temperature to uult= 32.10 psi for 600" F,
[25 b]. The same results for Thorium are the following: upzfrom 27 to 12,
uultfrom 38 to 22. The tensile strength in terms of temperature for materials
extensively applied in reactor structures is given in Fig. 9, [lo].
Tot-
FIG.8. Influence of temperature on the strength, yield limit and extension for aluminum-
alloy-clad sheet, [28].
1
Temperature OC-
FIG.9. Influence of temperature on the tension strength for reactor structural
materials, [lo].
to the data presented by G. V. Uzhik for the steel 1010 the yield limit
increased from 2300 kg/cm2 at the temperature 17" C to 7200 kg/cm2 at
- 1'37" C ; this was accompanied by an increase of the tensile strength
from 3700 kg/cm2 to 7300 kg/cm2.
The influence of temperature on the mechanical properties of other
structural materials may be different for various groups of materials. For
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 145
aT
A P T - CP-
at
+ W = 0,
where A is the heat conduction coefficient, c the specific heat, p the density,
and W = W ( P ) the intensity of heat sources per unit time and volume,
the mechanical non-homogeneity is obtained in the form
(1.10) K =K[T(P,I)].
Observe that in some cases it is also necessary to take into account the
thermal non-homogeneity, [116] (for instance the dependence of A on P as
the result of the action of variable T ) .
I t should be noted that the influence of temperature can result in
mechanical non-homogeneity of two kinds, namely: a) that existing while
the temperature is variable; b) that arising after the temperature field has
become homogeneous, due to temperature peaks which led to structural
changes.
Still a different topic is formed by problems in which high time tem-
perature gradients occur (thermal shocks, etc.).
characterizing the degree of utilization of the strength, both the ultimate one
and that related to the reduced stress distribution.
All these facts which prove that the non-homogeneity of mechanical
properties of a material can have a strictly determined (and regular) nature,
call for an investigation of its influence on the states of stress and strain
of the systems under consideration.
We note that as a consequence of the above considered processes there
may, in the bodies considered, arise stresses which essentially influence their
subsequent response to loadings. The problems related to this phenomenon
are outside the scope of this survey and will not be discussed here.
The relations between the strain and stress tensors and their time
derivatives are expressed by the so-called constitutive equations, the
mathematical formulations of which contain also certain quantities (moduli)
that characterize the mechanical properties of the material independently
of the states of strain and stress.
The material characteristics describing the behaviour of the body in the
elastic range will be called its elastic moduli, the set of which will symbolically
be denoted by Me'.
It is known that the elastic moduli MeJcan be regarded as components
of a certain tensor (tensor of elastic moduli). Such an approach has many
merits, such as the possibility of expressing the constitutive equations in
a form invariant with respect to coordinate transformations.
Thus, in an elastically homogeneous body the invariants of the tensor
of the elastic moduli are independent of the position P ( x j ) . Such bodies
are described by the set of moduli Md'. Now, non-homogeneous elastic
bodies are characterized by a tensor field of moduli, the invariants of which
depend on position; the corresponding set of moduli will be denoted by
Mpel (see [73 k], [73 11, [71], [82 h] and [82 i].
If elastic-plastic bodies are investigated the problem requires introduction
of suitable additional concepts.
The phenomena occurring in the material when the yield limit is reached
will be described by means of certain quantities which, by analogy, will
be called the plastic moduli of the material and will symbolically be denoted
by Me'.
Let the generalized concept of plastically non-homogeneous bodies be
related to bodies the yield condition of which has the form
(1.11) F(Ji;MpP') = 0,
where 1,denote the invariants (i = 1, 2, 3) of the stress (or strain) tensor
and MpPrthe set of the plastic moduli; in view of the assumed non-homogene-
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 149
e.g. [72], [73 k], [73 I], [82 h], [82 i]) cozqbled in a certain manner; this can
symbolically be expressed by the relation
* The actual nature of the coupling evidently depends on the nature of the causes
that lead to non-homogeneity of the properties. If a cause of measure A leads to a
change of the elastic and plastic properties
MpI = ,)@?I Me = $ ( A )
and, say, the functions q and $- are single-valued, we have a one-to-one coupling
Since, on the one hand, there is a great number of various bodies and of causes of
non-homogeneity, and, on the other hand, these phenomena are very little investigated,
it is difficult to state more definite views on this topic.
f The condition of continuity (and also of differentiability of the functions M p etc.)
will be used in subsequent considerations; they are specified in greater detail in the
papers referred to.
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 151
11. PLANESTRAIN
1. Introductory Remarks
The tensor field of strain rates dij = dii(x,y) satisfies the relations
(2.5) +
ixx iyy
= 0.
The stress tensors and strain-rate tensors are related by the condition
2i.q -
- 2 u ~ =~ctg 28,
(2.7)
8yy - 8xx uyy - uxx
(2.10)
holds (i.e. the slip lines coincide), then the same velocity field will be obtained
in both bodies, i.e. v(') = v ( ~ ) .
154 W . OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI A N D W . URBANOWSKI
(2.14)
is capable of reducing this system to a linear one. The proof has been given
by A. I. Kuznetzov (see also Sec. 4). Let us write the characteristic system
corresponding to (2.13):
+
du - 2KdO - K,%dy K,,dx = 0, on the slip line
(2.15) of the first family
dy = tgOdx;
developed for the homogeneous case cannot be applied to the case of the
Eqs. (2.13). Thus, for instance, the Kotter-Hencky relations are no longer
valid, no solution in the form of simple waves can be obtained etc. The
question arises, what are the prospects and actual possibilities of solving
problems of non-homogeneous bodies.
Inverse and semi-inverse methods. I t seems that one of the typical features
of non-homogeneous problems is at present the preponderance of inverse
and semi-inverse methods, which offer remarkable possibilities of obtaining
closed-form solutions in a relatively simple manner. These methods are
important, first, because they enable us to examine the qualitative influence
of plastic non-homogeneity ; second, because they may constitute a measure
of efficacy of the approximate methods; and, third, because in view of the
hyperbolic character of the system of equations they can represent parts
of the solution in more complex cases.
In Secs. 6 and 7 the results hitherto obtained by means of approximate
and inverse methods will be discussed in greater detail.
Preparatory to this section and the next, let us briefly recall the most
important facts of the geometry of nets. Consider a curvilinear orthogonal
net, related to a fixed Cartesian reference frame by
(2.19) H --
dsa
' - da
2
=( x , ~ + Y , ~ ) " ~ , Hp =-las,
2
dP
= (x,p + y;p)l/'
2
(2.20) + &),p = 0.
They determine the net within the indeterminacy of displacements and reflec-
tions. These quantities have no direct geometrical sense, because they depend
on the way in which the parameters of the net are chosen. For
we have
(2.23) Ha = Hp =H .
The necessary and sufficient condition for the net described by Ha,Hp
to be isothermal is
(2.24)
Ha = A (a) * B(P).
-
HP
The geometric quantities are determined by Ha,Hp in the following
way: for the angle of inclination rp of the vector tangent of an a-line with
respect to the x-axis we have
(2.25)
158 W. OLSZAX, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
These quantities are positive for the configuration illustrated by Fig. 10.
It can easily be seen that
L ;ar,P arbitrary (that is, not related to any physical phenomena) fixed
orthogonal curvilinear coordinates;
- K,a sin 24 + -
Ha K,p cos 2 4 = 0,
HP
(2.31)
+-
HP K , cos 2 4 +
Ha
K,p sin 2 4 = 0.
(2.35) 8,crl =0
together with (2.27) determines geometric properties of the slip lines known
as the first and the second Hencky theorem.
160 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI A N D W. URBANOWSKI
I t is seen from (2.33) that none of the above facts take place in the case
of a plastically non-homogeneous body. Moreover, in the general case of
K # const, no relations exist that constitute a generalization of (2.34).
Certain integral relations along the slip lines could only be obtained by
postulating additional relations. If there exists a function F such that
then
This can happen only in very special cases of the form of the slip lines
and of K(c,q). Treating the relations (2.36) as partial differential equations
for K , we can write the conditions, which determine admissible classes of
slip lines. I t is found, for instance, that by requiring K to be determined
up to a constant, we obtain among other relations [In (Hc/Hq)],cq = 0,
which, in view of (2.24),is equivalent with the isothermal property of the net.
I t is known that not every orthogonal curvilinear net can play the role
of slip lines in a homogeneous body. Only Hencky-Prandtl nets satisfying
the familiar Hencky theorems expressed by (2.35) and (2.27) are admissible.
In a non-homogeneous body this problem becomes more complex.
Let us write the compatibility condition of the system (2.31) with respect
to u. On differentiating and subtracting we obtain
(2.38) ~
HP
2HU
+
cos 214 *K,uu sin 294 S K , ~-P
Ha
2HP
cos 214 * K J ~
~ +
+ [ A , cos 214 + A , sin 2 # ] K , , + [B, cos 214 + B, sin 21,hlK,~+
+ [(C, + C,) cos 2# + (C, + C,) sin 2I41K = 0
where
The form of (2.38) is most interesting when expressed directly in the net
of trajectories of principal stresses or the net of slip lines. If $ ~ n n / 4the
,
system L coincides with P, and we have
(2.41) + 2 K [(G)
-
HC .c
(%),?I =O.
Eqs. (2.40), (2.41) relate the plastic non-homogeneity function K with the
geometry of the net of trajectories of principal stresses and of slip lines
expressed by means of Lam6 coefficients and subject to the restrictions
(2.20).
162 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI A N D W. URBANOWSKI
(2.42) [In(H,Ha)I,,d = 0,
whereas those admissible as slip lines must satisfy
(2.43)
Upon confronting the latter result with (2.25), it is seen that this is
equivalent to the Hencky theorems, as could be expected. Therefore, the
latter constitute a particular case of the geometric condition of plasticity
for K = const.
If K # const, the direct geometric sense of the relevant restrictions is
difficult to grasp (i.e. to express in terms of net geometry) even in the simplest
cases.
Another approach to the geometric condition of plasticity is also possible.
Taking for instance (2.40),we can, for a given class of nets or a given net
y,6, seek the class of non-homogeneity for which they are admissible. Thus,
for instance, for nets or trajectories of principal stresses subject to (2.42)
we have
(2.44)
* In this section, not all the conditions for which the relations in question take
place are considered (boundary-value problems are not discussed).
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 163
(2.47)
Let us consider a class of nets with the property that one of the families,
the a-lines for instance, is composed of straight lines. In view of x, = 0
from (2.26), we have Ha = A ( a ) . The parameters can be chosen so that
+
Ha = 1. Then, HB = BI(P)a B,(P) from (2.20). For the Lam6 parameters
we obtain
(2.48) Hy = 1, Hd = y + D(a),
and by virtue of (2.26) we have
(2.49) Ra = Ha = f D(S), D(S) = R d l y = 0.
The geometric condition of plastic state takes the form
(2.50)
Hence
(2.51)
We observe that in the class of nets for K = const only the polar net
may constitute a set of trajectories of principal stresses.
164 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI A N D W. URBANOWSKI
involves
(2.57)
and vice-versa.
The geometrical sense of (2.56) is evident. From (2.26) we have
(2.58) K =H - l W + g(41
and vice-versa. Thus, for instance, for a bipolar net we have
, p - l n - =r y y , p+ln-=
rd
(2.60)
a a
we have
(2.61)
B. Slip lines. No detailed analysis can be given here (cf. [80 a]), since this
is a considerably more difficult problem than the foregoing case. The
investigation of the existing possibilities is more essential, because the slip
lines are the characteristics for the equations (2.13).
Let us observe incidentally that the possibility of a generalization of
the Kotter-Hencky equations considered in Sec. 3 exists only if
zK,tt + K , c Hc
[ p .t) + 2%]
Hc + ZK(%)
Ht , t =0,
(2.63)
Ht
- K,qq
Hll
+ K,q[(") + 2
Hll
21+ 2K @)
,rl
= 0,
Such states are, of course, not typical for problems of plasticity and
must be of exceptional character (particularly so in the homogeneous case).
However, the analysis of such states is useful from many points of view.
Let us recall, for instance, that one of the most elegant solutions of the
classical theory - that obtained by L. A. Galin - is connected with such
a state.
Biharmonic states of plastic equilibrium have interesting geometric
features of the trajectories of principal stresses and of slip lines. To see this,
let us write the biharmonic condition in the system L :
(2.66)
(2.67)
~ 2 ~ ,e,%
K,,- , +
2 ~ ,qY
, +
K ( - 4 0 , qY
~ + qYy- e , % ~ 0,
=
+
K , , ~- K , ~ , 4~,,e,, + 4 ~ , , e , , + 4~[e,,, + (e,,)~- (e,,)zi = 0.
For the trajectories of principal stresses and for the slip lines (and also for
any other net maintaining a constant angle with the principal direction)
we obtain
(2.68)
FIG. 11. Compression of a non-homogeneous plastic layer between two rough rigid
plates.
li'
(2.78) c = - V K 2 ( y )- ( a y + b ) 2 d y .
h
-h
we obtain
vy = Y
u--,
h
(2.80) V
the stress distribution around a hole has been discussed in detail in [82 a, b]
(cf. Chap. 111) and generalized by A. I. Kuznetzov to the case when ur, # 0.
b) Assuming that
(2.83) K = K(p),
the plastic equilibrium of a wedge (Fig.12) has been studied by A. Sawczuk
and A. Stepieri, [lo5 d], [llO]. This is a one-dimensional problem. In the
components of the stress deviator
(2.84) Str = ~r - S, spq UP, - S, srq = ~ r q , +
s = &(urt a),
Bearing in mind that s,,: :,s, s,, = 1: - 1: 0, one obtains the yield condition
(2.86) 2
s, + 2
Srp =q p).
The boundary conditions are seen from Fig. 12.
Substituting sp, of (2.85) into (2.86), we obtain the non-linear ordinary
partial differential equation
(2.87) Srp.,, = f [K2(p)- s&]'/2.
The types of solution and the possibility of the appearance of discontinuities
were discussed.
The determination of strain rates was reduced to the integration UP the
equation
(2.88)
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 171
(2.89) m = 2 ( K , - K0)a-l
a
K=m(a-p)+Ko, -<p<a
2
the solution of (2.87) was found in the form of a power series:
srp=-Ko(2p+ -m
KO
p2-- 4
3 p
3
+
...)
(2.90)
[
sip = - KO 2(a - p) +-m
KO
(a -
4
p)2 - - ( a - p ) 3 + * * -
(2.91) + + 4; = 2 ~ p q ,
urr
K = K , eZnlpll
where K , and a stand for constants. I t may be noted that in both cases the non-
homogeneity is symmetrical with respect t o the axis of the wedge, which facilitates the
solution.
172 W. OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W . URBANOWSKI
(2.94)
K=K(cQ)+dK -
(:T
The admissibility of this non-homogeneity type may be verified in the
light of the general considerations of Sec. 5 (cf. [80a]).
-n
FIG.13. Limit loading for wedge whose yield limit is a linear symmetric function of
angle, [lo5 d].
(2.95) c1,2 = 4 1 i P )
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 173
where
(2.96) c = a e x p p+Q
__- 1 +--
-- P ----, p=--.Q - - P
(4K(m) 2 2K(m) 2 KA( m
K )) 2K(m)
where
(2.98) z=x+iy
r
u,,=-f~+2K(m)ln-+fK
a
8 . Approximate Solzltions
0 0
(2.105)
+ +
w , , ~ cos 2p0 p,,% sin 231, * pz,y= Fl,(pl,,w,. ,po~mo),
9 ..
+ sin 2p0 p,,, - cos 29,
* * . . ,po,o~o),
pt,y= F Z , ( ~ , , W ,.
where Flr,F2$are linear functions of p),,w,.
f
X
FIG.15. Approximate characteristic net for E > 0 and the velocity distribution on the
free boundary.
_ _ - _ classical problem, ___ non-homogeneous problem
( E = 0.5. h = 10)
(2.106) y = 2 Y,(X)&i.
0
results of Ref. [20]. For the normal pressure under the punch (with E = 0.5,
h = lo), the maximum correction of the first approximation in relation to
the zero order approximation is S.9%, that of the second 4.9%.
In a paper devoted to the problem of a punch pressed into a narrow
strip on a rigid foundation, it is shown that the equations of all approximations
may be reduced to the telegraphists equation and therefore integrated in
principle by quadratures. In view of the necessity of heavy computations,
the author stopped at the first approximation, expanding the Bessel functions
-% HA I 2
under the integrals in power series. The computations for given values of
the parameters were performed by means of the digital computer Strela
in the numerical computation centre at Moscow University.
The perturbation method could probably be applied to solve some
problems. However, the work required in comparison to the simpler
numerical method of characteristics may prove so large that it will no
longer be justifiable by the desire to obtain a solution in analytic form.*
B. A certain linearization of the problem of weak non-homogeneity has
been proposed by A. I. Kuznetzov, [55 a, b]. His idea consists in superposing
on the tensor field oiii(o), constituting the solution of the classical problem,
a small correction in form of a tensor field aii(l), having the character of a
* In the paper [ZOe], the same author gave the solution for the punch indentation
problem with a n exponential type of non-homogeneity (numerical solution by the
method of characteristics).
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 177
The survey by P. F. NemCnyi [67] was devoted to the results and prospects
of the development of inverse and semi-inverse methods in continuum
mechanics. For plastically non-homogeneous bodies these problems will
be treated in detail in [lo3 b]. We shall confine ourselves here to a few
remarks and examples.
First let us formulate a remark which seems to be almost trivial. Consider
a body with boundary conditions expressed in stresses. Any statically
admissible field aii(0)(i.e. a field satisfying the equations of equilibrium and
the boundary conditions) may serve as a statical solution for a certain type
of plastic non-homogeneity. I t suffices to find the corresponding K from
(2.3). Such a field aii(0)may, for instance, be taken over unchanged from
any branch of continuum mechanics.
Observe that a similar approach to problems of plane stress and plane
strain of elastically non-homogeneous bodies is much less trivial, [SO c] ;
Rather than to a definite non-homogeneity type, every field aii(o) corresponds
to a vast class of these types.
For a plastically non-homogeneous body, the solution of classical theory
of elasticity may, for instance, be taken for ajj(0).From the viewpoint of the
theory of plasticity, in this way only a very narrow class of solutions may
be obtained, namely biharmonic solutions.
There are still various approaches possible ; for instance Airys stress
function Q may be used. Take SZ as a function satisfying at the edge ([69]
for instance) the equation
f S S
J
(2.107) Q = - x pz(s)ds
0
+Y S
0
py(s)ds + J
0
( p y ( s ) ~-
( ~P) z ( s ) ~ ( s ) ) d s .
can be found in addition to the very special and less interesting ones (for
instance, for K = 0, the incompressible liquid, in regions of hydrostatic
states).
The complete statical problem is formulated by giving a) external loads,
b) geometric and mechanical properties of the body, c) the stress field. All
these quantities may be prescribed with various degrees of definiteness.
Thus, for instance, the geometric form may be left indeterminate to the
extent of a continuous transformation, the load may be taken from a certain
class, the stress field may be determined by prescribing some of its components
or, for instance, the trajectories of principal stresses etc. This variety of
possibilities is typical for the general structure of the inverse and semi-
inverse methods.
We shall not endeavour to give a general definition of the inverse or semi-
inverse methods (cf. the remarks on this subject in [67]). For the problems,
in which we are interested, the method must include at least the following
two features: a) K is not given or is given only with a certain indeterminacy;
b) certain properties of the field are assumed a priori.
If the form of the trajectories of the principal stresses is assumed before-
hand, then 0 = 0 ( x , y ) is known in Eqs. (2.13). The system of equations for
u and K thus obtained is hyperbolic, and its characteristics coincide with
the trajectories of principal stresses as can easily be seen.* I t is convenient
to take the equations directly in this form, that is (2.32). The boundary
conditions cannot be arbitrary here.
A. An illustration of the efficacy of the simple approach discussed above
is furnished by the results for a wedge, [105d], Fig. 12.
Taking the elastic solution, we obtain the uninteresting result
(2.109)
a
s=-~(;z+2z)d~+s(0),
0
with the function z satisfying the boundary conditions of Fig. 12, we have
(2.111)
I - 2K,v,
we have
(2.112)
FIG. 17. Eccentric cylinder subject to interior pressure and a force in the slit.
where
C e
(2.114) p=- (O<p<l), q=T (O<q<l-p).
a
It is assumed that the ring is made of a perfectly plastic material, showing
non-homogeneity of certain definite types, and that it is under conditions
180 W . OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI A N D W. URBANOWSKI
(2.115)
maps the eccentric ring in the original system of polar coordinates O(R,@)
onto the concentric ring in the inverted system I(r,p),where the minus sign
corresponds to the internal inversion and the plus sign to the external
inversion.
The corresponding relations between the stress field in the 0-system
and the I-system [if the existence of the biharmonic stress function w ( Y , Q ) )
is assumed] take the form
(2.116)
ZRT =
1
C2
+
- - tr;(r2 h2 2hr COST),
and takes in the inverted system I a form depending on the radial coordinates
rli and r, (for the internal inversion) and rIe and re (for the external
inversion) :
which is bihannonic in ri and re, we are able to satisfy the yield condition
(2.117) for a general plastic non-homogeneity type described by (2.119).
The stress components will be obtained, according to (2.116), in the
form
+ D,(2hi2 In Y, + +
- ri2 + hi2) E0(2S2In re - re2 he2),
(2 * 122)
- -
where the functions A,,~,,8,,. . .,Go, and also the pressure difference
n(t) = p ( t ) - q(t), under which the ring is in equilibrium, are determined
from the boundary conditions. Also the force S(t) in the slit is determined
together with its moment about the inversion pole.
182 W . OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
FIG.18. Klk plotted against the ratio Rld for different values of the parameter 77.
111. PARTICULAR
SOLUTIONS
1. General Method
where a;,&;are the stress and strain intensities, respectively, p is the neutron
flux, Go a certain value of the modulus G in the body e.g. the maximum
184 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
value, and K the bulk modulus. The meaning of the function R is similar
to that in the case of homogeneity. If the curve OA'B' in Fig. 19 corresponds
to the point where G is a maximum, then
AA'
a=-.
(3.4) CA'
ConsideringR (which makes the problem non-linear) as a small parameter,
we shall generalize the method of elastic solutions in the following way.
Substituting in the equilibrium equations omnof (3.1) and bearing in mind
that
Q b r Q b
-
r Q
--L
r
FIG.20. Various cases of propagation of the plastic region in a non-homogeneous thick-
walled cylinder.
and the yield limit for shear, K , are functions of the radius only, G = G(r),
K = K ( r ) . Further assumptions are: incompressibility of the material in
the elastic and plastic ranges, plane strain with respect to the axis of
the cylinder, and an ideally plastic material.
I t was found that the necessary condition for the plastic region to start
from the interior surface of the cylinder and to expand towards its exterior
surface [case (l), Fig. 201 is that the function
186 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
(3.9)
(3.10) p K(4
-2 -
- G(a) a,[g(u) - g(b)], g(r) = - {Far.
whereas the second critical pressure p, is given by
If p , < p < p,, the radius n(a < n < b) of the interface separating the
two regions (elastic and plastic) may be calculated as the root of the transcend-
ental equation
(3.13)
(3.14)
where
(3.15)
The state of stress in the plastic (inner) region is determined by the expressions
a, = h(r) - k(a) - p ,
(3.16) at = h(r) - h(a) + 2K(r) - 9,
a, = h(r) - h(a) + K ( r ) - p .
(3.17)
where 9 stands for the rate of internal pressure, U for the boundary velocity,
Yo and Yo for the yield stress and the slope of the stress-strain curve a t
the yield point, respectively. It follows that the quasi-static motion can
only be maintained by decreasing the pressure, if the non-dimensional rate
of hardening Yo/Yois smaller than v%
Experimental investigations of thick-walled cylinders under internal
pressure have been carried out by M. C. Steel and J. Young [118] and M. C.
Steel and L. C. Eichberger [119]. The results show the appearance of an
irregular strain distribution over the cross-section, although its structure
was initially carefully prepared to be uniform. This phenomenon may be
explained as the effect of small non-homogeneities of another type than
the axially symmetrical distribution.
that the yield limits in the radial and the axial directions are the same
and constant, that is Qr = Q, = Qo = const. Similarly it is assumed that
the yield limit in shear Qrt in the plane normal to the axis of the cylinder
is constant, whereas the variable plastic properties are assumed to depend
on the variable yield limit in the circumferential direction Qt = Qt(r). Such
assumptions provide a fair approximation to the properties of thick-walled
reinforced concrete pipes with circumferential reinforcement.
The state of stress in the plastic region under the condition of plane
strain (E, = 0) is determined by the expressions
(3.18)
where
where T,, >, T,, 2 T33 are the principal stresses referred to the strained
frame of reference. Assuming a linear stress-strain law for large deformations
and rotations he found the yield stress for tension and compression.
D. The Boussinesq problem for the semi-infinite space. The problem of
a non-homogeneous linear foundation subsoil was treated by I. BabuSka,
PI.
The problem of the elastic semi-space loaded by a concentrated force
has been treated by K. Hruban, [38 a] and [38 b]. The physical relatibn
between the stress intensity oi and the strain intensity E~ is assumed in the
parabolic form E~ = (ui/K), K and n denoting constants. Also Poissons
ratio is assumed to be constant. The results for various n are collected in
a table [38 a]. Under the provision of an active straining process these
solutions hold also for a non-homogeneous elastic-plastic body (on the basis
of Henckys deformation theory).
PLASTICITY U N D E R NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 189
* The slip line passing through the points M , and M , is a n extremum line of the
integral
190 W. OLSZAK, J . RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
The problem of determining the angular velocity o,for which the disc
becomes entirely plastic, was studied by M. Zyczkowski, [129 a], [129 b].
The assumptions are as follows: the material of the disc is perfectly
plastic; the yield limit Q is a function of the radius only, Q = Q(r),similarly
the specific gravity y = y ( r ) . In addition, it is assumed that the disc is
fully connected (without hole) Although the author has indicated how
the problem may be solved in the case of variable thickness, the results
are only given, in principle, for a disc of constant thickness.
Assuming that the values of the functions Q(r) and y ( r ) do not deviate
considerably from their mean values and introducing the yield condition
of maximum shear stress, the author obtained
1
(3.20)
V. LIMITANALYSIS
AND LIMITDESIGN
resultant space. However, the most important thing in this case is the
influence on the shape of the yield locus.
If the yield point uo* is a continuous function of the bar thickness
+
[ao* = ao(l f ) , say, with f ( z ) # 01, then the limit state of the rectangular
cross section is defined in pure bending by the following relations
(54
F = M = Mo*, Mo* = uob
j+
-H
[l f(z)]zd~,
where h stands for the width of the bar, and 2H for its depth. This type
of transverse non-homogeneity was applied to simple cases of beams by
a) I
n
FIG.21. Bending of a rectangular cross section with a piece-wise linear non-homogeneity
distribution.
has been obtained in Ref. [35b]. The material is supposed to obey the
Coulomb-Tresca yield condition. In Fig. 21 n and m stand for the properly
defined dimensionless axial force n and bending moment m. The concept
of step-wise transverse non-homogeneity is therefore useful in the linearization
of limit analysis problems. The influence of non-homogeneity on the shape
of the yield locus is evident.
The behaviour of structures made of imperfectly plastic material was
studied by J. Heyman, [33 d].
FIG. 22. Interaction surface for simultaneous bending, compression and shear of a
step-wise transversally non-homogeneous element.
2. Plates
dN
(5.3) N>rT,, -<
dr
T,.
(5.4) O<p<a
(5.5)
or the corresponding yield limit, or also the distribution of the steel reinforce-
ment in the plate, because then M , = M , = N ( r ) . For some types of load
distribution on circular isotropic plates whose non-homogeneity is determined
from the postulate of equal circumferential and radial moments,
-I+
I P
O<p<r
(5.6) W )= If(f)Pdf.
0 0 O<r<R
examples of non-homogeneity functions are shown in Fig. 24.
FIG. 24. Non-homogeneity functions for plates for different load distributions.
A number of other particular cases have been considered as, for instance,
that of plates with linearly variable mechanical properties (A. Sawczuk,
[lo5 a ] ) ; here, the influence of this type of non-homogeneity on the
kinematics (system of facture lines) was examined. D. Niepostyn, [68],
studied the problem of the load-carrying capacity of non-homogeneous
plates of various types, based on the theory of fracture lines (kinematical
approach) as proposed by K. W. Johansen, [47].
Problems of optimum design of orthotropic plates lead to prescribed
non-homogeneity functions. This question was analyzed, among others,
by 2. Mrbz, [64 a ] ; the optimum distribution of reinforcement has been
found for circular reinforced-concrete plates.
The limit analysis of ribbed-plate structures was taken up. These may
be treated as structures with jump-like variability of non-homogeneity
(cf. A. Sawczuk and M. Kwiecifiski, [l08]); solutions were obtained by
means of both the kinematical and the statical approach.
Some other problems of the same kind have been treated for various
support conditions (cf A. Sawczuk, [lo5 a]) as, for instance, for simply
supported rectangular plates with one additional support within the plate ;
two-span plates; transversely ribbed plate strips; etc.
In Ref. [lo5 b], A. Sawczuk is concerned with the problem of limit
analysis and limit design of flat slabs, taking into consideration the conditions
of both the idealized point support and the actual support (the reaction
being distributed over a finite area). The existence of voutes adjacent
to the supporting columns is also taken into account. For various geometrical
parameters characterizing prismatic and conical voutes, formulae together
with corresponding diagrams and tables are given.
3. Shells
where y1,yZ are the radii of the principal curvatures, and 121 is the load
component normal to the middle surface of the shell. The component Z ( v )
is related to the component Y ( v )tangent to the meridian, by means of the
equation
FIG.25. Variable thickness of a membrane shell passing to the plastic state over its
entire volume.
(5.10)
where mo stand for the dimensionless moment at the tank bottom and
c2 = 2L2/HR refers to the tank dimensions. Because of the influence of
non-homogeneity on the mode of collapse, the kinematical method of solution
of limit analysis problems has to be applied very carefully.
FIG.26. Stresses and displacement rates in a cylinder tank with axial non-homogeneity.
The work of Kh. A. Rakhmatulin was continued for other physical relations
in the papers of S. D. Mokhalov, [63 a], [63 b].
The paper by S. Kaliski and J. Osiecki, [48], is devoted to the investiga-
tion of the propagation of stress waves in soils. By examining the behaviour
of the soil many authors observed that the unloading characteristic depends
in a definite manner on the maximum stress that is followed by the unloading
process. Assuming that the unloading is elastic, one should also assume
that Young's modulus of the unloading characteristic is a function of the
load ao(x) in the unloading wave. The stress-strain relation in the unloading
zone has then the form
where eO(x) is the strain in the unloading wave. For such a relation, the
solution for the unloading region can be obtained by iteration in an inverse
way by assuming beforehand the form of the unloading wave. The problem
is reduced to the search for the Riemann function and the solution of a
Cauchy problem. I t has been pointed out in Ref. [48]that in many practically
important cases, for which the Riemann function can be obtained in an
accurate manner, the solution of the problem under consideration can be
obtained in closed form. P. Perzyna in Refs. [91 a] and [91 b] investigated
the solutions in loading regions in the general case of non-homogeneity.
In Ref. [91 a] it is shown that in the case of curvilinear physical a,&-relations
the solution may be obtained by the method of characteristics. The case
of linear strain-hardening has been considered in greater detail for the physical
relations
where a(%)and P ( x ) denote the variable elastic and plastic modulus, respec-
tively, and E,(x) is the variable strain at the elastic limit. In the case of
sudden loading with a load increasing in time, two strong discontinuity
waves propagate in the body, representing the front of the elastic wave and
the front of the plastic wave, bounding two regions: the elastic region and
the plastic region. By satisfying the kinematic and dynamic conditions
and by making use of the relations along the characteristics, the solution
for the discontinuity waves has been obtained.
Ref. [91 b] is devoted to the determination of the solutions by iteration
in the loading regions, elastic and plastic. In these regions the problem is
reduced to the solution of two generalized Picard problems.
In the general case of non-homogeneity, paper [32] by R. Gutowski,
S. Kaliski and J. Osiecki is concerned with the analysis of the solutions
in the unloading regions. The physical relations are assumed in the form
PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 203
The solutions are obtained by iteration in the inverse way, the form of
the unloading curve being assumed beforehand.
Certain general solutions concerning the problem of propagation of
elastic-plastic waves in non-homogeneous slender rods are given in Ref.
[14 a], and some generalizations to the case of finite strain are given in
Ref. [91 c].
The paper by J. Osiecki, [88 a], is devoted to a broad tentative application
of the results of theoretical investigations to the determination of the state
of stress in a soil in the case of dynamic load on the surface of the soil. The
second part, [88 b], brings a solution of the problem of reflection from a
rigid and a deformable wall under various physical relations and general
non-homogeneity of the soil. These results make it possible to apply the
theory to the computation of the deflection of a plane floor of an underground
structure.
The propagation of longitudinal stress waves in visco-elastic bars was
studied by V. N. Kukudyanov and L. V. Nikitin, [54]. The assumed stress-
strain relation takes the influence of the strain rate into consideration, the
yield point being assumed to be variable along the bar. With arbitrary
time-variable stress or velocity being prescribed a t the end of a semi-infinite
bar, or with the end of the bar being subjected to the impact of a body of
finite mass, the solution of the boundary-value problem is reduced to a
mixed problem for the telegraphist's equation. Only a particular type of
non-homogeneity is considered, and the influence of the strain rate is taken
into consideration by using the simplest model of a body with relaxation.
* For "active" straining processes, these equations may also serve as basic equa-
tions for non-homogeneous elastic-plastic bodies according to Hencky's "finite" ("defor-
mation") theory of plasticity.
204 W. OLSZAK, J. RYCHLEWSKI AND W. URBANOWSKI
(7.1)
f,(r) = 1 + n -a,
Y
or in the form
1
w-
FIG.27. Angle of internal friction in granular media as a function of moisture.
Ref erelzces
26. FREUDENTHAL, A. M., GEIRINGER, H., The mathematical theories of the inelastic
continuum, i n Handbuch der Physik (S. Fliigge, ed.), Bd. 6. Elastizitat und
Plastizitat, pp. 229-433. Springer, Berlin-Gottingen-Heidelberg, 1958.
27. GALIN,L. A., Plane elastic-plastic problem (in Russian), Prikl. Mat. Mekh. 3, 10,
367-386 (1946).
28. GATEWOOD, B. E., Thermal Stresses, McGraw-Hill. New York-London-Toronto,
1957.
29. GEIRINGER, H., Some recent results in the theory of an ideal plastic body, in
Advances in Applied Mechanics, 3, Academic Press, New York, 1953.
30. GLEN,J. W., A survey of radiation effects in metals, Phil. Mag., Suppl. 4, 1955.
31. GRIGORYEV, A. S., On elastic-plastic deformations and the load-carrying capacity
of rods and plates, non-homogeneous in the plastic range, i n [74], 181-190.
32. GUTOWSKI, R., KALISKI,S., OSIECKI,J . , Propagation of the unloading plane
wave in a non-homogeneous soil (in Polish), Biuletyn WAT, 2(85), 3-18 (1959).
33. HEYMAN, J., a) Plastic design of beams and frames for minimum material con-
sumption, Quart. Appl. Math. 8, p. 373 (1951); b) Plastic analysis and design
of steelframed structures, Prelim. Publ., 4th Congr. Int. Assoc. Bridge Struct.
Eng., Cambridge 1952; c) Plastic design of plane frames for minimum weight,
Struct. Eng. 31, p. 125 (1953); d) Limit design of framed structures made of
imperfectly plastic materials, in [74], 251-257.
34. HILL,R., a) The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Univ. Press, Oxford, 1950;
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PLASTICITY UNDER NON-HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 211
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Some Elementary Problems in Magneto-hydrodynamics
I. INTRODUCTION
the study of the magnetism of celestial bodies and are not associated with
any discovery, accidental or otherwise, made on the scale of a terrestrial
laboratory.?
The possession by the Sun of a general magnetic field was first inferred
in 1899 from the appearance of the corona during an eclipse. In 1908 Hale
discovered by direct measurement of the Zeeman splitting of lines in the
solar spectrum that sunspots are the seat of strong magnetic fields, of order
10-1 volt sec m-2 ( = 10-l weber m-2 = lo3 gauss), and subsequent observa-
tions, by several workers, of the general solar field show that its strength
at the surface is. about volt sec m-2, and somewhat variable during a
typical solar cycle. It is now known that a number of stars possess quite
strong surface magnetic fields (0.1 to 1 volt sec m-2), some of which vary
quite rapidly, altering considerably, and in some cases reversing in direction,
in periods as short as a few days.
Nowadays it is known that cosmical magnetic fields are not restricted
to celestial objects such as the Sun, Earth, and stars. There seems to be a
general Galactic magnetic field of about volt sec m-2. This f ield possibly
prevents the spiral arms from collapsing gravitationally and may also play a
key r6le in the processes leading to the formation of stars. Moreover, hydro-
magnetic interaction between this field and rapidly moving gas clouds in
interstellar space is the likely cause of the acceleration of cosmic rays to
stupendous energies. The importance of the r61e of hydromagnetics in
cosmical physics can be judged from the theoretical contributions stemming
directly from work on the origin of the magnetic fields of celestial objects,
heating of the solar corona, dynamics of solar rotation, theory of magnetic
storms, to name but a few astrophysical problems. Details of this work and
exact references can be found in several recent review articles [l, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 5 6 ] .
Although the early development of hydromagnetics took place as a
branch of cosmical physics, in the past fifteen years or so there have been
several investigations of laboratory systems. Thus, the fact that a pressure
head results when a current is passed through a conducting fluid immersed
in a magnetic field has been exploited, in the electro-magnetic pump, in order
to circulate liquid metals in systems, such as nuclear reactors, where the
presence of moving machinery would pose severe technical problems.
Theoretical work on hydromagnetic flow along pipes (see Ch. IX) followed
the invention of the electro-magnetic pump and so did experimental work
using liquid metals [el. For practical reasons these experiments have been
confined to low values of R, when the coupling between the motion and
field is weak. I n such circumstances the principal effect of the field is to
enhance energy dissipation, through the agency of ohmic heating associated
t One wonders how ordinary fluid dynamics would have developed had no fluid
less viscous than thick treacle, say, been available to the experimenter.
218 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
with the induced electric currents. In practice, ohmic dissipation may exceed
viscous dissipation by one or two orders of magnitude.
I t is the high density of liquid metals that limits the value of U which
safely can be attained in controlled experiments. However, by using media
of lower density, such as an ionized gas moving at much higher speeds, it
has been possible to work at higher values of R and thus secure tighter
coupling between the magnetic field and fluid motion. Under the controlled
coriditions of an ordinary shock tube [7] values of R of order unity have
been attained, and even higher values are associated with gas discharges of
very high current intensity, on which, unfortunately, it is notoriously
difficult to carry out reliable measurements.
Laboratory systems differ in an essential way from cosmical ones: fixed,
rigid conductors capable of carrying currents without moving, and/or
insulators capable of withstanding strong electrostatic potential differences
are always present in the former, but always absent in the latter. As a
consequence, there are in principle laboratory phenomena which have no
counterpart in cosmical physics. By the same token, even if an indefinite
range of R were available to the experimenter, many cosmical phenomena
could not be reproduced in laboratory models.
In the past ten years the study of high-current gas discharges and other
low-density plasma systems has been strenuously promoted by workers
aiming to produce the high temperatures required to induce thermonuclear
reactions in light elements such as deuterium [8]. The concomitant increase
in the number of physicists and electrical engineers, as well as mathematicians,
engaged in hydromagnetic research has been considerable. Now, as a result
of recent renewed interest in the problem of devising an economic method
of direct conversion of thermal to electrical energy, mechanical engineers
are beginning to show an interest in the subject [9], and there are aeronautical
engineers who see applications of hydromagnetics to the problems of propul-
sion and boundary layer control [lo]. On the more academic level, according
to current issues of their journals many applied mathematicians are now
examining the effects of a magnetic field on the standard solutions of
problems in ordinary fluid dynamics.
The make up of this article is evident from the table of contents. The
selection of topics arises largely from the authors personal interests and
limitations of space, and is arbitrary to that extent. We have endeavoured,
however, to ensure that the introductory sections, dealing with the basic
equations, dimensionless parameters and boundary conditions, and an
appendix dealing with the hydromagnetic energy equation, are reasonably
complete. It is hoped that the present survey will provide an introduction
to hydromagnetics for workers possessing some knowledge of continuum
mechanics but who are otherwise unfamiliar with the subject.
ELEMENTARY- PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 219
11. BASICEQUATIONS
OF MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS
(2.1) 3 = 9 + u - g r a d p = - pdivu,
Dt - at
and
1
(2.2)
2. Thermodynamic Equations
(2.9) pcp- Dt =
- pcp +u * grad = div grad TI,
[ K ~ c ~
3. Electrodynamic Equations
4. Range of Validity
Now we must consider the range of validity of our equations. For this
purpose it is convenient to introduce a typical flow speed, U , a speed
V G B / ( ~ u p ) based
' / ~ on the magnetic field strength (see equation 5.1) and
the ordinary sound speed, a,. If c is the speed of electromagnetic waves then
U2/c2,ao2/c2and V2/c2are measures of ordered kinetic energy, thermal energy
and magnetic energy respectively in terms of the rest energy of the fluid.
When U/c << 1 the D/Dt terms in (2.1) and (2.2) are non-relativistic
(see Appendix B) and, to the same approximation, although the effective
electric field.depends on the local frame of reference in which it is measured,
+
being (E u x B) in a frame relative to which the fluid moves with velocity
11, the magnetic field is frame independent. When ao/c << 1, that is to say,
when the root mean square speed of thermal motion is much less then the
speed of light, the relativistic correction P / c 2 to the density p (cf, equations
B.20 and B.21) is negligible.
If t is a characteristic period of time associated with a hydromagnetic
system, L being a typical length (see Ch. I) then according to (2.10, 2.11,
2.12, and 2.14),
so that when the time taken for energy to be transmitted across the system is
much greater then that taken for electro-magnetic waves to cross it, (more
precisely, as we shall see below in Sec. V.2, when I/ << c ) the neglect of
displacement current, aD/at, in equation (2.1l ) , of the electrostatic body
force 8 E in the expression for the body force (%.4),and of the advective
contribution 23u to j in equation (2.15) is justified. However, even when
our equations are non-relativistic in the sense that U / c << 1, ao/c << 1, when
I/ is not much less then c equations (2.4), (2.11), and (2.15) become
111. ELECTROMAGNETIC
A N D MECHANICALEFFECTS
; DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS
1. Electromagnetic Effects
Operate on (2.15) with curl, make use of (2.11, 2.12, 2.13) and the
vector identity curl (curl a) = grad (div a) - V2a, and thus find that
aB
(3.1) - = curl (u x B) + APB,
at
where
which measures the ratio of inertial force p(u * V)u to viscous force p v P u
in the equation of motion (2.2). Indeed, if F is irrotational, the vorticity
vector
(3.5) w = curl u
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 225
ao
(3.6) - = curl (u
at
+
x o) v P o ,
i3B
(3.7) -- - APB,
at
motional induction effects are absent. (3.7) is the well known diffusion
equation, acceptable solutions of which represent a decaying magnetic field,
with time constant t = L2/A. The circuit equivalent of such a system is
an inductance ( I ) and resistance ( Y ) in series, the time constant of which is
(I/Y)seconds. Observe that R is equal to t / ( L / U ) . Small R is the case when
the motion is so slow that free decay of currents due to ohmic losses prevents
any significant change in the magnetic field due to the fluid flow. In the
other case R = 0 0 , there is no ohmic dissipation and thus
aB_
_ curl (u x B) = 0.
at
This equation should be compared with that satisfied by the vorticity
vector, w in a homogeneous inviscid fluid (in the absence of a magnetic
field) namely
a o_
_
(3.9) curl (u x o)= 0
at
(see equation (3.6)). Eq. (3.9) is the basis of Helmholtzs celebrated
theorem in classical hydrodynamics [17], which states that in a homogeneous
inviscid fluid the circulation around any circuit comprising material particles
cannot change, and in consequence, the vortex lines move with the
fluid. Equation (3.8) shows that the magnetic flux through a region
bounded by any material circuit cannot change, and in consequence the lines
of magnetic force move with the fluid [l]. The concept of magnetic lines of
force being frozen into the fluid when R is infinite and, as we shall see
when we consider mechanical effects, acting as elastic strings, leads to
a valuable insight into hydromagnetic phenomena at high magnetic Reynolds
number. Even when the conductivity is not perfect, this concept is still
qualitatively valuable provided R >> 1. There will now be relative motion
between fluid particles and magnetic lines of force but this will be slight,
226 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
Fluid velocity
E1ectr o-
corresponding to
10
I-
293 1 107 10-2
3
Mercury 10-7 104
E: 2
10-1
G.1
m
0,
3
105
v
Liquid Sodium 373 103 10-1 1
2 2
10-1 10- 10-1
m
t-
m
I
Ionized Hydrogen 10-1 105 10 10 10-7 1 10-3 02
3
Earth's Liquid Core log 1 10'2
P 2
Solar Granulation log 6 x 103 102 10-4 10 10'0
%
10
2 2 2 2 2 2
3
0-4
X
4 x 103
N
Sunspots 10 10-1 103 1013 104
%
10-2
3
107
I
X
108
v
104 1 103 ? 10-9
3
Magnetic Variable Stars 10'8
w
lo9 1 06
2
10-9 ?
f
n.
Solar Corona
3
10s log 10'6 l? 10-15 10-'6? 10'8
10 ? 10-10 ?
2
n.
Inter-planetary Gas 10" 105 1 0'6 2 10-20 10-15 ? lo21
103 ? 10-13 ?
2
10-14 ?
3
n.
Interstellar Gas 10'6 104 1017 10-21 1029
227
228 RAYMOND HIDE A N D PAUL H. ROBERTS
2. Mechanical Effects
Having examined the extent to which the motion u modifies the magnetic
field B, we now consider the extent to which B modifies u. Even when there
is strong coupling between u and B (i.e. when R >> 1) mechanical effects
will not be noticeable if the field is too weak. A useful measure of the relative
magnetic field strength is S, where
which is the ratio of the magnetic energy to the kinetic energy of ordered
mass motion of the system, if B is a typical field strength. Another parameter,
(3.12)
where 2, is the average pressure in the fluid, measures the magnetic energy
in terms of the thermal energy (i.e. kinetic energy of random molecular
motion). Note that for a perfect gas, (2sz/y.S2)1/2 is equal to U divided by
the speed of sound, which is, of course, the Mach number. s-2
is usually
called beta by plasma physicists and S-2 is sometimes called dynamic
beta. In the case of an incompressible fluid (for which the Mach number is
s
zero) vanishes and is therefore a redundant parameter.
In order to classify hydromagnetic phenomena in incompressible fluids
we distinguish two general cases, R << 1 and R >> 1, corresponding, respec-
tively, to weak and strong coupling between u and B. Because in the weak
coupling case the externally impressed field B, is hardly affected by u, we
can take B = B,. Except in the cases of certain especially simple flow fields
and geometrical configurations of the boundaries, when E may practically
annul (u x B) (see (2.15)),
(3.13) j N a(u x B,).
Hence, the magnetic term in the body force (see (2.4))
(3.14)
This force retards the motion and degrades the kinetic energy through the
agency of ohmic heating. If S is such that the so-called Hartmann number
until a state of equipartition has been attained, and oscillations about this
equilibrium state may occur.) When S is large, however, the magnetic field
dominates. Because of the elastic properties of the magnetic lines of force
oscillations can occur in which the inertia is provided by the fluid and the
restoring force by the field. These oscillations give rise t o hydromagnetic
waves which travel with velocity V = B/(,up)'12 (see Sec. V.2), which were
first discovered theoretically by AlfvCn [23].
When R >> 1, the Lundquist number,
(3.16) K aLB(p/p)'12 = S R ,
which is a magnetic Reynolds number based on the AlfvCn speed, is the
appropriate parameter determining the degree of mechanical coupling
between the field and the motion.
In view of the number of papers in the recent literature which deal with
nearly uniform flow in a nearly uniform magnetic field [24, 25, 261, it is
instructive to consider whether any general statements can be made about
such flows. Let B = B, +
b where B, is supposed to be a uniform magnetic
+
field parallel to the z axis, and b << B,; and let u = U, ul, where U, is
a uniform flow in the direction of unit vector 8 (say), and u1 << U,. For a
steady system, t o first order of smallness (2.11) and (2.15) lead to
(3.17) U,x b - A c u r l b - B , x ul=-EE,,
+
the electric field E having been taken as E, E, where E, = - ITo x 3.,
On taking the curl of (3.17) and using the fact that for a steady system
curl E, = 0 by (2.12), we find that
(3.18)
(3.21)
where
(3.22) 171 = P l l f + Bob*lPup.
Equation (3.21) may be rewritten in the form
(3.23) curl [U, x u1 - Y curl u1 - (pp)-lB, x b] = ITl.
Now eliminate ITl from (3.21) by operating on it with curl and find
(3.24) (pp)-lB0a(cur1b)/az = p-lB0 = U, awlas - Y P ~ ,
where j = p-l curl b (see (2.11)) and w = curl u1 is the vorticity (see
(3.9.) and (4.34)).
Finally, by eliminating one or the other of the two variables w and j
between (3.18)and (3.24),it follows that both variables satisfy the differential
equation
Written in this form, it is easy to see that when S2>> 1 and S2RR' >> 1
(see (3.3), (3.4), (3.11)),the right-hand side of (3.25) can be ignored, and to a
first approximation
a2
(3.26) - (w,j) = 0.
a22
S2>> 1 implies that the AlfvQ speed is very much greater than U,.
S2RR'>> 1 is equivalent to requiring that the Hartmann number (3.15) should
be much greater than unity; this is a weaker requirement than that of
high conductivity ( R >> 1) and low viscosity (R' >> 1).
Equations (3.25) and (3.26) are independent of the form of El and n1,.
When I7n1= 0, that is, when the total pressure, fil +
B,b,/p, is constant,
but El # 0, it can be shown that
(3.27)
(3.28)
232 RAYMOND HIDE A N D PAUL H. ROBERTS
(3.29)
IV. BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS*
Owing to the length of this section, in which it was felt desirable to discuss
boundary conditions in more detail than is customary, the principal results are given
in boxed equations.
234 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H . ROBERTS
and the coordinates xq,x, of the foot of the normal from Q to S. We take
the normal vector n = n(x,,xs) to be directed from M , into MI and the
coordinates x,,xq,x, to be right-handed in that (alphabetical) order. It is
convenient to introduce an abbreviation DIV A defined by
(4.1) DIV A = div A - [(n * grad) A] * n,
+
aAq/axq aA,/ax,.
Consider a point P of S: let it be xq = 0, x , = 0 for convenience. The
integrations we will perform are of two types:
(i) Integrations over the interior dV and surface dS of a penny-shaped
disk. The radius Y of the penny is small compared to the radii of curvature
of S at P and small compared to all the physical length scales except,
/ MI /
Mz
FIG1. FIG.2.
(44
I Beds =0
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 236
and b denotes the curved surface of the disk. Now B is everywhere bounded;
thus the integral over b can be made arbitrarily small compared with the
remaining terms of (4.3)by choosing I , and I, sufficiently small. Hence (4.3)
gives
I Dads =
5 6dV
(4.7)
where
7 = limit
dV+O
~
7C7' 'I
is the surface charge density on S: dimensions coulomb/m2.
6dV
(4.9) 5 at
In applying this to the penny-shaped disk, we must recognize that (in the
relativistic case) currents arising from convection of charge and (in the zero-
resistivity case) eddy currents will flow in an infinitely thin layer a t the
236 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
(4.10) j * dS = - m2DIV J + O ( y 8 ) .
b
(4.11)
(4.12)
Hence, since the right-hand side of (4.12) only differs from M[E,I12 by a
second-order quantity, we have
(4.15) I [ESl12
= - U,[B,]12.1
(4.16)
$ 1
H . dr = (j + aD/at) dS
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 237
we find
If p and E are continuous across S, (4.14), (4.15) and (4.17) require that
(4.22) [HIl2 = J x n.
at
Differentiating the first of (4.17) with respect to xs and the second with
respect to xq and subtracting, we find
(4.25)
Thus, using (2.12), we see that (4.25) and (4.26) are equivalent.
238 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
In the zero resistivity case, (4.7) and (4.17) do not restrict the solutions
in M , and M , : they merely serve to determine q and J. Also, since
E = - u x B in this case, the two conditions which do restrict the solu-
tions, namely (4.14) and (4.15), may be written:
(4.29)
at
i.e.
(4.32)
There are two main possibilities: either S is the contact surface between
two immiscible media, i.e. media unrelated physically or chemically, or M ,
and M , are composed of the same fluid in two different thermodynamic or
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 239
chemical states, the fluid particles crossing S from one to the other ( e g S is
a shock front or detonation front). In the former case, (4.32)simplifies to give
(4.33)
(4.35)
(4.38)
(4.39) 5 fit?t"'&
*7
(4.40)
a5
at
[pu + EE x B],dV = - nrzU, [ p ~ , ,-
] ~nr2U,
~ +
[sE,B, - EE,B,],~ 0 ( r 3 ) ,
z5
at
[pu + EE x B],dV = - nrzU, [ p ~- ~nr2U,B, +
] ~ [~ E E , ] , ~
+
nrzU, [ E E , B ~ I , ~W 3 ) ,
2
at
1 [PU + EE x B],dV = - nrzU, [ +
p ~ ~~ G] Y ~~ U~ , B , [ E
-E ~ ] ~ ~
.
I
+
nr2U,[~E,Bq]12 O(r3).
It therefore follows that
(4.42)
+
iUn&(EP(l) Eq('))[BSI1' - +U,E(E,(') ES('))[B,],' +
+
- iUn(Bq(l) Bq"))[~Esl,' + +Uw(Bs(l)+ Bs"))[~Eql,',
which, on using (4.14), (4.15) and (4.17), is equal to
+
MEq(') Eq(2))
[EqI1' + M E s ( ' )+ El')) [EsI1' +
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 241
Similar results hold for the remaining equations of (4.41) and we find
~ ~= - [pun(un
~ - +
1 ~ n ) 1 ~1 2 qi(En(1)
2 + + (arx
~ ~ ( 2 ) ) + ~(z))),,,
+(~(1)
[f~,",~=
li~ - [ ~ ~ 9 ( u-nUn)l,2 + q&(E9'')+ Eq'')) + (J' x &(B(')+ B'"))9,
= - [ p u , ( ~ ,- u n ) 1 1 2 + v+(E,(~)
[pFhi1z + EP)) + (J' x +
i(~(1) B(S)))~,
(4.44)
where J' = J + qU,n = (qU,,J,,J,). In the absence of displacement
currents, all these results assume simpler forms: the terms with E and B
do not appear in (4.40) and the terms with q do not appear in (4.44).
The method we have chosen to derive (4.44) may seem unnecessarily
+
elaborate, but it introduces the mean fields (E(') E('))/2 and (B(') B(2))/2 +
appearing in the final result in a natural and unforced way.
In the case in which M , and M , are inviscid, the mechanical stress
tensor is diagonal and, if the fluids are "immiscible", the last two equations
of (4.44) give
(4.46) +
IBn[J - i q ( ~ ( ' ) u@)) + qU,,nIl2 = 0.1
If B, is zero, (4.27) and (4.46) are identically true, and the first of (4.44)
requires the total pressure P to be continuous across S. If B, is not zero,
u is continuous by (4.27) and J = q(u - U,n) by (4.46). I t follows by (4.14),
(4.15), (4.17) that B and E are continuous across S, and that therefore q
and J are zero. Also, the first of (4.44) requires that the pressure is contin-
uous across S. Summarizing we have:
(a) If B, # 0, E, B, u and p are continuous, q and J are zero. These condi-
tions are not independent and are all satisfied by making u and p
continuous.
(b) If B, = 0, u, and P must be continuous.
(4.47) xn = E ( x q , x s J ) *
Let P be the point (t,xq,xs) of S and Po the point (O,xqrxS),of So. The
magnetic field at P is, by supposition,
B ( P ) = Bo(trXq,Xs) + b(EtXq,%),
(4.48)
(4.51)
(4.63)
ELEMENTARY. PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 243
or
(4.56)
again expressing that the tangential electric field, in a frame moving locally
with S, is continuous. A similar result holds for eos. The other boundary
conditions of Sections IV.2 and IV.3 may be transformed into conditions
on So in exactly the same way.
(4.57)
(4.59)
where
(4.60)
(4.59) satisfies the condition that ztq vanishes at the surface of the insulator
x, = 0. Also (4.58) and (4.59) show that the thickness of the boundary
layer is of the order of ( A I J ) ~ / and
~ / V that
, the changes in B, and ug across
it are
(4.61)
i.e.
(4.62)
[ztg]12 = B,
1 P');( 1/2
[B,112
or more generally,
(4.63)
When ( 2 1 ~is) large, as it is as a rule (except invery tenuous media, see Table 1)
we may often (cf. Ch. XI) replace (4.63) by
(4.64) [n x BIl2 = 0.
However, in the general case it is important to realize that even though the
limit R - 00, R'+ ce has been taken in the main body of the fluid, it is still
necessary to specify R ' / R = A/v (cf. (3.10)).
V. PLANE
WAVES
force are frozen in a perfectly conducting fluid; that is, particles of the
fluid lying on P particular line of force at one time lie on that line of force
for all times. Following Faraday and Maxwell we may picture the lines of
force as mutually repelling elastic strings, whose tension per unit area of
cross-section is B2/2p. By the arguments of Ch. 111, their mass per unit
length and per unit area of cross-section is p. Thus, if they are stretched and
then released, a transverse wave will travel down them with a velocity of
/ ~ . in the presence of a field, a conducting
vc(B2/2p)/p] = B / ( 2 p ~ p ) ~Thus,
fluid can transmit a shear wave in the direction of the field. These waves
are often called AlfvCn waves after their discoverer AlfvCn [23]. A more
precise argument, which makes allowance for the repulsion of neighbouring
lines of force, shows that (neglecting displacement currents) their velocity V
is actually greater than that derived in the approximate argument above.
It is
v = B(pup)-?
The repulsion between neighbouring lines of force has an important
effect on the transmission of compressional waves. Since this magnetic force
effectively increases the pressure driving sound waves across the field, the
velocity of compressional waves travelling across the field is enhanced.
Moreover the velocity of compressional waves is no longer the same in all
directions. In fact it will be shown that in a direction making an angle 8
with B their velocity is (neglecting displacement currents)
2. Alfvkn Waves
(5.3) B = B, + b.
First suppose that the fluid is incompressible; more precisely, if L and z
are a length and a time characteristic of the disturbance, we consider that
L / t << a,. It follows that
(5.4) div u = 0.
(We do not suppose here that IbI is small compared with B,.) Suppose
that wave motion exists for which the total pressure is constant:
(5.5) p +1
- B2 = constant.
2P
Then, by (2.2) and (3.1), it may easily be shown that
ikl 1
- + (us grad)u - - (B * grad)B = 0 ,
at PP
(5.7) -
ab
at
+ (u - grad)B - (B - grad)u = 0.
From the second of these equations we see that ab,/at = 0 , where z is a
coordinate measured in the direction of B,. By supposition, B = B, and
u = 0 before passage of the wave. Thus, any parts of b and 11 which do not
depend on t must be excluded. It follows that
(5.8) b, = U, = 0.
The equations (5.6), (5.7) governing these transverse waves admit two
types of solution
b << B,. For then, if we suppose that solutions satisfying (5.4) exist, p is
constant to first order, and, taking the divergence of the equations of motion,
we find that the Laplacian of the total pressure vanishes everywhere, i.e.
(5.5) must hold and by (5.8),R2 and RO2are equal to first order, and therefore,
by (5.5),the kinetic pressure is constant to first order as, therefore, is p. This
justifies the original supposition that solutions satisfying (5.4) exist.
Similar solutions can be derived even if displacement currents are included
in (2.11) and the space charge contribution 6E to the body force F is included
in (2.4). Then it may be shown that if, in place of (5.5) we assume
1
(5.11) p +-
2P
1
B2- -&E2= constant,
2
the equation of motion may be written
= - grad(&E2)+6E-
(5.12)
where E = - u x B is the electric field and
(5.13) 6=divD=-&div(u x B)
is the charge density. Again ab,/at is zero and in consequence (5.8) follows.
Assuming that solutions of the form b = xu exist, we find that the right-
hand side of (5.12) may be written as
(5.14) - &BO2-
:[ + (u * gradju] .
Thus (5.12) can be written
-
au
at
+ 1
(us grad)u -- (B. grad)B + 2 8 x u = -
PP P
(5.22)
provided
(5.27) w = *R& (a2 + VW)1/2.
In highly rotating systems (Q >> V k ) , this dispersion relation requires
Thus, in a highly rotating system, the magnetic energy exceeds the kinetic
energy by a factor of (2!2/Vk)2.
3. Sound Waves
Henceforth the primes will be omitted, and we will work to first order in
, a, u, E,j, 6. We may divide u into its irrotational and solenoidal
b, f ~ p,
parts
(5.33) u = - grad # + curl A,,,
and express B in the form
(6.34) B = B, f curl At,.
I t is convenient to divide the solenoidal parts into their toroidal (F)and
poloidal (9)parts by writing*
(5.35)
(6.36)
where 1, is a unit vector in the direction of B, and Bo = IBol.
Using (5.33) - (5.36) together with (5.7) and working to first order,
we find
(5.37)
(6.39)
* The notion of toroidal and poloidal vector fields was first introduced by H. LAMB
(Proc. Lond. Math. SOC.18, 61-66, (1881)). In essence, Lamb showed that rather
than describe a vector field by its three scalar component fields V,, V y and V z , it is
sometimes more convenient to represent it by scalar fields #I, T and P related to V,, Jy
and V , by
(5.40)
(5.41) -
aP =poV2c#J.
at
I t is evident from (5.37) to (5.41) that the parts of u and B involving the
toroidal fields 9 separate from the remainder involving B and 4. We
will not discuss the toroidal parts further as they have been fully treated
in the preceding section.
From (5.38) to (5.41), it is easily shown that B b , B,,, V2c#J,and p satisfy
at4
+ VZ)V2 + ao2v2 +
(5.42)
(5.43)
(5.44)
+ .
(5.45) c [-_lu2
ao2
c2 +
V2
V2 = [4'+ v2
(1 - Uo~/""~
+
(1 V2/c2) '
(5.47)
For weak fields (V << a,) these velocities reduce to a, and V cos 8.
FIG.3.
(5.49) 9+&=3?+%,
(5.50)
(5.51) 8 = (C/C)2@,
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 253
where C is the phase velocity of the wave. In the strong-field limit ( V + 00,
C- c) 9 and are negligible compared to 8 and B, which become almost
equal. In fact, as we have already remarked, the waves are electromagnetic
in this case. In the non-relativistic case, the electrical energy is negligible
and by (5.49)
(5.52) .9=37+@.
(5.54)
[p - p ([ - - v 3 ) divu] 6 i j - p ~(auis.i+a.i
prh= auj)
(5.55)
(5.56)
(5.57)
(5.58)
(5.59)
+
where v = [ 4v/3.
These with the equation of continuity (5.41) complete the equations.
Thus, it follows that F,and
, Y bobey:
254 RAYMOND H I D E AND PAUL H . ROBERTS
(5.60)
(5.61)
Equation (5.60)is exact for solutions depending only upon 2 and t. Let
us consider solutions proportional to exp i(kz - ot). Taking k to be real,
we find o is determined from it by
(5.62) w = - 8ik2{(A + Y) f [(A - Y)' - 4V2k-2]1/2}.
Thus, for example [40],in an insulating box of side 1 (in the direction of B,)
the standing waves which decay away most slowly (k = x / l ) have a decay
time of
2P/x'(A + Y), if I >nil - 4 / 2 V ,
'={2lznZ{(A + Y) f [(A - Y )-
~ 4V212n-2]1/2}-1, if 1 < nil - v1/2V.
(6.63)
In the first case the waves die away as an oscillation of continually decreasing
amplitude; in the second they die away aperiodically.
If we take w to be real, we find k is determined from it by
k = &i(Av)-1/2{& [Vz - io(A1/2 + y U 2 ) 2 ] 1 ( 2 f [v' - io(A1P - ~ 1 / 2 ) 2 ] 1 / 2 } .
(5.64)
For small I and v(i, e. <( V 2 / o )this gives
k =- ( h ) - ' / 2 [ 1- i W ( 2
i Vl + Y)/2V'],
or
k = -+ wV-'[l + iw(A + v ) / 2 V 2 ] .
(5.65)
+
w = (ao2 Y2)l/k
(5.69)
Avk2
+ . . . ] - i k 2 [v + (ao2AV2 1
+ V 2 )+... -
Thus, for example, the standing waves in a box of side 1 which decay most
slowly (k = n/l) have a decay time of
(5.70) z = 12/n2[vf + AY2(ao2 + V2)-1].
5 . Shock Waves
FIG.4.
where
(5.74) u+ul, B - B,, p-p,, p-+pl, T - TI, as x + - 00.
For strong shocks the transition between states (5.74) and (5.75) takes place
in a distance of the order of a few mean free paths, and (5.74) and (5.75)
hold closely over large ranges of x .
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 257
Since, in the moving frame, the system is stationary, curl E must vanish.
This implies, using (2.15), that E , is constant and therefore
aB-
-1 _
(5.76) - U B - u1B1,
pc a x
since E y - u,B, as x + - 00.
As X + +W, aB/ax- 0 . Hence
(5.77) u1Bl = U ~ B , .
By the equation of continuity ( 2 . 1 ) , we have
(6.78) a(pu)/ax= 0,
i.e.
(5.79) Pl"1 =P2%
In a perfectly conducting fluid (see Sec. 111. 1) according to (5.76) and
(5.78)
(5.81)
(5.83)
(5.84) B2.
(5.85)
258 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
Thus,
(5.86)
i.e.
Eliminate next dp/dx from the second term on the left-hand side of (5.88)
by using (5.84), whence
(5.89)
Hence
(5.91)
Equations (5.83), (6.86) and (5:91) are the necessary generalizations of the
well known Rankine-Hugoniot relations. If we introduce the total pressure
(5.81) and the total internal energy per unit mass
1
(5.92) U* = U f -B2,
2PP
(5.86) and (5.91) become
(5.93) Pl +PP? = p2 + P2"a2,
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 259
(5.94) u,*+ 2
P
P1
+ 2I u12 = u2*+ -
p2
P2
+ 1
- u22.
2
(5.96) a2 = Y P / P
we find
(5.97)
Thus
(5.101) u12 2 a12 + v12
with equality only in the case of infinitesimally weak shocks (11 = 1) i.e.
sound waves (cf. (5.45)). Thus the shock velocity is supersonic with respect
to the undisturbed gas. Similarly it is easily shown that M~ is subsonic with
respect to the gas behind the shock front. Ry (2.7), (5.83), (5.95) and (5.99),
it is easily shown that the change in entropy across the shock is
AS =-
W
(Y- 1)
{
log [{(Y+ 1 ) -~ (Y- 1))
V"Y
+ V M Y - 1 ~ -7 1 ) 3 / 2 4
+ 1) - T ( Y - 1)1
(5.102)
260 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
(5.103)
>
i.e. a(AS)/aq 0, with equality only if 7 = 1. It follows that A S > 0,
with equality only if 7 = 1.
The foregoing results relate only the conditions prevailing at + 00 and
-
the spatial variations of field and preceding this region is a layer (thickness
l), in which these variables, together with the field, change more grad-
ually [38].
VI. A L F V ~ WAVES
N I N SYSTEMSOF FINITE
EXTENT
1. Orders of Magnitude
solid conductors, currents associated with the AlfvCn waves crossing the
fluid will generally penetrate the solid conductor and thus give rise to
increased energy dissipation. In examining this effect, we will take v for the
fluid to be zero, and we will suppose that the electromagnetic time constant
tl = L2/A, associated with the ohmic dissipation within the fluid, is large
compared to the time constants t 2= L2/A, associated with ohmic dissipa-
tion within the conducting shell bounding the fluid, and t3= L / V , the time
taken by AlfvCn waves to cross the body. Here A denotes the magnetic
diffusivity of the conducting shell, and L a typical dimension of the fluid
body. We may easily derive rough estimates of the order of magnitude of
the effect of dissipation in the conducting shell in two extreme cases, depend-
ing on whether t 2>> t3,or t 2<< t3.
If t2<< t3,the amplitude of the standing wave is very small near the
boundary of the fluid since the incident and reflected waves are nearly in
antiphase. In fact, if B denotes a typical field strength far from the boundary,
the field strength a t the boundary is approximately (LV/A)1/2B.(see
Sect. VI. 2 below) Thus, while the total energy of the incident wave
lying above unit area of the conducting shell is still of order p-lB2L joule/m2,
the rate of power dissipation per unit areaof shell is (LV/A).~ ? C ~ - ~ B ~ ( A V / L ) ~ /
joule/m2 sec. Thus, the time constant of the process is approximately
(AL/V3)1/2 = (t33/t2)1/2.Comparing this with zl,we see that dissipation in
the solid conducting shell cannot be neglected if z2 >> ~ ~ ~ / t ~ ~ .
z--a 4 7 z- +a
FIG. 5 .
(6.2) E = (O,E,O),
where
(B,u + Aab/az) in the fluid,
E={
(6.3) Aablaz in the solid.
I t is readily verified from Sec. 17.4, that in the fluid
Let us suppose that b and zl are proportional to en'. Then, by (6.3) to (6.5),
we have
(6.10)
Thus, the eigenvalues of n are determined by
(6.11)
(6.13)
-&- ="[2 v2 1 + VW
+ }] 742s 1)
#
(6.16)
otherwise (if s < 2aV/n1), the mode is damped periodically with a decay
time of
The limit in which the conductivity of the fluid is infinite and all dissipa-
tion takes place in the walls is particularly interesting. Then for both A' = 0
and A' = 0 0 , the waves are not damped at all and there must be some
intermediate value for which dissipation is a maximum and for which the
maximum decay time of the wave is least. For 1 = 0, (6.11)may be written as
and
(6.21) = (av/a')l/2= (22/t3)1'2,
(6.24)
TABLE2
x x Y x x Y
(6.26)
266 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
4r
3-
1-
I-
0.01 0.I 10
. 1
0 I00 1000 x
FIG.6.
Thus x = 4.5 and so x = 0.25, and t I 9.8 years. Had we ignored dissipation
in the mantle, we would have found by (6.14) that t = 1.2 x lo6 years.
Note also that since x > 1, we must, in the present context, regard the
mantle of the Earth as being a good electrical conductor.
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 267
INSTABILITY
VII. GRAVITYWAVES: RAYLEIGH-TAYLOR
In general, the surface waves travelling along the interface between two
conducting fluids will bend the lines of force of any magnetic field present 151.
The reaction of the lines of force to this bending will affect the propagation
of the surface waves. In this section, we consider the simplest case of two
semi-infinite immiscible, incompressible fluids of densities p1 and p2 separated,
in the undisturbed equilibrium state, by an infinite plane horizontal interface.
We suppose the fluid of density p2 lies above the fluid of density pl. For
simplicity, we ignore viscosity and treat the fluids as perfect electrical
conductors.
In the absence of a field, there is a discontinuity of tangential fluid
velocity a t the interface between the fluids. For example, consider a wave
travelling in the (horizontal) x-direction. By continuity of fluid mass, the
fluid particles in the troughs are moving in the positive x-direction and
those on the crests in the negative x-direction. But the crests in the waves
of one fluid are the troughs in the waves of the other. Hence, there is a
discontinuity of velocity across the interface between them. Clearly, in the
presence of a field which has a non-zero component normal to the interface,
this discontinuity of velocity implies the existence of a discontinuity in the
tangential components of E,and this in turn implies the existence of a surface
current, across which the tangential components of R are discontinuous. But
this is impossible since it would imply a discontinuity of tangential stress,
giving rise to infinite acceleration. I t follows, therefore, that the perfect
fluid approximation is incompatible with gravity wave solutions of the
type that arise in the absence of a magnetic field. More precisely,
if o is the frequency of the wave and k its horizontal wave number, there
are no such solutions for which 1 and are negligible, compared to both V 2 / w
I)
The basic equations of the problem are (2.2), (3.8), (2.3), 2.13)
au 1
(7.1) - + (u - grad)u - - (B * grad)B = -
at PP
aB
(7.2)
-
at + (u * grad)B - (B * grad)u = 0,
(7.4) u = 0, B = Bo = constant,
(7.5) B = Bo + b, f~= $0 + p, p = PO + ~ 8
and neglect the squares and products of b,u,p, and p wherever they occur.
We will henceforth omit primes. We then find from (7.1) to (7.3)
(7.7)
(74 div b = 0,
where
and 5 is the displacement of the fluid particle from its equilibrium posi-
tion: i.e.
(7.10) u = ayat,
to first order. I t satisfies
(7.11) d i v 5 = 0.
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 269
(7.12) P = - EYaPolaY.
Thus, by (7.6), (7.7) and (7.11), we have
a% 1
= - -grad 6 +_ a2c_
Bo2_ g
+ -- Eyly. aP0
(7.13) ~
(7.14)
(7.15) [EY112 = 0.
As in Ch. IV, this notation means
(7.16) [tYl12 = limit t y- limit Ey.
y++o y+-0
(7.18)
where
m12 = - (Z2 + f12), Wm,< 0,
(7.19)
m22 = - (22 + n2), Wm2> 0.
From the form of (7.18) and (7.19) it is evident that the amplitude of the
waves dies exponentially with distance from the interface, the scale length
of the attenuation being unaffected by the presence of a field. Condition
(7.17) requires
(7.20)
270 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
where
(7.21) +
VSZ= 2BOZ/P(fl Pz).
In the absence of gravity, (7.20) corresponds to A l f v h waves travelling
along the interface with a velocity V s appropriate to the mean density
+
(pl p z ) / 2 and with an amplitude which dies exponentially with distance
into each media. Gravity waves travelling in the x-direction are unaffected
by the field and it follows that the criterion for instability ( p z > PI) is
unaltered by the presence of a field. The phase velocity of gravity waves
travelling in the z-direction is increased by the field to
(7.22)
where a, is the local speed of sound and p,, is the local density of the gas.
Because of the importance of Coriolis forces and hydromagnetic forces in
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 27 1
gradp, - pograd G1
(8.4)
Jeans effectively considered a system in free motion under gravity, i.e.
grad Po = 0, so that the right-hand side of (8.4) could be set equal to zero.
If to is the shortest time scale associated with the basic motion and tlthat
associated with the perturbation, when
(8.5)
we find
aPl -
- - - po div u,.
at
Writers who have followed Jeans approach have used (8.7) as a starting point.
272 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
(8.13) tl =?[($Y
a0 - 11
- 1/2
,
(8.15)
(8.16)
(8.19)
replaces (5.47). Thus the expressions (5.48) for the phase velocitias are
replaced by
(8.20)
where 0 is the angle between B, and the direction of propagation of the wave.
When these wave velocities are complex, the amplitude of the wave increases
without limit, i.e. the system is unstable for such waves. By (8.20), it is
seen that this happens when (8.17) is obeyed. This, therefore, remains the
criterion for instability, even in the presence of a field. In fact, for waves
travelling in the direction of the field, (8.19) separates into (cf. (5.43))
(8.22)
(g- ao2-
a2
a22
- 4nGpo
1 B = 0,
C - I
FIG.7.
a << b and a << c and when the externally impressed magnetic field B,
is uniform S and directed parallel to the z-axis. Under these conditions,
except near the side walls a t y = b and at the entrance and the exit of
the pipe, the flow velocity, u, the induced electric field, E, current density j,
and magnetic field, b, will be independent of position coordinates x and y .
This simplifies the problem enormously.
As will be shown below, the parameter in terms of which the impressed
magnetic field has to be measured is the appropriate Hartmann number
(see (3.15))
(94 M = B,a(a/vp)1/2.
When M = 0 there are no hydromagnetic effects, so that E = j = b = 0.
The velocity is then given by
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 275
(9.4) UoG-
2a
-a
j P,a
zC,dz=-.
3pv
(9.5) I =(j,dz
-a
(ampere per unit length in the x-direction) must vanish. Hence, regions of
positive j , will have to join with regions of negative j , via regions in
the fluid near y = f b in which current flows parallel to the z-axis. Electric
charges present on the side walls at y = f b are associated with an electric
field E having a y-component only within the fluid.
FIG.8.
(9.6) 5 b
N-l(aa/b) E , d y
-b
+ I = 0,
(see (9.5)).
In deriving (9.6) use has been made of the fact that E , is independent
not only of x and y, but of z also (see equation (9.9b) below). Now make
further use of the fact that E , is independent of y and thus simplify (9.6) to
(9.7) 2aaE, + N I = 0.
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 277
by (2.12)
(9.9a,b)
and by (2.13)
(9.10) dB* = o ;
~
whence B, = B,, b, = 0.
dz
Now combine (9.8) with (2.15) and make use of the fact that u, = (u,,O,O)
to find that
(9.11a, b, c) - - - paE,;
dz
db,
- = p a [ E y - u, B,];
dz
0 =pu[E, + u,b,].
At this point, we introduce the assumption that i, = 0, whence, by (9.8),
b y is constant and this constant must vanish because by cannot be discontin-
uous at the side walls a t y = 3 b. Hence, by (9.8),
(9.12)
(9.13) E = (O,E,,O),
where, by (9.9b) E , is independent of z, and by (9.10)
(9.14) B = B, + b = (b,,O,B,).
Now combine (9.14) and (9.12) with the equation of motion, (2.2). The
z-component leads to
(9.15)
if gravitational effects are ignored (i.e. a@/az = 0, see (2.5)); this is the
hydrostatic pressure gradient which has to be offset by stresses in the side
278 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
'"n
0.6
0.4-
0.2 -
, M , , ,
0 10 20 30
FIG.9.
(9.18)
where [ E z/a, and the no-slip boundary condition (9.3) has been introduced
to evaluate the constant of integration.
Now we must eliminate E , by making use of (9.7). First observe that by
(9.12) and (9.llb),
. Po aE,Bo coshMC cosh MC
(9.19)
IY = 6{(7 ) - ('- cosh M )}'
E L E M E N T A R Y P R O B L E M S I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 279
so that
(9.22)
2(N 1) + cosh MC
+
M ( M N tanh M )
X
(9.23)
1 1
cosh x = - e x ; sinh x +-ex
2 2 x>> 1.
tanh x 1 1 - 2e-2x ; coth x A 1 $- 2e-2x .
When M is close to zero, (9.2) is a close approximation to zt, irrespective
of N . For the variation of u, with t at other values of M , see Fig. 10, which
illustrates two cases, corresponding to N = 0 and N = 0 0 . (As in Figs. 12
and 14, the profile on only one side of the plane of symnietry is given.)
In both cases, increasing M results in reduced u, everywhere, but the reduc-
tion is more pronounced near [ = 0 than elsewhere. This has the effect
of flattening the velocity profile. Evidently, these effects are much more
pronounced when N = 0 than when N = m, a result which is due to the
lesser restriction on the current flow in the former case than in the latter.
The average flow velocity is
(9.24) u = uO M3 2 ( M +( NN t a )n h M ) [M - tanh M I ,
-
+
280 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
(9.25) E, = B,U.
1.0
Case (b):N-O
FIG.10.
E L E M E N T A R Y PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 281
FIG.11
FIG.12.
282 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H . ROBERTS
(9.26) -
+
+
(1 1/N)
I-coshM5
(1/N tanh M / M ) cosh M
FIG.13.
0
1.0 z/a 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
% Z I I I I l O0
0 0.2 0.4 3.6
0.6 z/a 1.0
FIG. 14.
the fluid, b , must be uniform, if bu and bl stand respectively for the uniform
values of b, outside the fluid in > 1 and [ < - 1 ,
(9.31) b, - bi = pI
which shows that generally the system is not symmetrical in all respects
about the plane 2' = 0.
284 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
0 5 1
0 15 20 25 30
asymptotic value
1.0-
, M ,
0
5 1
0 15 20 25 30
FIG.16.
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 286
(9.32) b, = a p I ; br = - (1 - a)pul;
and this together with (9.30) suffices to determine A in (9.27). The annulus
problem corresponds to a = 0, so that b, = 0, bz = - p1. Fig. 14
illustrates b, as a function of 5 for two cases, (a) N = 00 and (b) N = 0,
when a = 0.5. In both cases the profile is antisymmetrical about 5 = 0.
Although varying a doesnothing to the induced currents and adds only
a constant A to b,, this does not mean that a is unimportant. The magnetic
energy density depends on the square of the magnetic field strength, so that
the total energy in the system depends in general on the external circuits.
For this reason, one expects a to be of the greatest significance in non-
steady problems, one example of which would be the generation from a
state of rest (say) of the steady flow described here.
In conclusion, it is of some interest to evaluate the magnetic Reynolds
number (see (1.1)) defined as follows:
(9.33) R = 2upaU.
On substituting for U from (9.24) we find that
(9.34) R = 2upaUo
(N -k ) (M - tanhM)
( M + N tanh M )
\M2
(M + N tanh M )
The variation of R with M is plotted in Fig. 15. When N = 0 0 , R increases
indefinitely with M , in contrast to the behaviour when N = 0, when R
tends asymptotically to unity as M goes to infinity. This is related to the
difference in the distribution of current in the two cases (see Fig. 12). When
N = 0 the bulk of the current flow is in the main body of the fluid and j v
drops to zero at = & 1. On the other hand, when N = 0 0 , the return
current j , near 5 = & 1 flows in a layer of ever decreasing thickness as M
increases, and a magnetic Reynolds number based on this thickness tends
to infinity more slowly - logarithmically in fact - with M , and is
probably more significant physically than the one based on the distance 2a.
For references to the early work on flow between parallel planes, see [3].
Globe [47] has treated the problem of flow along an annular pipe in a radial
magnetic field and Shercliff [ 6 ] has considered the more difficult problem
of flow along a circular pipe in a uniform transverse magnetic field.
286 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
X. FLOW
DUE TO AN PLANE:RAYLEIGH'S
OSCILLATING PROBLEM
(10.1) u, = U,exp
[ -z
($3
-
[ ($7
cos wt - z - , uy = 0 , u, = 0.
(10.3)
This gives
(10.4)
p , =d
PVUO exp( - 5)[- cos(ot - $)+ sin (cot - ;)I ,
so that the tangential force per unit area acting on the plate is
(10.6) pxz(O,t) = (pvU,/d)(sin o t - cos wt).
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 287
The negative of the second term in this bracket is in phase with the motion
of the plane and corresponds to a dissipative force tending to stop the motion.
The other term is x12 out of phase and represents an effective increase in
the inertia of the vibrating body due to the presence of the fluid.
The rate a t which internal stresses do work at any surface parallel to the
+ +
vibrating plane, in general p,,u, pz,,uy P,,z~, (see Appendix A), reduces
to p,,u, in this problem. Denoting this quantity by Q , we find by equations
(10.1) and (10.4) that
(10.6) Q = Q(z,t) = - ~
(10.7) ~ ( z= PVUO2exp
) - __
24
(- g).
The power input per unit area required to maintain the motion, which
will be denoted by P , must equal - Q(0,t) so that
(10.8)
The direction of energy transfer between the vibrating plane and the fluid
depends on the sign of P , which alternates, changing twice each half cycle.
However, the average value of P , given by
(10.9) P = pvUO2/2A
(10.10)
288 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
a,@, and y measure, in suitable units, the magnetic field energy, the electrical
resistivity, and the velocity amplitude of the oscillating plane. From
their definitions we can relate a,@ and y to the more familiar dimensionless
parameters of Ch. I11 provided we base these parameters on the char-
acteristic length L = ( v / o ) / ~which
, is of the order of the boundary layer
thickness in Stokes problem. Thus we find the Reynolds number (3.4)
(10.11) R f UoL/v = y ,
(10.16)
(10.17)
If we assume that all quantities vary as eiWt in time (see (10.22)), according
to (10,21), when w # 0, the value of b on the cylinder vanishes as a+ m .
However, if o = 0, we can only conclude that ahlaz vanishes on the cylinder.
More precisely, we may only assume the truth of (10.20) when wa2/11>> 1.
If the criterion is not satisfied, the total current in the y direction need not
be zero. Thus, care must be exercised in interpreting the results of idealized
problems of the kind discussed in this section.
When the moving surface is that of a solid conductor rather than that
of an insulator, currents will be induced in this conductor and the behaviour
of the system will be modified significantly. It is then necessary to specify
carefully the relative motion between the source of the main magnetic field
and the vibrating solid. In the literature there has been a certain lack of
clarity on this point and some errors have been made. The difficulty seems
related to the correct application of the law of induction which is often
incompletely dealt with in standard texts of electromagnetism. The sub-
tleties of this point have been considered by a few writers (see Sec. 11.3).
Since (10.16) and (10.17) are linear, we seek solutions of the form
(10.24)
(10.25)
and a similar equation relates g, and f2. Also, by the conditions (10.18)
and (10.20), we have
(10.27) fl + f z = 1,
(10.28) g1+ g2 = 0.
Solving equations (10.26, 27, 28) for f i , f 2 , g, and g, and using (10.29) as
a means of simplifying the final results, we find
VF41 - 4 2 VP42 - 41
(10.30) fl = fz
[1 + VPI (41 - 42)
=
[1 + VPI (42 - 41)
1
(10.31) - g2 = -
g1 =
V F 11 + VPI(41 - 4 2 ) *
and
(10.34)
and
et
E,(z = 0) = (UoBo)
(10.35)
1
~
+ va
Thus, in the limit 8 - 0, there is a surface current on the plane, while the
electric field there is given by
(10.36) E =- Uo x Bo.
In the limit p- 0 0 , both current and electric field tend to zero.
The mean rate of work of the force driving the plane is the average,
over a cycle, of
(10.37) P=-vp[U$] E = O 9
292 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
and, by (10.25),
(10.38) U ( Z = 0)= +UOeiog+ +Uoe-ioo,
so that
(10.40) P =
(pyu,21:
L
-H(f1ql + f2q2) + periodic terms.
Hence, using equations (10.29) and (10.30) and averaging,
(10.41)
Having given the formal solution, we now present the results in a number
of limiting cases. We are interested in low, moderate and high conductivity
( p >> 1, p = 1, p << l), and these cases will be designated A, B, and C.
In each of these cases we must consider first the effect of a weak magnetic
field, and then the effect of a strong field. We put 5 = z / L .
The results for case A are summarized in Table 3. Observe that a/P
turns out to be the appropriate measure of the magnetic field. In the weak
field case, although the magnetic mode of u, is associated with a slow fall-off
with z , its amplitude is only a small fraction, of that of the
velocity mode. In the presence of a strong field, the phase and amplitude
factors of the velocity mode now depend strongly on a and Bo, the amplitude
of this mode of u, being only slightly less than in the absence of a magnetiac
-
field. The magnetic mode of u x is weak, the amplitude at z = 0 being
,8-1/2. According to the form of q8, this mode corresponds to an AlfvCn
wave damped by electrical resistance (see Sec. V.4)
Now consider case B, that of moderate conductivity, corresponding to
p = 1. The results are summarized in Table 4. Now it is a that measures
the strength of the impressed magnetic field. Observe that in the presence
of a weak field, in contrast with cases A and C, q1 and q2 contain terms of
order a1/2.The amplitude factors of each mode of u, are the same, namely,
0.5. In the strong field case, the phase factors of each mode correspond
to an AlfvCn wave. The velocity mode is much more rapidly attenuated than
the magnetic mode, and at moderate distances from the plane, the magnetic
mode dominates. The form of the attenuation factor of this mode shows
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 293
TABLE3
Case A. P 1 : (u << (pv)-I)
Low Conductivity
EY
UOBOeiot
294 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
TABLE 4
Moderate Conductivity
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS
295
TABLE5
High Conductivity
1 i
2a3/2+.1/2
EY
UoBoeiWf
q=
1 (l
+T
a .. .)
296 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
that viscosity and electrical resistivity play equal parts in dissipating the
energy of the wave.
Finally, we consider the third case, C, that of high conductivity (fi << 1).
The results are summarized in Table 5. When the magnetic field is weak,
the velocity field is only slightly modified by it. The magnetic mode of 21,
is weak, having a small amplitude a t z = 0 and a high attenuation factor,
of order /?-12. There is no term in ul/in the expressions for q1 and q2.
In the presence of a strong field, the velocity mode of 21% is characterized
by a small amplitude at z = 0 and rapid attenuation, the motion consisting
almost entirely of an Alfven wave, which, from the expression for y2 can be
seen to be damped by viscosity.
In all cases, the mean power P required to maintain the vibration has
to be increased in the presence of a magnetic field; in the case of a strong
magnetic field P is proportional to B,.
The possibility of detecting the effect of a magnetic field on the propaga-
4. Ra yleighs Problem
Thus
(10.44)
Inverting the Laplace transform (see, for example, [52], p. 354, No. 29)
(10.45)
(10.46)
where
(10.49)
where
(10.51)*
where ,8 = ~ V ( A V ) / ~-
/ ( v).
A I t follows that
(10.54)
where I, and I , are modified Bessel functions of the first kind of orders
zero and unity, respectively. Thus
where
1
(10.58) 6 = V(A1/2 - y1/2) (t' - zv- '/2),
(10.59) 5 = p [(t- t ' ) 2 + (A- 112 + Y- l l Z ) Z ( t - t ' ) ] l / Z .
In an exactly similar fashion
if t <z A - ' ~ ~ ,
(10.61)
Having calculated vl(t) and v&) in this way, we can now calculate ~ ( twith
)
the help of (10.49):
300 RAYMOND HIDE A N D PAUL H. ROBERTS
(10.62)
#- l/Z ,A- 1/2
Solutions for short times (i.e. for t << zv-lI2 for ul,and t << z I . - ~ / ~for u2)
may be quickly derived from (10.57), (10.60) and (10.62) or, indeed, directly
from the operational form (10.47) itself. Solutions for large times mav be
computed from (l0.57), (10.60) and (10.62) by a steepest descent approxima-
tion. (For details of this procedure applied to a similar problem, see
Roberts [36]. Chang and Yen [all also discuss approximations in some
detail .)
XI. STEADYTWO-DIMENSIONAL
INERTIALFLOWIN THE PRESENCE
OF A
MAGNETJCFIELD
(11.1) p ( u . V)u = - V p + j x B.
Assume now that
\i.here U , and B, are constants and 21, v , w,b,, by, b,, e x , e y , e, are small
quantities. If the motion is two-dimensional, having no dependence on y
(i.e. ajay = 0 ) , we can introduce scalar functions 4 and +!I of x and z , where
(11.4)
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS I N MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 301
(11.5)
By (11.3) and (2.11)
(11.6) j, = V2$
whence
(11.8)
The undisturbed situation in which the electric field E has one component,
in the y direction, equal to U,B,, and no electric current flows, is only possible
when there are insulating surfaces at y = f 00 on which charges can be
set up.
Now eliminate p between (11.7a) and (11.7b) and thus find
(11.9)
(11.10)
If
(11.11) S 2 = B 20 lPPUO2I
(11.12)
302 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H. ROBERTS
F ( z ) satisfies
(11.14)
where
(1 1.16) q =ik/S
and A , B , C and D are constants to be determined by the boundary condi-
tions of the problem. According to (11.3) and (2.11)
u = ( A h k *- + qCeqa - qDe-q*)&,
Bke-k*
(11.17) w = - ik(Aekz + Be-kz + Cd* + De-q*)etkx,
b, = - iS(,uup/k2)1/2[k2Aek'+ k2Be-kE + qzCeq* + q2De-qz]eEkx,
[KAe" - k B e -
b, = - S(,u~p)l/~ kz + qCeqz - qDe-q*]e'kx,
j,, = v2$ = - k2 (1 + S-2)(p/,u)1/2[Ceg*- De-gl]eZkX.
Now consider the specific problem of flow along a channel with insulating
walls. Three of these walls, in y = b and z = d are plane and the +
fourth is slightly wavy, occupying
(11.18) z = f cos k x ,
the mean position being z = 0. If d << b, the flow can be regarded as two-
dimensional, and if / << d deviations from uniform motion in the x direction
will be slight.
As a result of the electric currents in the fluid, the magnetic field in the
insulating regions outside the fluid will be distorted. Introduce magnetic
"stream" functions, and 2$ in the upper and lower regions, z > d and
z < f cos k x , respectively. These functions satisfy
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 303
(see (11.6)) since j = 0 outside the fluid. Solutions of (11.19), which remain
finite a t z = w and vary harmonically in the x direction with wave
number k , have the form
(11.20) lt,b = ae- kz elk, , 2t,b = pekr erkx,
where a and p are constants. The induced magnetic field components in
regions 1 and 2 are, respectively,
and
(11.29) 2k2B + q(q - k)C + q(q 4-k)D = 0.
Now eliminate B between (11.23) and (11.29), and, making use of (11.16) find
which falls off quite rapidly with z. In the presence of a weak magnetic
field (S << 1) there is an additional term which varies harmonically with z .
Although the amplitude of this term at z = 0 is very small, being S2 of the
other term, it predominates a t great distances in the case considered. This
result is of limited physical interest because, in a real fluid, such rapid
spatial variations (the wavelength in the z direction is 2nS/k) would be
rapidly attenuated by friction.
In the case S << 1
so that
h'ow consider the case of a very strong magnetic field (S >> 1). Equations
(11.30),(11.31),(11.33)and (11.23)then lead to
(11.37)
'="' sin k(z - d ) / S
sin kdIS
cos k x
'''cos k ( z - d ) / S sin k x ,
(11.39)
* "):( = sin kd/S
and
cos k ( z - d ) / S .
(11.40) j - -k2fU & sin k x .
Y- ' ( p r sinkd/S
ENERGY
APPENDIXA : THE HYDROMAGNETIC EQUATION
We have seen (Ch. 11) that, except for the "degenerate" case of in-
compressible flow, it is necessary to supplement the hydrodynamic and
electromagnetic equations by thermodynamic relations. However, strictly
speaking a fluid in mass motion cannot be in thermodynamic equilibrium,
and the application of relations which are valid only in thermodynamic
equilibrium is, at first sight, questionable. Provided the mean intermolecular
distance d is small compared with any macroscopic length scale L char-
acteristic of the hydrodynamical flow, it is easy in principle to define density
p, velocity of mass motion u, and internal energy per unit mass U as point
functions of position. For example, to determine the value of p for a partic-
ular point P , we simply draw a sphere 9 ' centred at P whose radius Y is
large compared to d but small compared to L ; we divide the mass A con-
tained in 9 'by the volume 4nr3/3= V of 9.The resulting value, p, will
306 RAYMOND H I D E A N D PAUL H . ROBERTS
(A.3) fimech
$7 - fib,, =- fiyp = viscous stress tensor
will be of order (l/L)fi.For Newtonian fluids, fi? will depend only on the
instantaneous values of the space derivatives of u a t P and, since it is
symmetrical, the only possible first order combinations are
Here, the constants pv and pC are termed the viscosity and the bulk
viscosity. (The latter is zero for a monatomic gas; cf. [54], 5 2.5.)
Throughout this paper, we use the quantities T , S, W , p etc. defined
after the isolation of 9.As a consequence, relations such as
TdS = dU + pd(:).
1
(-4.6) TdS = dW - - d p ,
P
hold true despite me fact that irreversible changes are taking place. This
is a consequence of the fact that if, in following the hydrodynamical flow,
a fluid element undergoes an expansion dV, the work it does on the surround-
ing fluid is, in a dissipative medium, less than PdV. I t follows that TdS
must exceed the total energy supply. In applying relationships such as
(A.5) and (A.6) it is, of course, not necessary to consider that d p , dW,dS, etc.
refer to changes following the motion. For example, we may consider dW(dS)
to be the difference between W ( S )a t two adjacent points of the fluid a t one
particular time. (A.6) then determines the corresponding changes d p in 9,
giving
(A.7) grad p = p grad W - pT grad S.
Similarly, applying (A.5) to the same fluid particle at two adjacent times,
- 1
S
grad T * dS.
5
S
(E x H) * d S .
This term must, of course, be evaluated in such a way that flux of electromag-
netic energy between the fluid and external circuits is not overlooked.
Finally the rate at which mechanical stresses do work on the surrounding
medium is
5
S
ui p y h dSj.
Thus
at
V
(A.lO) pcpK(grad T ) * dS
S S
s s
(A.ll)
(A.13) E = pU + 1 pu2 - p@ + -1
2E.l
1
B2 + -&E2
2
u2 + W -@ - wjfir- ar + -1 (E x B)i
(A.14) Qi= PC~K-
8% #u
1
(A.15) =- div-(E x B) - j . E .
#u
a
- (p@) = @-
aP
=- @ div p~ = - div (p@u) + pu grad @.
at at
a
+ pu .grad @ + div (pcpcgrad T ) - -(u$Yh).
P D t ( U + +uz - @) =j -E
axi
(A.16)
The left-hand side represents the rate of increase of kinetic and internal
energy in V , making allowances for that advected over the boundary. The
first term on the right-hand side represents the difference between the rate
at which the electromagnetic field does work on the material particles in V
and the rate at which the mass motions generate electromagnetic energy
in V , i.e. it is the rate at which electromagnetic energy is converted
irreversibly into heat. The second term represents the rate a t which gravita-
tional forces do work. The remaining terms on the right-hand side can be
interpreted as before.
Equation (A.16) may be cast into an alternative form by using the
momentum equation
310 RAYMOND HIDE AND PAUL H . ROBERTS
(A.17)
. DU~
p-=--
Dt
apyh+ (6E+ j x B)i + p grad @.
axj
DU
(A.18) p-
Dt
= -ei,pyh - 6u E + j * (E+ u x B) + div (pcpK grad T ) .
DS
pT-
Dt
=e,jpp+ (j - 6u).(E+ u x B)+
(A.19) ~
T
+ T div (7 grad T).
PCPK (grad T ) 2 ~
(A.20)
and is essentially positive (or zero, in inviscid fluid). On assuming Ohms law
1
(A.22) - (j - 6 ~ )or ~ a(E + u x B)2,
(I
(A.23) 1g P dV t 0,
in agreement with the second law of thermodynamics.
If we ignore displacement currents, the term in E2 in equations (A.9,
10, 11, 13, 15) are negligible, as are the terms in 6 in equations (A.17, 18,
19, 21, 22). A full discussion of this non-relativistic case is given by Hide [55]
for an incompressible fluid.
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 311
MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS
APPENDIXB : RELATIVISTIC
0 H, - HY - icD,
-H, 0 H, - icD,
(B.5)
HY -HH, 0 - icD,
(B.7) j i = aFii/axi,
(B.8)
(B.ll) E=-uxB,
(B.12) j iU * (jx B ) / c .
~FajJ=
where Sii is the mechanical stress tensor, U, is the 4-velocity dx,/ds of the
fluid and p is the rest density. In an ideal fluid Sij takes the form (cf. [55],
Ch. 8, eq. 206)
(B.16) Sij = - fi(d;j + UiUj),
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS IN MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMICS 313
where fi is the pressure in the frame locally at rest with respect to the fluid.
The total energy tensor for the fluid when an electromagnetic field is present
is
aP 1 aP x B),,
(B.19)
at
where 3/ =: (1 - u2/c2)-9. These are the required relativistic generalizations
of the equations of motion and continuity. Note that, if u is small compared
with c, they reduce to
(B.20) j x B,
(B.21)
References
BY HAROLD MIRELS
Let Vb.0 represent the body location according to zero order similarity theory.
The difference between (3.26a) and (A) is then
where the higher order term in (A) has been omitted. For (R)2small, the
main contribution to (B) comes from the integration in the vicinity of 0 M 0
317
318 HAROLD MIRELS
(i.e., the entropy layer) and f can be replaced by the zero order wall pressure
/b,o in each integral. Substituting z = r9-a(R')zinto the second integral,
integrating by parts and taking the limit ( R ' ) 2 + 0 then gives
where T( ) is the gamma function. The error in (C) is of the order of the
second term or the right hand side of (A). Equation (C) gives the asymptotic
body shape, as x --* (M,associated with a power law shock in the range where
+
the entropy layer is important (i.e., y / ( y 1)< fi f 1 as discussed in
Section VI) and is the desired result. The difference between the actual
body location, rb/R, and the zero order similarity body location, r ] b , o , goes to
zero as (R')2---r 0.
For fi = 1, equation (C) becomes
This is in exact agreement with the results of [49] which were obtained by
the method of inner and outer expansions. Thus Y b x2I3Y and N x'lzv for
N
the one dimensional and two dimensional blast waves, respectively. The
constants of proportionality are found from (D). The asymptotic body shape
is not similar to the shock shape, except for y = 1, due to the factor y in the
denominator of the exponents of x .
Equation (C) can be used to find the asymptotic body shape associated
with any given power law shock. The pressure distribution on the body is
found from the zero order similarity solution. This equation can also be
used to find the asymptotic shock shape and surface pressure distribution
associated with a given power law body (ie., direct problem) in the manner
described in Section VI.1.
Some recent work [50-521 might also be briefly mentioned. Van Hise [50]
has systematically studied the shock shapes and surface pressures associated
with a series of long slender bodies of revolution having varying nose
bluntness. The flow field was found, using the method of characteristics, for
air (perfect gas assumption) and helium at Mach numbers from 5 to 40.
Nose fineness ratios (base diameter to length) were varied from 0.4 to 4. Flow
parameters obtained from zero order and first order blast wave theory were
used as a guide to obtain good correlations of the surface pressure and shock
HYPERSONIC FLOW OVER SLENDER BODIES 319
Additional References
49. YAKURA, J. K., A theory of entropy layers and nose bluntness in hypersonic flow,
Amer. Rocket SOC., Preprint 1983-61, 1961.
50. VANHISE, V., Analytic study of induced pressure on long bodies of revolution with
varying nose bluntness a t hypersonic speeds, N A S A TR R-78, 1961.
51. LUKASIEWICZ, J., Blast-hypersonic analogy-theory and application, Amer. Rocket
SOC., Preprint 2169-61, 1961.
52. INGER,G. R., Nonequilibrium hypersonic similitude in a dissociated diatomic gas.
Douglas Report SM-38972, 1961.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Author Index
Numbers in parenthese are reference numbers and are included to assist in locating references when the
authors names are not mentioned in the text. Numbers in italic refer to the paKe on which the complete reference
is listed.
32 1
322 AUTHOR INDEX
de Hoffman, F., 245(37), 375 Golian, T. C., 3(23), 29(23), 48(23), 49(23).
Deresiewicz, H., 206(16), 207 50(23), 5 3
Deryagin, B. V., 77(64, 65). 727 Gonor, A. L., 33, 54
de Saint-Venant, B., 153, 154, 273 Greenspan, H. P., 230(24), 374, 319(24)
Dimes, G. J . , 134(17), 135(17), 207 Griffith, A. A , . 63, 64(3), 85, 92, 125
Dolder, K., 218(7), 374 Grigorian, S. S., 3(19), 25(19). 26(19), 5 3
Drozdovskii, B. A., 69, 85(55), 727 Grigoryev, A. S., 192, 208
Drucker, D. C., 200, 207 Grodzovskii, G. L., 3, 5 3
Druyanov, B. A., 171, 174, 175(20a, 20b). Guderley, G., 26(36), 54
176(20), 207 Guindin, I. A., 77(63), 727
Dungey, J. W., 217(4), 245(4), 374 Gutowski, R., 202, 208
Duwez, P., 149, 206
Dzugutov, M. Ya., 141(128), 142(128), 274 H
Hafele, W., 19(34), 21(34), 28(34), 54
E Hall, J . G., 3(23), 29(23), 48(23), 49(23),
Eichberger, L. C., 187, 274 51(23), 53
Elliot, H . A., 65, 66(35), 96(16), 725, 726 Hayes, W. D., 2, 3(11), 8(11), 18(11),
Elsasser, W. M., 245(29), 375 21(11), 31(11), 49(11), 52, 53
Helfer, H. L., 245(39), 375
F Henderson, A. Jr., 51(45, 47), 54
Hertzberg, A., 3(23), 29(23), 48(23),
Faris, F. E., 138(21), 207 49(23), 50(23), 5 3
Fehlbeck, D. K., 65(28), 88, 726 Heyman, J., 193, 200, 208
Feldman, S., 3, 4(26), 49(26), 53, 54 Hide, R., 218(7), 228(21), 245(21, 34),
Feller, W. V., 29(37), 54 254(40), 270(43), 287(34), 296(34),
Fletcher, J. F., 135(125), 274 310, 312(55), 374, 375, 376
Foulkes, J., 200, 207 Hill, R., 146(34b), 206(34f), 208
Frankland, I. M., 89, 728 Hockenburg, R. W., 138(7), 207
Freeman, N. C., 18, 19(31), 39, 54 Hodge, P. G., Jr., 192, 193(36b),194(35c),
Freiberger, W., 200, 207 199, 200, 208, 273
Frenkel, Ya. I., 84(5), 66, 67(5), 92, 120, Hopkins, H . G., 200, 208
125 Horne, M. R., 200, 208
Freudenthal, A. PI., 143(25b), 206, 207, Howarth, L., 219(11), 374
208 Hruban, K., 188, 208
Fricke, W., 271(46), 376 Hu, L., 147, 208
Fridman, Ya. B., 69, 85(55), 727, 147, Huber, M. T., 146(40a), 208
212, 274 Hundy, B. B., 198(4la), 208
Frieman, E. A,, 245(30), 375
I
G Ilyushin, A. A., 138(44a), 142(44b),
Galin, L. A,, 81(72), 116(72), 124, 728. 143(43, 44b). 169(42b), 174(42a), 183,
154, 208 208
Garber, R. I., 77(63), 727 Inger, G. R., 318(52), 319, 379
Gatewood, B. E., 143(28), 208 Inglis, C. E., 62(l), 64, 66(1), 725
Geiringer, H . , 151, 154, 208, 208 Ivelev, D. D., 185, 209
Germain, P.. 245(39), 375 Irwin, G. R., 65(23, 25, 26), 68(47, 48, 51).
Gigon, J., 135(59), 209 73(45, 46, 47), 74, 84, 88, 89(48), 104,
Gilman, J . J.. 65(11), 121, 124, 725 105, 109, 111(47), 726, 727
Glasstone, S., 218(8), 374
Glen, J . W., 134(30), 208 J
Globe, S., 285, 376 Jaeger, J. C., 297(52), 298(52), 376
Goldstein, S., 226(18), 374 Jamiston, R. E., 136(46), 209
Golecki, J., 174, 271 Janas, M., 193, 194, 273
AUTHOR INDEX 323
Jeans, J. H., 270, 316 Lovberg, R. H., 218(8), 314
Johansen, K. W., 197, 209 Lubinskaya. M. A., 141(128), 142(128),
Johnston, Patrick J., 51(45), 54 214
Jongh, J. G . V., 77(66), 728 Ludford, G. S. S., 245(35, 39), 287(50),315
Lukasiewicz, J., 318(51), 319, 319
K Lundquist, S.. 217(5), 226(5), 245(5),
267(5), 374
Kachanov, L. M., 101, 128 Lust, R., 245(39), 315
Kakutani, T., 287, 316
Kaliski, S., 202(48), 208, 209
M
Kashdan, Ia. M., 19(35), 54
Katchanov, L. M., 209 McClintock, F. A., 124, 729
Khristianovitch, S. A., 67(38, 39), 74, 113, McCrea, W. H., 270(44), 313, 316
115(39), 126 Mc Hugh, W. E., 138(7), 207
Kies, J. A., 65(25, 26). 68(48, 49), 89(48). Marin, J.. 147, 208
126. 127 Markuzon, I. A., 118, 119(98), 729
Klimenkov, V. I., 135(50), 209 Marshall, W., 245(38), 261(38), 315
Kochina, N. N., 3(20), 26(20), 5 3 Massonet, C., 207
Kogler, F., 209 Masubuchi, K., 91. 128
Koiter, W. T.. 109, 129 Mayer, G., 135(59), 209
Konig, J . A., 199(107), 213 Melnikova, N. S., 3(20). 26(20), 5 3
Konobeyevsky, S. T., 135(52), 209 Metsik, M. S., 65(10), 119, 125
Krupkowski, A., 147, 209 Michell, J. H., 180, 209
Kubota, T., 2(9), 3, 11(10), 12(10), 17, Mikeladze, M. Sh., 200, 209
26(10), 29(10), 35(10), 51(10), 5 3 Mikhlin, S. G., 108, 128
Kukudzhanov, V. N., 203, 209 Mirels, H., 3(18), 4(29), 11(17), 12(17),
Kulsrud, R. M., 245(30), 315 14, 21, 26(17, l a ) , 27(18), 28(18),
Kultigin, V. S., l41(128), 142(128), 214 % ( l a ) , 30(18), 32(18), 33(18), 34(17),
Kutaycev, V. I., 135(52), 209 35(17), 36(17), 39, 53, 54
Kuznetsov, V. D., 119, 129 Mokhalov, S. D., 202, 209
Kuznetzov, A. I., 154, 155(55a), 167(55a, Mott, N. F., 66, 121(36), 122(36), 124(36),
55b), 168(55c), 169(55c), 171, 173 126
(55a). 176, 189(55b), 209 Mr6z, Z., 182, 197, 199, 270, 211
Kwiecinski, M., 197, 213 Murzewski, J., 174, 190, 191(76a, 76d),
19.5, 210, 211
Muskhelishvili, N. I., 62(2), 65, 70,
L
71(19), 75, 90, 110, 116(18), 117, 125,
Lamb, H., 225(17), 250(250), 314 7 29
Landau, L. D., 81(71), 128
Larmor, J., 228, 314 N
Latter, R., 13, 17, 54
Naghdi, P. M., 147, 210
Lee, Ming-Hua, 187, 209
NemBnyi, P. F., 177, 178(67), 210
Lees, L., 2(9), 53
Neuber, H., 89, 128
Lehnert, B., 224(16). 245(33), 374, 315
Niepostyn, D., 197, 210
Leibfried, G., 77(68), 128
Nikitin, L. V., 203, 209
Lensky, V. S., 135(57b),138(57b),143(43),
Novozhilov, V. V., 158(69), 177(69), 210
177, 183, 201. 208, 209
Nowacki, W., 145(70), 152, 210
Leonov, M. Ya., 78, 128
Nowinski, J., 148, 150(72), 210
LBvy, M., 154, 209
Liftshitz, E. M., 77(64), 81(71), 127, 128
Lighthill, M. J., 307(54), 316 0
Lin, C. C., 230(26), 314 Obreimov, I. V., 64, 65(8), 68, 119(8), 125
Lin, S. C., 2(7), 53 Ogibalov, P. M., 138(44a), 142(44b),
Lindley, B. C . , 218(9), 314 143(44b), 208
324 AUTHOR INDEX
Olszak, W., 132(74), 133(73e, 73f, 73h, Roberts, P. H., 228(21), 245(21, 34, 36).
73i. 73j). 146(73f, 73g, 73h, 73i, 73j), 267(41), 287(34, 36), 296(34), 297,
147(73f, 73g, 73h, 73i). 148(73k, 731, 300, 314. 315
82h, 82i), 149(73k, 731, 82h, SZj), Roesler, F. C., 65(9), 68(9), 86(53), 87(53),
150(73k. 731, 82h. 82i), 152(79), 119, 120. 125, 127
154(80c), 160(80a), 165(80a, 80b), Rogozinski, M., 189, 213
167(Sob), 170(82a, 82b), 172 (80a), Romualdi, J. P., 68(52), 69, 94, 95(52),
174, 177(80c),179(83c), 182, 183, 185, lOO(52). 127
187, 189, 190, 195173k, 731). 197, 198, Rowley, J . C., 147, 210
199(109), 203, 204(73a), 205(73k, Rushbrooke, G. S., 306(53), 316
731, 73r, 73y), 206(73u, 73x. 83c, Rychlewski, J., 154(80c), 160(80a), 165
83d), 210, 211, 212, 213 (Boa, Sob), 167(80b), 172(80a), 177
Onat, E. T., 187, 200, 212 ( ~ O C103a),
, 271, 213
Orowan, E. O., 65(24, 27, 28), 88, 126 Rzhanitsyn, A. R., 67(37), 126
Osiecki, J., 202(48), 203(88b), 208, 209,
212 S
Ostanenko, A . V., 141(128), 142(128), 214
Sack, R. A., 65(20), 66(20), 97, 126
Sakurai, Akira, 2, 3, 12(5), 21, 22(5), 5 3
P Sanders, P. H., 68(52), 69, 94, 95(52),
Pallone, A. J,, 2(8), 53 100(52), 127
Panasyuk, V. V., 78, 128 Sawczuk, A., 170, 172(105d), 178(105d),
Panferov, V. M., 184, 212 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 199(107, 109).
Parker, E. R., 85(74), 128 211, 213
Pashkov, P. O., 85(76). 128 Scheidig. A., 209
Pelczynski, T., 144, 212 Schliiter, A., 224(15), 314
Perio, P., 135(59), 209 Schumann, W., 200, 272
Perzyna, P., 152(79). 201(9la, g l b ) , Sears, W. R., 218(10), 314
203(91c), 211, 212 Sedov, L. I., 3(12), 13, 16, 17(12). 26(12),
Poletzky, A. T., 147, 212 45, 53, 86(79), 93(79), 128
Popov, N. A., 3(21), 16(21), 19(21), 20(21), Sergeyev, G. Ya., 135(111), 213
21(21), 23, 24(21), 26(2l), 53 Seth, B. R., 188, 189, 213
Popov, N . I., 147, 212 Shapiro, G. S., 201, 213
Potak, Ya. M., 85(77), 128 Shercliff, J. A., 217(6), 245(39), 285(6),
Prager. W., 150, 200, 208, 212, 213 314, 315
Pravdyuk, N. F., 135(52). 209 Sherman, D. I., 108, 110, 128, 129
Primak, W., 213 Shield, R. T., 200, 207, 212
Probstein, R . F., 3(11), 8(11), 18(11), Shtaerman, I. Ya., 81(73), 116(73), 728
21(11), 31(11). 49(11), 53 Singer, A. R. E., 198(41a), 208
Proudman, J., 232(27). 314 Smekal, A , , 64, 125
Pui, Ming-Li, 187, 209 Smith, A. MO., 30(39), 54
Smith, H. L., 68(48, 49), 89(48), 127
R Sneddon, I. N., 65, 73(14, 15), 96(16), 125
Sobelov, N. D., 147, 214
Radok, J . R . M., 124, 129 Sobotka, Z., 205, 214
Rakhmatulin, Kh. A., 201, 213 Sokolovski, V. V., 204, 214
Rayleigh, Lord, 286(48), 296, 316 Sokolowski, M., 145(116), 214
Rebinder, P. A., 66(34), 126 Spitzer, Jr., L., 223(13), 224(13), 226(13),
Remnev, Yu. I., 141(100), 213 314
Reshotko, E., 30(38), 54 Stanyukovich, K. P., 3, 53
Resler, Jr., E. L., 230(26), 314 Steel, M. C., 187, 214
Resler, E. L., 218(10).. 314 Stepien, A., 170, 213
Rivlin, R . S., 208(101), 213 Stewartson, K., 230(25), 232, 243(28),
Roberts, D. K., 112(101), 124(101), 729 374, 315
AUTHOR INDEX 325
Stroh. A. N., 96(83), 123, 124(102), 728, Vinograd, M. I., 141(128), 142(128), 274
129 von Hoerner, S., 19(33), 54
Suits, J. C., 124, 729 van Mises, R., 209
Sukhatme, S. P., 124, 729
Sychev, V. V., 3, 39, 40, 43, 44(25), W
45(25), 53
Wells, A. A ,, 65(29, 30, 31). 68, 122(101),
Synge, J. L., 312(57), 313(57), 376
Szymaliski, C., 152(79), 205, 277, 274 124(lOl), 726, 129
Westergaard, H. M., 65, 68(13), 73, 74,
81, 109, 110, 725, 727
T Wigglesworth, L. A., 104, 106, 728
Talwar, S. P., 267(42), 375 Williams, M. L., 65, 73, 125
Taylor, D. B., 146, 274 Williams, W. E., 245(32), 375
Taylor, G. I., 2, 21, 52, 238(27), 374 Willmore, T. J., 65(21), 96, 110(21), 726
Tekinalp, B., 200, 207 Wilson, J. C., 135(125), 136(125), 137
Teller, E., 245(37), 375 (125), 138(125), 139(125), 214
Thornton, P. R . , 3(18), 26(18), 27(18), Winne, D. H., 65(32). 68(32), 107, 110(32),
28(18), 29(18). 30(18), 32(18), 33(18), 7 26
53 Wolf, K., 64(7). 725
Titova, V. V., 135(111), 273 Woods, W. K.,135(125), 274
Tournarie, M., 135(59), 209 Wundt, B. M., 65(32), 68(32), 107,
Trella, M., 4(28), 49(28), 50(28), 5 4 llO(32). 112, 726, 729
Truszkowski, W., 146(123), 274
Turski, S., 150(72), 270 Y
U Y a Kura, T. K. 317(49), 318(49), 379
Yen, J. T., 287(51), 300, 376
Urbanowski, W., 148(82h, 82i), 149(82h, Yoffe, E., 122, 729
82j). 150(82h, 82i). 170(82a, 82b), Young, J., 187, 274
185, 187, 189, 277, 272 Yusuff, S., 112, 129
Ustinov, Yu. A., 114, 729
Uzhik. G. V., 144(124), 274
Z
Zahorski. S., 179(83c), 272
V Zakharov, A. I., 134(127), 274
Vaglio-Laurin, R., 4(28), 49(28), 50(28),54 Zheltov. Yu. P.. 67(38, 42, 43), 74(38),
van de Hulst, H . C., 245(31), 315 113, 114, 726, 727
Van Dyke, M. D., 2, 4(2), 6, 5 2 Zhurkov, S. P., 77(62), 85(62), 127
Van Hise. V., 318(50), 319, 379 Zhukov, A. I . , 19(35), 54
Vas, I. E., 51(48), 54 Zuyev, M. I., 141, 142(128). 274
Vineyard, G. H.. 134(17). 135(17), 207 Zyczkowski, M., 190, 203, 206, 212. 274
Subject Index
A E
Alfvbn waves, 245 ff. Effective electric field, 223
in systems of finite extent, 261 ff. Energy considerations in crack-boundary
Amperes law, 222 conditions, 84 f.
Angle-of-attack effects (hypers. fl.), 31 ff. Energy equation in MHD, 305 ff.
Entropy layer (hypers. fl.), 43 ff., 48
Equilibrium cracks, basic hypotheses,
B 76 ff.
Baroclinic, 220 boundaries of, 74
Barotropic, 220 boundary conditions, 81
Beta in MHD, 229 stress and strain at, 73 f.
Biharmonic states of equilibrium, 185 ff. structure of, 69 ff.
Blast wave, 12, 16 ff. Equivalent steady and unsteady flows, 7
Blunt-nose effect, 33 f.
Boundary conditions in MHD, 233 ff. F
at solid insulating surface, 243 f.
Faradays law, 222
electromagnetic, 234 ff.
Finite Mach number, 46
mechanical, 238
Flow between parallel planes (MHD),
Boundary-layer effects (hypers. fl.), 29 ff.
274 ff.
Brittle fracture, 82
Flow due to oscillating plane in MHD,
experimental confirmation of, 86 ff.
286 ff.
limiting cases, 292 ff.
C Flow fields associated with power-law
shocks, 23 ff.
C-classification, 149 Frozen field lines, 225
Cohesion, forces of, 76 ff.
modulus of, 80 f . G
Continuity integral (hypers. fl,), 37 ff.
Counter pressure, 34 Granular media (plast.), 204 f.
Cowlings Theorem, 228 Gravitational instability in MHD, 270 ff.
Cracks extending to body surface, 103 f f .
in rocks, 112 ff. H
in thin plates, 89 f.
isolated, 90 ff. Hartmann number, 229
near body boundaries, 107 ff. Hypersonic slender-body theory, 4 ff.
plane axisymmetrical, 96 f. Hypersonic slender-body approximation,
stability of, 97 ff. 38 f., 41 ff.
Crack systems, 108 ff.
I
D Immobile-equilibrium cracks, defined 79
Infinite Mach number (hypers. fl.), 39 f.,
Disc with circular hole, 173 43 ff.
Dissipation effects in MHD, 253 ff. Integral methods (hypers. fl.), 36 ff., 47 ff.
Dynamic beta in MHD, 229 Inverse methods (plast.), 177 ff.
Dynamic problems (th. of cracks), 121 ff. Isotropic cylinder (plast.), 185 ff.
326
SUBJECT INDEX 327
K Q
Ktitter-Hencky integrals, 159 Quasi-brittle fracture, theory of, 65
L R
Lagrangian formulation (hypers. fl.), 14 ff. Rayleigh velocity, 123
Limit analysis (plast.), 191 ff. Rayleighs problem in MHD, 296 ff.
Lundquist number, 230 Related bodies, 3
Relativistic magneto-hydrodynamics,
M 311 ff.
Rotating disc (plast.), 190
Magnetohydrodynamics, basic equations
of, 219 ff. S
Magnetic Reynolds number, 216, 224
Minimum weight design, 199 f. Second order blast-wave theory, 34
Mobile-equilibrium cracks, defined 79 Sedov formulation (hypers. fl.), 16
Momentum integral (hypers. fl.), 40 ff. Self-similar solutions, validity of, 43 ff.
Self-similarity (cracks), 87
Sharp-blow solution, 19 ff.
N Shells (plast.), 197 ff.
Newtonian flow, 18 f. Shock waves in MHD, 256 ff.
Non-homogeneity function, 162 Similitude in hypersonic flow, 8
Non-homogeneity, macroscopic, 132 Slip-line geometry, 160 ff.
plastic, 133 ff. Small departures from steady state
Non-homogeneous elastic-plastic body, (MHD), 241 ff.
148 ff. Stable cracks, 68
equilibrium in curvilinear coordinates, Standing waves in MHD, 262 ff.
156 ff. Stream-function formulation (hypers. fl.),
plates, 190 ff. 13 f.
strain-hardening, 145 f. Stress intensity factor, defined 57, 72
Stress-strain diagram changed by
0 neutrons, 138 f.
Stress trajectories, 163 ff.
Ohms law in MHD, 222
One-dimensional structural elements T
(plast.), 191 ff.
Orthotropic cylinder (plast.), 187 f. Temperature gradients, influence on
mechanical properties, 141 ff.
Three-dimensional problems (plast.),
P
183 ff.
Particular solutions (plast.), 167 ff. Torsion (plast.), 189 f.
Physically non-linear bodies (plast), 203 f. Two-dimensional state (plast.),definedl52
Plane strain, 151 ff. Two-dimensional inertial flow in MHD,
possibilities of solving, 155 f. 300 ff.
Plane waves in MHD, 244 ff.
Plastic equilibrium of wedge, 170 ff. w
Plastic layer, 168
Plastic state, geometric conditions of, 161 Waves in a non-homogeneous medium
Plates (plast.), 195 ff. (plast.), 201 ff.
Power law shocks, 8 ff. Wedging, 114 ff.
perturbed, 26 ff. of a strip, 119 ff.
Proudman-Taylor analogue in MHD,
230 ff. Y
Punch pressed into body, 174 ff. Yield limit changed by neutrons, 136
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