Carbohydrates contain 3 elements:

1. Carbon (C)
2. Hydrogen (H)
3. Oxygen (O)

Carbohydrates are found in one of three forms:

1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides (both sugars)
3. Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

General formula:.

(CH2O)n where n is a number between 3 and 9. They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms. The
monosaccharides you will have to know fall into these categories:

C = 3 = triose

C = 4 = tetrose

C = 5 = pentose

C = 6 = hexose

Trioses: (e.g. glyceraldehydes), intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis.

Tetroses: rare.

Pentoses: (e.g. ribose, ribulose), used in the synthesis of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), co-enzymes (NAD, NADP,
FAD) and ATP.

Hexoses: (e.g. glucose, fructose), used as a source of energy in respiration and as building blocks for larger molecules.

All but one carbon atom have an alcohol (OH) group attached. The remaining carbon atom has
an aldehyde or ketone group attached.

Chain form:
Ring form:

Due to the bond angles between the carbon atoms, it is possible for pentoses and hexoses to form stable ring structures.
The carbon atoms are numbered 1 to 5 in pentoses and 1 to 6 in hexoses.

Depending on the orientation of the OH group on carbon 1, the monosaccharide can have either or configurations.

Disaccharides and glycosidic bonds

These are formed when two monosaccharides are condensed together. One monosaccharide loses an H atom from carbon
atom number 1 and the other loses an OH group from carbon 4 to form the bond.

The reaction, which is called a condensation reaction, involves the loss of water (H2O) and the formation of an 1,4-
glycosidic bond. Depending on the monosaccharides used, this can be an -1,4-glycosidic bond or a -1,4-glycosidic
bond.
The reverse of this reaction, the formation of two monosaccharides from one disaccharide, is called a hydrolysis reaction
and requires one water molecule to supply the H and OH to the sugars formed.

Examples of Disaccharides

Sucrose: glucose + fructose,

Lactose: glucose + galactose,

Maltose: glucose + glucose.

Maltose: glucose + glucose.

Sucrose is used in many plants for transporting food reserves, often from the leaves to other parts of the plant. Lactose is
the sugar found in the milk of mammals and maltose is the first product of starch digestion and is further broken down to
glucose before absorption in the human gut.

Biochemical tests

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides including maltose and lactose are reducing sugars. These can be tested for,
by adding Benedict's reagent to the sugar and heating in a water bath. If a reducing sugar is present, the solution turns
green, then yellow and finally produces a brick red precipitate. Non-reducing sugars can also be tested for using Benedict's
reagent but first require addition of an acid and heating to hydrolyse (break apart) the sugar. The acid must then be
neutralised using an alkali like sodium hydroxide before carrying out the test as described above.

Polysaccharides
 Relationship of structure to
Polysaccharide: Function: Structure:
function:

Made of 2 polymers - amylose and

amylopectin.
Insoluble therefore good for storage.
Amylose: a polymer of glucoses joined by
-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Forms a helix with Helix is compact.
Main storage
6 glucose molecules per turn and about 300
Starch polysaccharide in
per helix. The branches mean that the compound
plants.
can easily hydrolysed to release the
Amylopectin: a polymer of glucoses joined glucose monomers.
by -1,4-glycosidic bonds but with branches
of -1,6-glycosidic bonds. This causes the
molecule to be branched rather than helical

Main storage The number and length of the

Similar to amylopectin but with many more
Glycogen polysaccharide in branches means that it is extremely
branches which are also shorter.
animals and fungi compact and very fast hydrolysis.
Adjacent chains of long, unbranched
Main structural The microfibrils are strong and so are
polymers of glucose joined by -1,4-
Cellulose constituent of plant structurallyIMPORTANT in plant
glycosidic bonds hydrogen bond with each
cell walls cell walls.
other to form microfibrils.

Functions of carbohydrates

1. Substrate for respiration (glucose is essential for cardiac tissues).

2. Intermediate in respiration (e.g. glyceraldehydes).
3. Energy stores (e.g. starch, glycogen).
4. Structural (e.g. cellulose, chitin in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls).
5. Transport (e.g. sucrose is transported in the phloem of a plant).
6. Recognition of molecules outside a cell (e.g. attached to proteins or lipids on cell surface membrane).

Biochemical test
Iodine solution or potassium iodide solution can be used to test for the presence of starch. A positive result changes the
solution from an orange-brown to a blue-black colour. - refer to gcse and title biochemical test for carboydrate.