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Publication 200-95
(R2000)
Air Systems
Air Systems
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and
108 of the United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for
permission or further information should be addressed to the Chief Staff Executive, Air Movement and Control
Association International, Inc. at 30 West University Drive, Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893 U.S.A.
Authority
AMCA Publication 200-95 was adopted by the membership of the Air Movement and Control Association
International, Inc. in 1995, and it was reaffirmed in 2000. Corrected tables in Annex B were added January, 2007.
Foreword
This publication is intended to provide basic information needed to design effective and energy efficient air
systems. in those cases where the system handles a gas other than air, the design data must be modified to allow
for the different physical properties of the gas being used.
Discussion is limited to systems where there is a clear separation of the fan inlet and outlet and does not cover
applications in which fans are used only to circulate air in an open space.
The design of most air sytems is based on airflow velocities which result in turbulent airflow. Some applications
require very low velocities, resulting in laminar flow conditions; others may require very high velocities, approaching
the speed of sound (Mach 1). The information given in this publication applies only to turbulent flow conditions and
not to these special systems using very low or very high flow velocities.
The flow through an air system will stabilize when the total pressure provided by the fan is exactly equal to the total
pressure losses in the system.
To achieve the desired airflow in the system the diesgner must have complete information on:
a) System Pressure Losses: The total pressure loss due to friction losses, shock losses, dissipation of velocity
pressure at the system discharge, and static pressure differences between the entry and discharge
openings. System pressure losses are discussed in detail in Section 4.
b) Fan Performance Characteristics: The relationship of the total pressure rise and the volume flow generated
by the fan. Fan performance characteristics are reviewd in Section 5. More complete information is
contained in AMCA Publication 201, Fans and Systems.
c) System Effect: The effect on the performance of the fan resulting from the difference between the fan inlet
and outlet connections to the installed system and the standardized connections used in laboratory tests
to obtain fan performance ratings. A practical approach to estimating System Effects is explained in AMCA
Publication 201, Fans and Systems.
This manual has been prepared by the Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. The information contained in
this manual has been derived from many sources and is believed to e accurate. Please note that the
recommendations contained herein do not necessarily represent the only methods or procedures appropriate for
the situation discussed, but rather are inteded to present consensus opinions and practices of the air movement
and control industry which may be helpful, or of interest to those who design, test, install, operate or maintain fan-
duct systems. Thus, AMCA disclaimes any and all warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the accuracy of the
information contained in this maual and further disclaims any liability for the use or misuse of this information.
AMCA does not guarantee, certify or assure the performance of any fan-duct system designed, tested, installed,
operated or maintained on the basis of the information provided in this manual.
Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. will consider and decide all written complaints regarding
its standards, certification programs, or interpretations thereof. For information on procedures for submitting and
handling complaints, write to:
or
Air Systems is intended to provide basic information needed to design effective and energy efficient air systems.
Discussion is limited to systems where there is a clear separation of the fan inlet and outlet and does not cover
applications in which fans are used only to circulate air in an open space.
Fans and Systems is aimed primarily at the designer of the air moving system and discusses the effect on inlet and
outlet connections of the fan's performance. System Effect Factors, which must be included in the basic design
calculations, are listed for various configurations. AMCA 201-90 and AMCA 203-90 are companion documents.
System Checklist
Fan Manufacturer's Analysis
Master Troubleshooting Appendices
Troubleshooting is intended to help identify and correct problems with the performance and operation of the air
moving system after installation.
Acceptance Tests
Test Methods and Instruments
Precautions
Limitations and Expected Accuracies
Calculations
Field Performance Measurements of Fan Systems reviews the various problems of making field measurements
and calculating the actual performance of the fan and system. AMCA 203-90 and AMCA 201-90 are companion
documents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Properties of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Airflow ...................................................................... 5
Air systems are often required to operate 1.1.4 Control devices. In many air systems it is
satisfactorily in a wide range of environmental necessary to regulate and control the flow through
conditions. The conditions which will be encountered the system in response to some monitoring signal,
must be considered in the design of the ducts, pipes, usually temperature or pressure. It may be also
etc., which will contain the airflow and constitute the necessary to regulate the flow in the individual
boundary of the system. branches of the system. Control devices such as
dampers function by controlling the amount of airflow.
1.1 Air system components In some cases, the output of the fan can be varied by
other methods (variable speed motor, variable inlet
A typical air system may contain one or more of the vanes, variable pitch impeller, etc.)
following (see Figure 1):
1.1.5 Conditioning device. Most air systems are
a) System inlet designed to take air from the inlet and change its
b) Distribution system condition before discharging it at the outlet. Changes
c) Fan may include the temperature, humidity, pressure,
d) Control device contaminant level and cleanliness, etc., of the air.
e) Conditioning device Many conditioning devices require outside energy
f) System outlet sources, for example, heating and cooling coils; other
components such as filters are passive devices and
1.1.1 System inlet. An air system usually includes have no external energy connection. All conditioning
devices such as louvers, filters, screens, guards, devices increase the pressure drop across the
grilles, etc., where the air enters the system. These system and this effect must be considered in the
are used for safety reasons as well as to inhibit the selection of the fan.
entry of rain, dust, and other unwanted matter. Their
appearance may be important as they are usually 1.1.6 System outlet. An air system usually includes
visible on the exterior of a structure. a special component at the termination of the system
or at the end of each of the system's branches, such
1.1.2 Distribution system. Most air systems are as a simple screen or louver. In many cases the
made up of ducts specially designed and constructed distribution of the air at the outlet to the receiving
to convey air from the system inlet(s) to the system space is very important, e.g., in an occupied air
outlet(s). In some cases, enclosed spaces in the conditioned room. These systems require carefully
structure such as plenums above ceilings or holes in selected outlets and diffusing devices to achieve
walls may be used to confine and direct the flow. desirable air motion and temperature conditions in
the conditioned space. Typical devices are ceiling
1.1.3 Fan. Understanding the design and opera-tion diffusers and grilles. In some cases these may
of air systems begins with an understanding of the incorporate control devices such as dampers and
mixing boxes.
1
AMCA 200-95
SYSTEM
INLET
COIL BRANCH
DUCT
FILTER
LOUVER
DAMPER
DIFFUSER
2
AMCA 200-95
2. Symbols and Subscripts
A Area m2 (ft2)
Ae Area-Orifice Equivalent to System m 2 (ft2)
Ao Area-Nozzle with no loss m 2 (ft2)
ah Absolute Humidity kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
C Dynamic Loss Coefficient Dimensionless
Cd Coefficient of Discharge Dimensionless
Cn Coefficient of Nozzle Discharge Dimensionless
c Speed of Sound m/s (ft/s)
D Duct Diameter and Equivalent Diameter m (ft)
E System Resistance Curve Dimensionless
Absolute Surface Roughness Height m (ft)
f Friction Coefficient Dimensionless
g Gravity m/s2 (ft/s2)
Ratio of Specific Heats Dimensionless
K System Effect Factor (System) Dimensionless
L Length m (ft)
Air Viscosity, Absolute N-s/m2 (lbm/ft-s)
P Pressure Differential Pa (in. wg)
P Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Ps Static Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Psx Static Pressure at Plane x Pa (in. wg)
Pt Total Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Ptx Total Pressure at Plane x Pa (in. wg)
Pv Velocity Pressure Pa (in. wg)
p Atmospheric Pressure Pa (in. Hg)
Q Airflow Rate m3/s (cfm)
Qx Airflow Rate at Plane x m3/s (cfm)
R Gas Constant J/kg-K (ft-lb/lbm-R)
Re Reynolds Number Dimensionless
rh Relative Humidity % (%)
Air Density kg/m3 (lbm/ft3)
x Air Density at Plane x kg/m 3 (lbm/ft3)
SEF System Effect Factor (Fan) Pa (in. wg)
SR System Resistance Factor m-4 (ft-4)
sh Specific Humidity (_/_ dry air) kg/kg dry air (lb/lb) dry air
t Temperature C (F)
td Dry-Bulb Temperature C (F)
tw Wet-Bulb Temperature C (F)
V Average Velocity m/s (ft/min)
v Velocity - At any Point m/s (ft/min)
Y Expansion Factor Dimensionless
Z Altitude m (ft)
~ Is Proportional to Dimensionless
2.2 Subscripts
In the design of most air systems, it is acceptable to mixture is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure
assume that the gas is incompressible, therefore, the existing compared to the vapor pressure at saturation
air density may be considered constant, and for the same dry-bulb temperature. This is also equal
therefore, the absolute pressure and absolute to the ratio of the mole fractions under the same
temperature are directly proportional. condition. Relative humidity is always expressed as a
percent.
3.1.3.2 Dry-bulb, wet-bulb and dew point
temperature. Unless otherwise specified, the Specific humidity (sh) is the actual mass (weight) of
temperature of an air-water vapor mixture is that the water vapor existing per unit mass (unit weight) of
temperature which is indicated by an ordinary or dry- dry air or gas. Absolute humidity (ah) may be
bulb thermometer. This dry-bulb temperature is the expressed in kilograms (pounds) of water vapor per
temperature of both the air and the water vapor in the cubic meter (cubic foot) of mixture. The humidity of
mixture. The wet-bulb temperature may be an air-water vapor mixture is often expressed by
determined by exposing a wetted bulb in a moving giving either relative humidity or a wet-bulb
air-water vapor mixture until equilibrium is obtained. depression.
The wet-bulb temperature will be lower than the dry-
bulb temperature as long as evaporation continues. 4. Airflow
If no evaporation is possible, the mixture is saturated
and the wet and dry-bulb temperatures for this The flow of any fluid between two points is caused by
condition will be identical. The dew point temperature the existence of a pressure differential between the
of an air-water vapor mixture is the saturation two points. It is the purpose of this section to explain
temperature corresponding to the absolute humidity the parameters that may affect the flow of a gas
of the mixture. The dew point temperature may also between two points.
be considered as that temperature at which
condensation begins when the mixture is gradually 4.1 Flow conditions
cooled.
Most air systems are designed in the incompressible
3.1.4 Viscosity. A non-perfect gas, such as air, is range. Where compressibility is a factor, Mach
capable of exerting a force parallel to the surface of a number and Reynolds number must be considered.
body which is moving with respect to the gas. The
magnitude of the force parallel to the surface is used The magnitude of these parameters gives an
to define an important property of non-perfect gases indication of the effects which can be expected from
- viscosity. The effects of viscosity on the behavior of the deviations in the non-perfect gas behavior from
real gases cause resistance to flow; the resistance is that of a perfect gas.
proportional to the velocity gradients which exist in
the gas. The absolute viscosity () is defined as the 4.1.1 Mach number. Mach number, for our purposes
shearing stress for a unit rate of change of velocity. here, is the ratio of the velocity of an airstream to the
The absolute viscosity has units of newton-sec per speed of sound in that airstream.
meter squared (N-s/m2) in the SI system and pound
mass per foot-second (lbm/ft-s) using I-P units. Mach number = V/c
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AMCA 200-95
4.1.2 Reynolds number. The ratio of the inertia when in contact with the body. This is called skin
force to the viscous force caused by changes in friction drag, and, for streamlined bodies closely
velocity within the fluid element is known as the aligned with the flow, represents the entire drag force.
Reynolds number. For blunt bodies, which may be streamlined bodies at
large angles to the flow, profile drag exists. Profile
drag is caused by the inability of the flow, due to its
Re = DV Eq. 4.1-1A SI viscous effects, to follow the body shape. The
inability to follow the body shape creates a wake of
very turbulent flow which in effect creates the profile
Re = DV Eq. 4.1-1A I-P drag force. These wake effects are the predominant
60 cause of flow losses in systems.
DV
=
Where:
6
AMCA 200-95
energy from the high velocity section in the center of In addition to the losses in total pressure in a system
the duct to the low velocity section near the duct wall caused by friction losses and dynamic losses, there
causes a marked resistance to the flow. This are losses due to System Effects.
resistance varies linearly with the length of the duct
and approximately with the square of the average System Effects occur because of the differences
velocity in the duct. The resistance is also a function between the fan inlet and outlet connections to the
of the Reynolds number of the flow, which is installed system and the standardized connections
calculated using the average velocity in the duct, the used in laboratory tests to obtain fan performance
duct diameter, and the surface roughness of the duct ratings. AMCA Publication 201, Fans and Systems,
wall. gives specific details on System Effects related to
fans. System Effects related to series system
The velocity profiles in a duct system for fully elements are covered further in Section 4.5 of this
developed flow will vary depending on whether the publication.
flow is laminar or turbulent and the degree of duct
roughness. Velocity profiles of various flow conditions 4.4.1 Duct friction losses. In the normal range of air
are shown in Figure 4C. systems for HVAC and industrial applications, the
flow falls into the transition region between laminar
The absolute velocity of the air stream will vary flow and complete turbulent flow. In this region the
substantially over the cross-sectional duct area, but losses due to friction are a function of Reynolds
for duct systems the velocity used for determining the number and the relative roughness of the duct wall.
velocity pressure is always the average velocity given The pressure loss in the transition region will vary at
by: slightly less than the square of the velocity. The
pressure loss due to friction for flow in ducts may be
V average = Q/A Eq. 4.3-1 calculated from the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
4.4 System losses Using duct friction charts (see Annex D) is the most
common method of determining friction losses.
The losses in total pressure for flow through a system These charts are based on ducts having average
are caused by two factors: friction losses due to roughness and standard air density. Correction
viscosity as the air flows along the surface of ducts factors must be applied for ducts having different
and other system elements, and dynamic losses roughness, and for variations in air density and
due to the turbulent wake caused by changes in viscosity.
direction and separation of the flow around obstructions.
7
AMCA 200-95
r LAMINAR
TURBULENT
SMOOTH Re = 107
SMOOTH Re = 105
= 0.03D ROUGH
= 0.008D ROUGH
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
v
V
D = Duct Diameter
= Duct Roughness
Re = Reynolds Number
v = Velocity at any Point
V = Average Velocity
r = Radius
8
AMCA 200-95
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.015
FULLY ROUGH (EQ 18)
0.04 Eq. (29a)
RELATIVE ROUGHNESS, /D
0.010
0.008
FRICTION FACTOR, f
0.006
RO
0.03
UG
0.004
H
W E
IT q.
H (2
Re 9a
DE )
0.002
PE
ND
EN
CE
0.02 0.0010
0.0008
Eq. (27) 0.0006
0.0002
TRANSITION
LAMINAR TURBULENT
REGION
0.00010
0.00005
0.010
0.009
0.008 0.00001
103 2 3 5 104 2 3 5 105 2 3 5 106 2 3 5 107 2 3 5 108
REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals. (Moody 1944). Values on the chart are the same for both the SI and I-P systems. Equation numbers refer
to equations in the source document.
9
AMCA 200-95
Loeffler1 has developed simplified equations for the Correction factors for density and viscosity variations
friction factor in the normal range of flow conditions need to be applied for conditions other than standard
found in industrial and HVAC air systems. The air. See Annexes B and E.
equations provide for direct calculation of duct friction
total pressure losses. These equations yield results 4.4.2 Dynamic losses. Dynamic losses occur where
that are accurate within 5% and are conservative there are changes in velocity or direction in the air
over most of the range of flow. system and are due primarily to the profile drag.
Dynamic losses are proportional to the square of
For aluminum ducts, medium smooth: velocity, and therefore, are proportional to the
velocity pressure.
= 0.0000457 m (0.00015 ft)
Pt ~ V 2 ~ Pv
LQ1.863
Pt loss = a 4.93 Dynamic pressure loss data are given in a number of
D forms such as pressure loss for given volume or
Where: velocity, equivalent length of duct, or velocity
pressure multiplier, and is available from
a = 1.764 10-2 Eq. 4.4-2 SI manufacturers' data and handbooks such as:
ASHRAE, the Industrial Ventilation Guide and
a = 4.816 10-9 Eq. 4.4-2 I-P SMACNA.
For galvanized steel ducts, average: Except at duct exits, dynamic losses occur along
some length and cannot be separated from friction
= 0.0001524 m (0.0005 ft) losses. For practical purposes the dynamic losses
are assumed to be concentrated at one point and the
friction losses are included as part of the duct friction.
LQ1.921 Dynamic loss coefficients for duct fittings are based
Pt loss = a 5.066
D on zero length. For friction loss calculations, the
Where: centerline length of the duct fitting is taken as the
length of the fitting.
a = 1.717 10-2 Eq. 4.4-3 SI
4.4.3 Dynamic loss coefficient. There are two
common methods of expressing dynamic losses.
a = 3.534 10-9 Eq. 4.4-3 I-P
These are: 1) The equivalent length of duct method,
and 2) the loss coefficient method. The equivalent
For fiberglass ducts or lined ducts, fabric and wire
length of duct method replaces the dynamic loss of
flexible ducts (wire covered with fabric), medium
fittings (elbows, tees, branches, etc.) with a length of
rough,
duct that will have an equivalent loss. The equivalent
length of duct for all of the dynamic losses are added
= 0.00091443 m (0.003 ft)
to the straight duct length. A friction chart showing
the loss is then used to determine the total loss in the
LQ1.965 system.
Pt loss = a 5.208
D
The dynamic loss coefficient method is based on the
Where: fact that all losses in a system are functions of the
velocity pressure and can be calculated by a
a = 2.093 10-2 Eq. 4.4-4 SI corresponding dynamic loss factor multiplied by the
velocity pressure. These losses are added to the
a = 3.64 10-9 Eq. 4.4-4 I-P straight duct friction loss to determine the total loss in
the system.
Where:
The dynamic loss coefficient method is preferred
Pt loss = Total pressure loss, Pa (in. wg) because it is usually quicker and offers the
Q = Flow rate, m3/s (cfm) advantage of faster recalculation when other branch
D = Duct diameter, m (ft) (or equivalent diameter duct sizes are tried.
of rectangular ducts) D equivalent = (4ab/)0.5
where a and b are the sides in m (ft) Dynamic losses are proportional to the velocity
L = Duct length in m (ft) pressure occurring in the system element and,
1. Loeffler, J. J., Simplified Equations for HVAC Duct Friction Factors, ASHRAE Journal, January, 1980
10
AMCA 200-95
therefore, the pressure loss in the fitting can be 4.5.2 Element System Effects in series. System
related to the velocity pressure by use of a dynamic Effects for other air system elements occur when two
loss coefficient. or more elements are in close proximity to one
another. Loss coefficients for duct fittings, coils,
The dynamic loss coefficient Co is defined as: filters, dampers, etc., are determined with a sufficient
length of straight duct (normally 10 diameters) ahead
Co = Pt/Pvo Eq. 4.4-5 of the element to allow for a normally distributed
velocity profile entering the element, and a sufficient
Where: length of straight duct (normally 10 diameters)
downstream from the element to allow a normally
Co = Dynamic loss coefficient, reference to section distributed velocity profile to be re-established. When
o, dimensionless two elements, such as elbows, or an elbow and a
Pt = Dynamic pressure loss, Pa (in. wg) damper, are placed close together the air entering
Pvo = Velocity pressure at section o, Pa (in. wg) the second element will be highly turbulent and
asymmetrical in profile, causing a higher loss than
expected. In addition, any static regain occurring
The coefficient relates the pressure loss in the
downstream of the first element would also be lost
element to the velocity pressure at a given cross-
when sufficient length of straight duct is not present.
sectioned area of the element.
To illustrate System Effects for duct elements, the
The pressure loss of duct system elements with
loss coefficients for a single 90 elbow and two
known dynamic loss coeffients can be calculated by:
elbows in series are shown in Figure 4F.
Pt = Co Pvo Eq. 4.4-6
In the case of the two elbows in series, the difference
between twice the loss of the single elbow and the
Where there are changes in area or divided flow in
actual combined loss is the System Effect. The
the fitting, the designer must be careful to use the
System Effect varies substantially depending on how
proper area as noted in the loss tables for the
close the two elbows are to each other.
determination of the velocity pressure to be used with
the dynamic loss coefficient. The ASHRAE
Similar effects can be expected when any system
Handbook: Fundamentals, Chapter on Duct Design,
elements are in close proximity. The amount of the
provides a detailed discussion of the dynamic loss
System Effect will vary over a rather wide range
coefficient and tables for coefficients of many
depending upon the physical characteristics of each
common duct elements.
element and their relationship to each other in the
system.
4.5 System Effects
Very little actual data is available on System Effects
Additional losses can occur in air systems because of of various combinations of system elements, and the
the physical relationship of various elements in the system designer must, of necessity, estimate the
system. These System Effect losses occur because System Effects. The following tables for estimating
of the difference between the way the performance of System Effects, and Equation 4.5-1, are given as a
the element was determined by testing and the way guide to the designer. Actual data should be used
the element is actually installed in the system. whenever it is available.
4.5.1 Fan System Effects. Fan System Effects Cc = (Ca + Cb) K Eq. 4.5-1
occur because of the difference in inlet and outlet
conditions under laboratory test conditions and the
Where:
inlet and outlet conditions as the fan is installed in the
system. Detailed information on Fan System Effects
Cc = Loss coefficient of combined elements,
is contained in AMCA Publication 201, Fans and
dimensionless
Systems. The System Effect is accounted for as a
Ca = Loss coefficient of element a, dimensionless
pressure loss which must be included with the other
system losses. The sum of the pressure losses is Cb = Loss coefficient of element b, dimensionless
then used as the basis for selecting the fan. K = System Effect Factor, dimensionless
11
AMCA 200-95
ONE ELBOW a b
RESISTANCE
ELEMENTS
C1 = 1.15*
FLOW D
C2 = VARIES
FLOW From SMACNA Duct Design Manual
L
Figure 4G - Element System Effects for
D Straight Through Flow
L
for two 2.63 4.18 3.08 2.45 D
elbows in
series**
2 C1 Two
times the
loss
2.30 L/D .50 1 2 3 4 5 7.5 10
coefficient
of a single
elbow K 1.0 1.08 1.75 1.5 1.30 1.2 1.1 1.0
System
Effect
+0.33 +81.7% +33.98% +6.5% Figure 4H - Element System Effect for
14.3% 1.88 0.78 0.15 Turning Elements
(Difference)
12
AMCA 200-95
5. The Flow System is equal to the air density in kg/m3 (lbm/ft3), and
standard air density equals 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 lbm/ft3).
5.1 Concepts of pressure Pv is always positive and this pressure is always
exerted in the direction of airflow. Air confined within
The flow of air between two zones (or spaces) is due a duct or a tank, whether in motion or not, creates
to a pressure difference between the two zones. This another kind of pressure which exerts itself in all
pressure difference forces the air to flow from the directions at once, including perpendicular to the
high pressure zone to the low pressure zone. walls of the enclosure. This is known as static
Ductwork is used in most air systems to convey the pressure Ps. Static pressure is negative when it is
air from one zone to another. The quantity of air Q in below atmospheric pressure, and positive when
m3/s (cfm) that will flow is equal to the cross-sectional above atmospheric pressure. Total pressure Pt at any
area A of the duct in m2(ft2) times the air velocity V in point in an air system is equal to the algebraic sum of
m/s (ft/min). the static pressure Ps and velocity pressure Pv. Pt
can be either positive or negative, depending on its
Q = AV Eq. 5.1-1 components.
13
AMCA 200-95
In Figure 5A, the sealed length of duct has a static pressure of 345 Pa (1.39 in. wg) above atmospheric pressure.
Since there is no airflow, velocity pressure is equal to zero. The total pressure Pt can then be calculated according
to equation 5.1-3.
SI I-P
Pt = Ps + Pv Pt = Ps + Pv
= 345 + 0 = 1.39 + 0
= 345 Pa = 1.39 in. wg
14
AMCA 200-95
In Figure 5B, with the duct open and a fan placed at one end blowing air through the duct, we find both static
pressure and velocity pressure as illustrated by the water gauge. The total pressure is the sum of velocity pressure
and static pressure.
20.3 m/s
AIRFLOW
(4005 FPM)
In this illustration, the static pressure will be above atmospheric pressure and the total pressure is numerically
greater than either static or velocity pressure.
15
AMCA 200-95
In Figure 5C, a fan is placed at the end of the duct and draws air through the duct. In this case, the static pressure
is below atmospheric pressure. In both Figures 5B and 5C, the total pressure rise across the fan is 345 Pa (1.39
in. wg); therefore, the energy used in both systems is equal.
20.3 m/s
AIRFLOW
(4005 FPM)
16
AMCA 200-95
The well known Bernoulli Theorem, frequently used Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2 + losses1,2 Eq. 5.3-1
in the flow of fluids, states the law of conservation of
energy for fluid systems. In its simpler form for Simply stated, the sum of static pressure and velocity
airflow: pressure at any point in a flow system is equal to the
sum of static pressure and velocity pressure at any
(V12/2g) + (P1/g) + Z1 = (V22/2g) + (P2/g) other point in the system, plus any losses in pressure
+ Z2 + losses1,2 occurring between the two points.
Where:
Although it is very important to recognize that the
Vx2/2g = Kinetic energy or velocity pressure (Pv) sum of static and velocity pressure remains constant
at any point in the system when disregarding losses,
Px/g = Potential energy or static pressure (Ps)
it is the losses that are of real importance in the
Zx = The elevation (normally ignored in fan
design and function of air moving systems.
systems with minimal changes in
elevation) may need to be evaluated when To illustrate Bernoulli's Theorem, Figure 5D shows a
the system elevation change causes a typical venturi system commonly used to measure
noticeable change in air density. fluid flow.
Pt PS PV Pt PS PV Pt PS PV
Pt Pt
PS
PRESSURE PS
Pa (INCHES W.G.) PV
PV
17
AMCA 200-95
For the purposes of illustration, assume this is a If the plenum is very large relative to the nozzle
perfect device with no losses. The velocity pressure, diameter, the velocity in the plenum will approach
static pressure, and total pressure at each point in the zero, so the total pressure at point 1 (Pt1) will be equal
system are shown on the gauges as well as on the to the static pressure (Ps1). Assuming a perfect fluid
lower portion of the illustration. Part of the static at and no losses occurring in the nozzle, the static
point 1 is converted to velocity pressure as the fluid pressure in the plenum (point 1) is totally converted
is accelerated in the contracted flow area in the neck to velocity pressure at the discharge of the nozzle
of the venturi. At point 2, in the neck of the venturi, (point 2).
the velocity pressure reaches its maximum and the
static pressure is reduced, but the total pressure At point 2, just beyond the discharge end of the
remains constant. As the flow area is gradually nozzle, the static pressure (Ps2) will be zero (at
increased to point 3, the velocity is slowed down to atmospheric pressure) and the total pressure (Pt2) will
the original velocity and the velocity pressure is be equal to the velocity pressure of the air stream.
reduced to its original value. The static pressure Applying Bernoulli's Equation for points 1 and 2
increases back to its original value also, while the gives:
total pressure remains constant.
Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2
In this illustration, part of the static pressure at point
1 is converted to increased velocity pressure at point
Since Pv1 is equal to 0 and Ps2 is equal to 0, the
2 and the velocity pressure is then converted back
equation reduces to:
into static pressure at point 3.
Ps1 = Pv2
The conversion of the velocity pressure into static
pressure by reducing the velocity is known as static
regain and it is very important to understand this In this case, the energy of the static pressure in the
phenomenon in the design of flow systems. plenum is totally converted to the velocity energy at
the discharge of the nozzle. It should also be noted
In air systems, changes in velocity often occur as the that the velocity pressure is totally lost as the
air flows through the various elements comprising the airstream discharges to atmosphere.
system. Some total pressure loss will occur any time
the velocity in the system is increased or decreased. Using Equation 5.1-2A (as reduced above) the
The magnitude of these losses is dependent on the relationship between static pressure and the throat
physical characteristics of the system element in velocity can be established in the above example.
which the velocity change takes place. Decreases in Using this in Equation 5.1-2A gives:
velocity occurring at abrupt enlargements in area
result in total pressure losses approaching one V2 = (2Ps1/2)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2A SI
velocity pressure.
V2 = 1096(Ps1/2)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2A I-P
Figure 5E illustrates air flowing from a large plenum
through a long radius flow nozzle and discharging to Or where: Ps1 = Pv2
atmosphere.
Then for standard air, the equations would be:
Where:
Ps1 = Pv2
18
AMCA 200-95
Then, for standard air, the equation would be: In practical system design both Cn and Y approach
unity and can normally be neglected. However, these
Pv2 = 0.6V 2 Eq. 5.3-3B SI factors are important when measuring fan
performance in accordance with ANSI/AMCA
Pv2 = (V2/4005)2 Eq. 5.3-3B I-P Standard 210.
In the above example, the quantity of flow would be In Figure 5F, the nozzle is replaced by a sharp edged
dependent on the area of the nozzle discharge and orifice. The flow through the orifice tends to neck
the velocity in the throat as given by the equation: down to a flow area smaller than the orifice diameter.
The point at which the flow area reaches its minimum
Q2 = V2A2 is called the vena contracta. The flow through the
orifice is given by the equation:
Where:
Q = Cd(2Ps/)0.5A Eq. 5.3-6 SI
Q = Airflow rate, m3/s (cfm)
V = Velocity, m/s (ft/min) Q = Cd1096(Ps/)0.5A Eq. 5.3-6 I-P
A = Area, m2 (ft2)
Where:
Substituting for V2 from Equation 5.3-2A and 5.3-2B
gives: A = Area of orifice, m2 (ft2)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge, dimensionless
Q = (2Ps1/2)0.5A2 Eq. 5.3-4A SI
VENA CONTRACTA
Q = 1096(Ps1/2)0.5A2 Eq. 5.3-4A I-P
19
AMCA 200-95
If we plot the flow through these elements versus Resistance Curve (see Figure 5H) the point of
static pressure as shown in Figure 5G, we obtain a operation is at the intersection of the fan performance
squared curve which is typical of flow versus curve and the System Resistance curve.
pressure for any constant system.
SYSTEM
RESISTANCE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
POINT OF
OPERATION
P = KQ2
FAN PRESSURE
CURVE
FLOW FLOW
These curves are called System Resistance curves, 5.4 Fan total and static pressure
and define the relationship of flow versus pressure
for any system with constant resistance. System The flow of a gas through a system of ducts and
Resistance curves are defined by the following various system elements requires energy:
equations:
a) To accelerate the air from ambient conditions at
Q = (2Ps/)0.5Ae Eq. 5.3-7A SI the entry to the system
Q = 1096(Ps/)0.5Ae Eq. 5.3-7A I-P b) To overcome the losses in the system from
friction and system element shock losses
Then for standard air:
c) For the loss of energy dissipated as velocity at
Q = 1.29(Ps )0.5A Eq. 5.3-7B SI the system outlet
e
The System Resistance concept is very useful in PtF = Pt2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-1
understanding flow in complete systems or elements
of flow systems. If we add a fan curve to the System Or:
20
AMCA 200-95
The velocity pressure of a fan is defined as: Figure 5J. Both static pressure and total pressure
curves of the fan and system resistance are shown.
PvF = Pv2 Eq. 5.4-3 Either set of curves can be used for the flow rate
because the point of operation is the same. The
The static pressure of a fan is defined as: difference in pressure at the point of operation
between the total pressure curve and the static
PsF = PtF - PvF Eq. 5.4-4 pressure curve is the velocity pressure at the fan
discharge (plane 2).
Fan static pressure, as defined, is a term that is
peculiar to fans and is not consistent with the normal Most fans are rated in terms of static pressure and
meaning of static pressure rise. Fan static pressure flow, however, fans having high discharge velocities
is derived from the method of testing fans where the such as vaneaxial fans are quite often rated in terms
fan static pressure is equal to gauge static pressure of total pressure. Be aware of these different
at the fan discharge when the fan draws air from methods of rating and be certain whether fan static
surrounding atmosphere through a well shaped inlet. pressure or fan total pressure was used to determine
the fan selection.
Special care must be used when using fan static
pressure for purposes of matching the required fan 5.4.2 Fan system pressure relationships. Figure
performance against system total pressure losses. 5K shows the relationship of total pressure, static
The relationship of these pressures is covered in pressure and velocity pressure for a fan with free inlet
detail for various systems further on in this section. conditions and discharging through a duct against
some system. In this example the fan is shown as
The static pressure of a fan can also be stated in being equipped with a short inlet duct and an inlet
several other forms. Substituting Equation 5.4-2 for bell. For simplicity's sake it is assumed that there are
the total pressure of the fan in Equation 5.4-4 gives: no losses at the inlet to the fan.
PsF = Ps2 + Pv2 - Ps1 - Pv1 - Pv2 Eq. 5.4-5 The total pressure prior to the entry of the fan in
Figure 5K is zero and since it was assumed that there
Simplifying: are no entry losses, the total pressure remains zero
until the flow is acted upon by the fan. As air enters
PsF = Ps2 - Ps1 - Pv1 Eq. 5.4-6 the fan, its velocity and the pressure due to that
velocity (velocity pressure) increases while static
Since: pressure decreases in direct proportion. (In actual
conditions there will be some entry losses which will
Ps1 + Pv1 = Pt1 be accounted for in the fan performance rating.)
Referring to Figure 5K, the fan total pressure is equal
to the total pressure at plane 2 minus the total
The equation can be restated as:
pressure at plane 1.
PsF = Ps2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-7
PtF = Pt2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-8
5.4.1 Fan performance specification. The system
The fan static pressure is equal to the total pressure
designer should be aware of the effect of the velocity
at plane 2 minus the velocity pressure at plane 2.
pressure at the outlet of the system and the velocity
pressure of the fan discharge (plane 2) on the
PsF = Pt2 - Pv2 Eq. 5.4-9
determination of fan total or static pressure for the
system. The net result of the fan total or static
pressure requirements at a given flow rate for the The static pressure of the fan can also be stated as
system is the fan performance specification, which is the static pressure at plane 2 minus the static
normally stated as flow at a specific static, or total pressure at plane 1 minus the velocity pressure at
pressure. This statement of required fan performance plane 1.
is, in reality, a statement of one point on a system
resistance or equivalent orifice curve, which then PsF = Ps2 - Ps1 - Pv1 Eq. 5.4-10
defines the flow and pressure relationship of the
system being designed. Or, as the static pressure at plane 2 minus the total
pressure at plane 1.
The actual point of operation of the combined fan
and system will be the intersection of the fan PsF = Ps2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-11
performance curve and the system curve as shown in
21
AMCA 200-95
The actual static pressure rise across the fan from 5.5 The total system
plane 1 to plane 2 will be greater than the fan static
pressure by the amount of the velocity pressure at A fan provides the total pressure to move the air
the fan inlet, plane 1. The difference in the actual through a system and the flow rate will reach a point
static pressure rise across the fan and the fan static of equilibrium (point of operation) when the total
pressure represents the energy required to pressure provided by the fan equals the total
accelerate the air to its entry velocity. This kinetic pressure losses in the system at that flow rate. A
energy is retained by the moving air stream until typical system with inlet and discharge resistance is
there is a change in velocity in the system or it is illustrated in Figure 5L.
dissipated at the point of discharge, and as such
does not represent a loss in total pressure until it is Applying Bernoulli's Equation at the point of entry and
discharged. the outlet:
The equipment arrangement shown in Figure 5K is PtE = PtO + Pt loss E,O - PtF Eq. 5.5-1
typical of the test conditions for fans in ANSI/AMCA
Standard 210, and is the basis for fan performance Rearranging:
ratings. When fans are tested in accordance with
ANSI/AMCA Standard 210, the inlet and discharge PtF = Pt loss, E,O + PtO - PtE Eq. 5.5-2
conditions are rigidly specified for each test method.
Restating in terms of Ps and Pv:
When a fan is installed in an air system where the
actual entry and exit conditions are different than the PtF = Pt loss E,O + PsO + PvO - PsE - PvE
test conditions, the performance of the fan may be
altered and System Effect factors must be used to
PtF = Pt loss E,O + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE) Eq. 5.5-3
account for the altered performance. AMCA
Publication 201, Fans and Systems describes
Substituting from Equation 5.4-4 for PtF :
various System Effects and provides quantitative
data for calculating System Effect losses.
PvF
PRESSURE
SYSTEM RESISTANCE
(TOTAL PRESSURE) PtF
PsF
SYSTEM RESISTANCE
(STATIC PRESSURE)
PsF = [Pt loss E,O + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE)] - PvF is included in the total pressure loss of the discharge
Eq. 5.5-4 element.
Equations 5.5-3 and 5.5-4 are the general statements System total pressure loss = total pressure loss
of fan total pressure or fan static pressure required internal to the system, plus the velocity pressure loss
for flow through a system. The Pt loss term is the loss at the outlet(s) of the system.
internal to the system from friction and shock losses.
The PvO term represents the energy loss to the The term (PsO - PsE - PvE) represents the change in fan
system contained in the velocity at the outlet of the total pressure or fan static pressure requirements
system. because of the static pressure conditions existing at
the system entry or outlet and any velocity pressure
In Equation 5.5-4, the items enclosed in large present at the system entry. Velocity and velocity
brackets represent the fan total pressure. pressure generated by external sources, such as
wind, at the system entry are seldom encountered,
In the normal method of calculating system total so the PvE term can generally be disregarded.
pressure losses, the velocity pressure at the outlet(s)
0
FAN
PtF = Pt2 - Pt1
PsF = PtF - Pv2
Pt
+ Pv Pt2 = PtF
Ps2 = PsF
Pv1 Pv2
PtE= 0 0
Ps1
_ Ps ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
23
AMCA 200-95
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
ELEMENT PLANE 1 PLANE 2 ELEMENT
E
O
ENTRY FLOW FAN OUTLET
PtF Pv2
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
Pv Pt2
PvO = PtO
+ Ps2
PtE = 0 0
_
Pt PsF
ABSOLUTE
Ps PRESSURE
Ps1
PLANE 1 PLANE 2
E O
ENTRY OUTLET
FLOW
FAN
RESISTANCE
E ELEMENT
PLANE 1 PLANE 2
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE Pt FAN PtO = Pv2
Pv
+ Pt
PtE = 0
_
Ps
Ps
Pt1 ABSOLUTE
FAN
PRESSURE
Pv Ps1
PtF = Pt LOSS + PvO
Where:
PsF = Pt LOSS + PvO - Pv2
Pv1
since PvO = Pv2
PsF = Pt LOSS
(Pressure Loss Internal to System)
25
AMCA 200-95
5.6 Types of fan system PsF = Pt loss + PvO - Pv2 Eq. 5.6-2
There are four basic system Installation Types: In the special case where the velocity pressure at the
outlet is equal to the velocity pressure at the fan
AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE A: discharge, the fan static pressure will equal the total
Free Inlet, Free Outlet pressure loss. If these velocity pressures are different
the fan total pressure and fan static pressure must be
increased or decreased by the amount of the
difference in these velocity pressures.
AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE D: Fans designed for use at the end of a system, such
Ducted Inlet, Ducted Outlet as power roof ventilators, include the loss at the
discharge in the fan ratings and no system effect loss
is needed.
26
AMCA 200-95
27
AMCA 200-95
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
ELEMENT PLANE 1 PLANE 2 ELEMENT
E 0
Pvt
Figure 5Q - Fan with Inlet and Discharge Resistance - Evas Outlet Added
RESISTANCE 1 Q1
QT
RESISTANCE 2 Q2
2 2
Q1 Q2 0.4472
C SR1 = C SR2 = QT
0.9949
Where: = QT (0.4495)
C = 1.29 (for SI units)
= 4005 (for I-P units) If:
29
AMCA 200-95
and total the losses. In systems that include parallel ITEM DUCT,
branches it is customary to determine the loss of the 6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.4064 m (16 in.) diameter.
branch path that has the highest resistance to Airflow = 0.94 m3/s (2000 cfm)
establish the fan requirements. Other branch paths Pt Loss = 8.94 Pa (0.036 in. wg)
that have lower losses must have resistance added
to them to balance the system since the total ITEM D - DIVIDED FLOW FITTING,
pressure loss of each path must be equal. 0.4572 m (18 in.) to 0.4064 m (16 in.) and 0.3048 m
(12 in.) diameter, with a main branch dynamic loss
5.8.1 Example: System loss calculations for coefficient of 0.
branch 1 (dynamic loss coefficient method) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pv = 44.70 Pa (0.18 in. wg)
ITEM K - DISCHARGE DIFFUSER Pt Loss = 44.70 0 (0.18 0)
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with a dynamic loss
= 0 Pa (0 in. wg)
coefficient of 0.50.
NOTE: The net loss in the main branch of this fitting
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) is zero (0), since there is static regain to offset the
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg) loss.
Pt Loss = 0.50 25.08 (0.50 0.101)
= 12.54 Pa (0.051 in. wg) ITEM DUCT,
NOTE: Loss coefficient includes velocity lost at 12.192 m (40 ft.), 0.4572 m (18 in.) diameter.
discharge and static regained by diffusion. Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 21.36 Pa (0.086 in. wg)
ITEM J - BALANCING DAMPER,
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with a dynamic loss E through H - These losses may be included in the
coefficient of 0.52. manufacturer's rating data.
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm)
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg) ITEM E - ENTRANCE,
Pt Loss = 0.52 25.08 (0.52 0.101) from plenum 0.4572 m (18 in.) diameter, dynamic
= 13.04 Pa (0.053 in. wg) loss coefficient of 0.5.
Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm)
ITEM DUCT, Pv = 44.70 Pa (0.18 in. wg)
6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter. Pt Loss = 44.70 0.5 (0.18 0.5)
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) = 22.35 Pa (0.09 in. wg)
Pt Loss = 10.18 Pa (0.041 in. wg)
(from Annex D) ITEM F - COIL
Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
ITEM A - ELBOW, Pt Loss = 74.51 Pa (0.3 in. wg)
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with dynamic loss (from manufacturer's data)
coefficient of 0.22.
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) ITEM G - FILTER
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 0.22 25.08 (0.22 0.101) Pt Loss = 86.93 Pa (0.35 in. wg)
= 5.518 Pa (0.022 in. wg) (from manufacturer's data)
31
AMCA 200-95
0.46m DIA.
E B B
COIL
F 0.30m DIA. 0.30m DIA.
FILTER 0.472m3/s 0.472m3/s
G
LOUVER
H J J DAMPER J
DIFFUSER K K K
3 2 1
SI
16 DIA. 12 DIA.
18 DIA.
E B B
COIL
F 12 DIA. 12 DIA.
FILTER 1000 CFM 1000 CFM
G
LOUVER
H J J DAMPER J
DIFFUSER K K K
3 2 1
I-P
32
AMCA 200-95
300
PT vs FLOW
15 DWDI FAN
2.33 FT2 OUTLET AREA
2 1316 RPM
DESIGN
SYSTEM
PRESSURE, H2O in. wg
PT vs FLOW
0 1 2 3 4
CFM 1000
rate required at the design conditions. As an conditions (Annex E) has a density of 1.072 kg/m3
example, in a system requiring a mass flow rate of (0.067 lbm/ft3). The power at these conditions would
226.8 kg/min (500 lbm/min) at 121.1C (250F) and be the power for standard air multiplied by the density
at an altitude of 914.4 m (3000 ft), the air density from ratio:
Annex E is 0.800 kg/m3 (.05 lbm/ft3). The required
volume flow rate can then be determined by dividing SI (Power required at 20C and 914.4 m)
the mass flow rate by the design density: 10.82 kW (1.072 kg/m3 1.2 kg/m3) = 9.67 kW
SI (Volume flow rate) I-P (Power required at 68F and 3000 ft)
226.8 kg/min (60 s/min 0.800 kg/m3) = 4.725 m3/s 14.5 BHP (0.067 lbm/ft3 0.075 lbm/ft3) = 12.95 BHP
I-P (Volume flow rate) In normal HVAC applications the effects of density
500 lbm/min 0.5 lbm/ft3 = 10000 cfm changes other than for operation at higher altitudes,
are quite often ignored and the system design is
The pressure loss in the system would be calculated based on handling standard air. The system designer
based on 4.725 m3/s (10000 cfm) at standard air should, however, be aware of the effects of density
density of 1.2 kg/m3 (.075 lbm/ft3). If in this example change and take them into consideration when
the pressure loss at standard air is 1490.16 Pa (6 in. making field measurements of system performance
wg) the pressure loss at actual conditions would be or balancing the system.
this value multiplied by the density ratio:
Use Annex C to determine the density of air over a
SI (Pressure loss - actual conditions) range of barometric pressures, temperatures, and
1490.15 Pa (0.8 kg/m3 1.2 kg/m3) = 993.44 Pa relative humidities. Annex E gives the density ratios
for a wide range of temperatures and altitudes. The
I-P (Pressure loss - actual conditions) air density at the various conditions is obtained by
6 in. wg (.05 lbm/ft3 .075 lbm/ft3) = 4 in. wg multiplying standard air density of 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075
lbm/ft3) by the factors shown in the table.
A fan for this system must be selected based on its
performance at standard conditions. For this example 6. System Design and Tolerances
select the fan for a performance of 4.725 m3/s (10000
cfm) at 1490.16 Pa (6 in. wg) static pressure. Before making a final determination of the fan
Determine the fan power required at standard density selection there are several factors in the design of a
from the fan performance data. The power required system and the selection of a fan that need to be
at actual conditions would then be calculated by understood and evaluated:
multiplying the catalog fan power by the density ratio.
In this example the fan power required at standard a) The effect of variation in the resistance of the
conditions is 10.82 kW (14.5 BHP). At the actual actual installed system versus the resistance of
operating conditions of 121.1C (250F) air at 914.4 the designed system, i.e.; point of operation
m (3000 ft) altitude, the fan power required would be
the power for standard air multiplied by the density b) The fan performance characteristics and
ratio: system/performance tolerances
34
AMCA 200-95
a) The installed system is different from the These curves are only shown to make the system
designed system, such as the addition of elbows designer aware of the effect of the slope of the fan
and offsets to meet field conditions, failure to curve on the expected system performance with
provide turning vanes in elbows, or the change in variations in system resistance. Many other factors
position of various system elements with respect enter into the determination of the best fan type and
to each other; size for a given application.
b) Excessive leakage or increased resistance due 6.2.2 Fan performance tolerance. The fan
to poor quality workmanship at the installation; performance also has a tolerance which must be
considered. The AMCA Check Test Tolerances are
c) Loss coefficients of the various system elements described in AMCA Publication 211, Certified Ratings
such as coils, filters, dampers, diffusers, elbows, Program - Air Performance, Product Rating
etc., improperly accounted for; Requirement Subsection B. The AMCA Check Test
Tolerance is shown on Figure 6B. This tolerance is to
d) System Effects: be applied along a parabolic system line. The power
not properly accounted for required by the AMCA Check Test Tolerances shall
ignored in the original system design not exceed the rated data at the measured volume by
not accounted for because of on-site more than 5% or 37 watts, whichever is greater. The
installation changes. fan curve in Figure 6B has dashed lines indicating the
tolerance range of fan performance, and when
The degree to which all of the various tolerances and combined with the system resistance tolerance
the field changes affect the actual system resistance curves, an area of probable system performance is
varies quite widely. Experience indicates that the indicated by the tolerance limits shown for the system
difference to be expected between the calculated and resistance and the tolerance limits shown for the fan
actual system resistance can be as much as 10%. flow-pressure. As can be seen, the probable flow
In extreme cases, greater system resistance range could be from 3.15 m3/s (6674 cfm) to 3.39
differentials have been experienced. Not accounting m3/s (7185 cfm) which is -4.7 to +2.6%. An installed
for system effects in the design will result in a higher system tolerance range approaching 5.0% of flow
system resistance and reduced flow. could be expected.
6.2 Fan performance 6.2.3 Performance safety factor. Evaluate the fan
performance tolerance and system resistance
There is a wide variety of basic fan designs in axial, tolerances to determine if the lower or upper limits of
centrifugal and mixed flow variations. Curves of the probable flow in the system are acceptable. The
several typical basic fans, all selected for a point of combination of these tolerances should also be
operation of 3.30 m3/s (7000 cfm) at a static pressure evaluated to ensure that the high side system
of 1490.16 Pa (6 in. wg), are shown on Figure 6A. All resistance curve does not fall into the unstable
of these fans pass through the design point of portion of the fan curve. With a few exceptions, all
operation, but with different slopes. The point of fans have an unstable range of performance.
highest efficiency will typically occur somewhat to the Operation in this area of the curve should be avoided
right of the peak pressure point. and precautions taken to ensure operation outside of
the unstable area at the highest expected system
6.2.1 System resistance effect on performance. resistance.
The system resistance curves for the point of
operation and curves for 10% and 25% of the 6.2.3.1 Static pressure safety factor. It has been
design pressure are also shown in Figure 6A. The common practice among system designers to apply a
intersection of these system lines with the various fan performance safety factor to the calculated system
curves show what range of volume performance can requirements. This is often accomplished by adding
be expected for each fan over this range of system a nominal percentage of pressure to the system
resistance. The amount of variation in flow rate with pressure requirements. Some system designers will
changes in the system resistance will be dependent size the system for a higher flow rate than is required.
on the slope of the fan performance curve in the
range of operation. The use of safety factors is discouraged when all
system components and system effects are
properly accounted for. The use of safety factors
is not required when system effect factors and all
known losses are accounted for.
35
AMCA 200-95
6.3 Effects of system changes Figure 6D shows a typical fan curve with system
resistance curves for a variable system where the
Some air systems are designed to operate at more system pressure is allowed to vary as the system
than one system condition, such as an exhaust demand for airflow changes. The system may be
system serving multiple inlets where some of the varied by volume control, dampers, or other control
inlets can be closed off, or supply systems where devices to provide a varying flow rate as demanded
some of the outlets can be closed off or dampered for by the system.
reduced flow. The effect of these changes in the
system need to be evaluated in the system design The tolerance ranges are shown for both the fan and
and the selection of a fan for this service. The main the system resistance. The most critical point in the
concern would be that the fan is not forced to operate design of this type of system will be at the low flow-
in the unstable range. Also, the fan performance high pressure condition. The fan selection and
should be such that the system performance is system limits should be such that the fan will operate
acceptable over the range of operating conditions in the stable portion of the fan curve at the maximum
desired. The motor must be selected to cover this resistance condition. Make sure the fan power
range of operating conditions. The system resistance requirements over the tolerance range can be met by
and system performance, for the example used in the motor selected.
Section 5.8, were calculated for the design condition
and also for two other system conditions. [Figure 6C Figure 6E shows a typical set of fan curves for a
illustrates the effect of system changes.] The system centrifugal fan with inlet vane control with system
resistance and flow were calculated for the condition resistance curves for a variable resistance system.
where all the dampers were open and for the In this system, both the pressure and flow
condition where one of the dampers was closed. characteristics of the fan are varied by changing the
Each of these conditions has a different system inlet vanes position to meet the flow rate demand of
resistance curve resulting in a different operating the system. Similar systems employ axial fans with
point on the fan curve and a different total flow for the variable pitch control, or fans with variable speed
system. The flow in each branch of the system will capability.
also change. This leads to an important conclusion:
The critical area of fan selection is near the peak of
IN A FIXED SYSTEM, A CHANGE IN RESISTANCE the pressure curve. Almost all fans exhibit some
IN ANY ELEMENT WILL CHANGE THE TOTAL degree of instability to the left of the peak pressure
SYSTEM RESISTANCE, AND AS A RESULT, point. It is wise to avoid operation in this range
CHANGE THE POINT OF OPERATION ON THE without the expressed approval of the fan
FAN CURVE AND THE FLOW RATE THROUGH ALL manufacturer.
OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM.
There are many system variations to meet various
It is because of this interaction of the total system design criteria that the designer may encounter. Not
with changes in any part of the system that the job of all of the possibilities can be covered in the scope of
balancing a system is very difficult. this publication. If fan users apply the principles
outlined in this publication to the specific system,
6.4 Variable systems they can expect to design a good, functional system
and avoid many of the pitfalls often encountered in air
Where systems are designed to be variable over systems.
some range of operation, or where both the fan and
system are variable, the point of operation needs to
be evaluated at the upper and lower limits of
operation, relative to the tolerance of the fan and
system.
36
AMCA 200-95
+25%
+10%
-10%
PRESSURE
BACKWARD
1490.16 Pa
INCLINED FAN -25%
(6.0 in. wg)
RADIAL
BLADE FAN
3.3m/s VANEAXIAL
(7000 cfm) FAN
VOLUME FLOWRATE
+10%
DESIGN POINT
OF OPERATION
-10%
PRESSURE
FAN CURVE
POTENTIAL SYSTEM
FLOW RANGE
3.15 m3/s 3.39 m3/s
(6701 cfm) (7210 cfm)
3.3 m3/s AMCA CERTIFIED RATING
(7000 cfm) TOLERANCE
VOLUME FLOWRATE
DWDI FAN
DESIGN
SYSTEM
TOTAL PRESSURE
Pt vs FLOW
VOLUME FLOWRATE
+10%
-10%
HIGH PRESSURE
DESIGN POINT
FAN CURVE
+10%
PRESSURE
VOLUME FLOWRATE
38
AMCA 200-95
+10%
-10% MAXIMUM FLOW
DESIGN POINT
PRESSURE
VARIABLE VOLUME
SYSTEM RESISTANCE
STATIC PRESSURE
CONTROL POINT
VOLUME FLOWRATE
39
AMCA 200-95
Viscosity:
Absolute (lbm/ft-s) 1.4882 = Pa s (Pa s) 0.6719 = (lbm/ft-s)
Kinematic (ft2/s) 0.0929 = m2/s (m2/s) 10.7639 = ft2/s
Gas Constant (ft lb/lbm-R) 5.3803 = J-kg/K (j-kg/K) 0.1858 = (ft lb/lbm-R)
40
AMCA 200-95
Z t p c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Gas Absolute Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound
* Chart B.1A is a corrected version of and replaces Chart B.1 on page 43.
41
AMCA 200-95
Z t p c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Air Dynamic Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound
* Chart B.2A is a corrected version of and replaces Chart B.2 on page 44.
42
AMCA 200-95
Z t p c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Gas Absolute Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound
43
AMCA 200-95
Z t p c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Air Dynamic Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound
44
AMCA 200-95
45
AMCA 200-95
46
AMCA 200-95
47
AMCA 200-95
48
100 VE 100
LO
CI
TY
70 90 m/ 70
s
30
80
50 50
25 70
50
40 40
30 60 30
63
20
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals.
80
18 50
20 20
0
Annex D. Friction Charts
16 45
10
5
14 40
12
0
35
10 12 10
16
0
30
10
20
7 7
0
9
25
5 8 5
5
31
4 7 4
0
40
3 6 3
0
50
0
2 5 2
63
Chart D.1 - SI
0
80
4
00
1 3.5 1
50
20
3
12
0.7 0.7
00
16
2.5
00
0.5 0.5
m
20
0.4 0.4
00
,m
2.0
R
25
0.3 0.3
TE
1.8
50
E
31
1.6
IAM
00
0.2 0.2
D
40
1.4
CT
DU
1.2
9
0.1
20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 200,000 400,000
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
AMCA 200-95
49
50
10 10
AMCA 200-95
80
7 00 7
70
5 65 00 5
0
60 0 VE
4 00 LO 4
55
0 C ITY
3 50 0 , fp 3
00 m
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals.
45
00
2 40 12 2
3
00 00
36 0
00
10
4
32 00
00 0
90
5
1 28 00 1
00 80
00
6
0.8 24 0.8
00
7
8
20
0.5 0 0.5
9
18 0
10
0.4 00 0.4
16 40
12
00 00
0.3 0.3
14
14
00
16
18
0.2 12 0.2
00
20
22
Chart D.2 - I-P
24
10
26
00
90
30
0
32
0.1 80 36 0.1
0
40
0.08 18 0.08
60
55
0.05 0 0.05
60
in.
70
0.04 50
0 0.04
R,
80
E
90
0.03 0.03
0
M ET
40
10
0
DIA
0.02 0.02
T
UC
30
D
0.01 0.01
50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 100,000 200,000 400,000
AIR QUANTITY, cfm at 0.075 lb/ft3 ( = 0.0003 ft)
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
AMCA 200-95
51
AMCA 200-95
52
AIR MOVEMENT AND CONTROL
ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONAL, INC.
30 West University Drive
Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893 U.S.A.
Tel: (847) 394-0150 Fax: (847) 253-0088
E-Mail : info@amca.org Web: www.amca.org
The Air Movement and control Association International, Inc. is a not-for-profit international association of the
worlds manufacturers of related air system equipment primarily, but limited to: fans, louvers, dampers, air
curtains, airflow measurement stations, acoustic attenuators, and other air system components for the industrial,
commercial and residential markets.