Chemistry Test #1: Structures and Properties of Matter

Greeks and Democritus:

Theorized matter was made up of earth, wind, water, and fire
Belieevd matter can be divided so much until no more
Atom originated from Democrius

John Dalton (father of atomic history)

Proposed billard ball model of the atom where atom is a solid ball.
o Elements are made of small particles called atoms
o Atoms of same element are identicle in every aspect (False)
o Atoms canno be subdivided, created, destroyed (False)
o Atoms are combind, seperates or rearranged in chemical reactions to form compouds.
o Believed you canot differentiate between P,N,E

JJ Thomson

Cathode ray tube, discovered electrons existed within atom.

Proposed raisin bun model
o Atom is positively charged sphere (Bun) with negatively charged electrons inside
(Raisins)
o Atom was positively charged matter

Ernest Rutherford

Student of JJ Thomson (Disagreed with raisin bun model of atom

Gold foil expirement showed atom was largely made of empty space with tiny dense positive
nuclus
Shot positive alpha particles and only a few of them interacted with the protons inside gold
Proposed planetary model where atom is mostly empty space with dense positively charged
nucleus in center of atom with electrons rotating the nucleus
This model goes against the ideas of physics at the time. Electrons are accelerating so they should
give of energy.
But, thi sis not true because electrons can only absorb or emit specific discrete frequencies of
energy.
Nature of Light

Photoelectric effect expirement was conducted. Demonstrated that frequency of light is the
determining factor for the energy of light
Light was viewed as a wave back then, so it ws hard to explain why certain frequencies can eject
electrons while some cant even by increasing the brightness.
Plank and Einstein proposed light can behave as a packet, or quanta of energy called photons.
Lots of energy should eject electrons. They believed large energy (brighter) would eject elctrons.
Photon = packs of light energy
Higher frequency in light means more photons. More photons means higher chanve of electrons
being ejected .
Low frequency light contains low quanta of energy while high frequency light contains high
qunta of energy. It does not matter how bright a light is because it has low frequency and will
never be able to eject electrons like blye light (High frequency)
Basically, light can be thought as as packets.

Neils Bohr

Modified planetary model of atom Said electrons can orbit nucleus without losing energy at
syable states and only discrete energy can be absorbed or emitted, which meant there must also be
discrete energy levels.
When electrons absorb discrete energy, they jump to higher energy level
When electrons return from excited to ground, they release exact energy absorbed.
This explained the absobtion and emission spectra
Rutherfords model could not explain the energy loss when ecltrons accelerated.
This idea with the photoelectric effect allowed light to be newly defined using wave particle
duality. Certain phenomena can only be explained if light is treated as a particle, while other must
treat light as a wave.

Double Slit Expirement

If light demonstrates wave-paritcle duality, the same idea can be applied to electrons
Light can b wave and particles (photons)
Wave particle duality applies to both light and electons.
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle

Wave-Particle duality of electrons led to the uncertainty principle which says the position and
momentum of an electron cannot be measure with high certainty at the same time.
Increasing precision in measuring one will decrease the precision in measureing the other.
Locations and speed of electron can never be determined at same time

Quantum Model

Based on uncertainty principle, we can never be sure where elctron is in the moment.
Quantum approach to atom deals specifically with probabability.
By recording the position of electrons overtime, the shape of an area of space where ectrons were
could be determined. This regions of space where the electrons are most likely to be found it call
electron cloud. Erwin Schrodinger develop equation that describes probability of an electron at
any point in time.

Structures #2 (Quantum numbers)

Quantum numbers

Shrodinger equation allows to determine possilble coordinates for electron. After equation is
solved, there are four numbers that describe location of electrons.

Principle Quntum Number (n)

Number represents energy level

The bigger the number, the higher the energy level which also means bigger the size.
Number ranges from 1 to infinity
Generl because it only tells you which energy level the elctron is located.
Same numer as the period number
Also represents number of orbitals.

Orbital shape quantum number (L) (S, P, D, F)

Specifies shape/type of orbital as you look at energy level with detail

Ranges from 0 to n-1
Tells you with paty of the energy level the elctron is located.
Refer to sheet
Magnetic Quantum number (ml) (Suborbital)

Number describe specific orientation of the orbital, which means with part of orbiatal the elctron
is located in.
Each part of the orbital (Suborbital can hold up to two elctrons.
This number ranges from L to L.
S orbital can have up to 2 electrons
P orbital can have up to 6 electron
D orbital can have up to 10 electrons
F orbital can have up to 14 electrons

Spin quantum number (ms)

Number indicated he direction where the electron is traveling. Can be positive half or negative
half.

Energy Level Diagrams:

Helps visualize electrosn

Repreents location of electrons in a vizualizeation aspect.

Electron Configuarition

Simple ethod of location but does not tell us suborbital

Core Notation electron configuration

Simpler method because it is represented by nobel gas that comes before element.

When an atom gains an electron, Add it to the configuaretion.(Move forward) When it loses an electron
subtract one electron from the conifiguareiotn (Move backwards)

If a metal becomes an catnion, it becomes perfectly stable so go back to the nearest noble gas and use its
configuration. If a non-metal becomes an anion, then it becomes perfectly stale then go to the next noble
gas and use its electron configuarion.

When a nonemtnal becomes an ide, then it becomes stable and then go to the next noble gas and use its
configuration.

If an atom is in its exited state, then one electron jumps to the next orbital.
Electron Configuaretion Discrepencies

Electrons will sometimes promote themselves to slight higher energy level in order to
partially/completely fill and emty orbital .
This is mosly seemed with d orbitals as they are close in energy to s orbital prior.
The rows (Going downward) containing cr and cu are the ones that do this
All that is changed is that one s orbital electrons goes to the d orbital electron.

Structures 0.3

Ionozation Energies:

How much energy we need to remove one elctron

Decreseases down the group, increases across period.
Farther an electron is from nucleus, easier it is to remove it.
In the same period, when valence electrons are added, its harder to remove electrons because
there is more negative charge to be attracte to the increasing positive nucleus. The bond is tighter
and stronger

Atom Radii: Radius of atom

Atomic radius increases from top to bottom. As you add more shells
When more electrons are added, the positive nucleus tithens grip like a blet and shirinks the atom
(hence why it is harder to take out an electron.

Electronnegativity

Ability to attract electrons. How much an atom wants to share anothers atoms electron. How
badly it wasnts another elctron.
Increases across period from left to right and decreases from top to bottom because there is not a
strong attraction between nucleus and electrons.
Group 7 has higher electronegativity because the bond from +nuclus and electrons is much tighter
and stronger
Look at sheet for reactivity

Intramolecular Bonds:

Atoms form chemical bonds because they want to achieve full valence shell. After bond, they
become isoelectric with noble gas it is closest to which makes them energetically stable. Three
types of intramolecular bonds
Ionic Bonds:

Metals become cations and non-metals ecome anions. Once they are stable, the ions are still
attracted to each other becacuse of elctostatic force (opposite charges attract each other)

Ionic Crystals

In ionic compounds, it I impossible to tell which cation donated its electrons to which anion. This
is why these ionic compounds are not reffered to as molecules but formula units where the lowest
ratio is considered

Properties of ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds ten to exist in crystal lattice structures.

o High melting points as large amounts of energy are required to overcome electrostatic
force
o Electrical conductivity in liquid form as individual ions are free to move around
o Water sluble because water being polar can dissociate ionic compounds, removing them
from the crystal lattice structure ion by ion.
o However, some ionic compounds are insoluble because the electrostatic force between
ions is too strong or water.
o Hard and brittle as the crystals tend to shatter when mechanical force is applied to
overcome electrostatic force

Metallic Bonds:

Metals have shells that are less than hald filled, so even when they cobine together, they cannot
form a filled shell (team effort). Each atom contributes their valence electronds in a sea of
electrons
This sea occupies the space between the metal atoms so every atom essentially gets however
many electrons they need
Sea of electrons also act as electrostatic glus that hold metal cations together .
Delocalized electrons so they travel how they want to

Properties of metallic compounds

Highly malleable becaeuse delocalized electrons move along with metal cations allowing the
entire peace to bend, not break
Electrostatic force holding metals together is maintained
High melting points and strength as large amounts of energy are needed to overcome electrostatic
force between metal cations and sea of electrons. The more delocalized electrons, the tougher the
metal.
 Electrical conductivity as an applied potential difference will cause these valence electrons to
move away from negative terminal to the positive terminal

Alloys:

Electron sea allows for attraction of any ind of metal cation. Therefor a solid mixture of two or
more different types of metals can be produced. Allows have slightly different physical properties
than original metals (stainless steel, bronze, rass)

Covalent Bonds

Two nonmetals of similar electronegativites share electrons

Polar (En higher than 0.5) where sharing of electrons is not equal
Non polar (En less than 0.5 where sharing of electrons is equal
Nuclie of both atoms exert an attraction towards the shared electron, thus keeping the atoms close
together and bonded.

Coordiante covalent bonds

Happens when one atom donates both electrons that are being share. This occurs when one atom
has a lone pair of electrons to donate while the other has an empty orbital to be filled.

Properties of covalent copounds

Electrons are shared, they have very different properties from the other two compounds
Moderate to low melting points as only little energy is needed to overcome intermolecular forces.
If covalent compound is polar then more energy is required since there is partial charges incolved.
Elecrically non-conduitive since no ions are present
Water soluble no polar covalents compounds only because of partial charges interacting with
water. Non-polar covalent compounds have no partial charges and therefore do not interact with
water

Structures 0.4

Structures 0.5

Lewis Strucures:

Used to show bonding of atoms in moelcules. As core electrons do not participate in bonding,
only valence electrons are shown.
Steps for drawing Lewsi Structures

Determine total number of valence electrons

Draw central atom (least electronegative)
o Or use bondin capacity atom that can bond most
Draw rest of atoms around central atom as symmetrically as possible
Connect atoms together
Fill out outer atoms so they are stable
Add remaining electrons to central atom
Make sure every atom Is stable (Stable octet)
Do a formal charge calculation to make sure all atoms are stable in charge
Indicate charge it it is a polyatomic ion

Resonance structures

Because of electron delocalization, some compounds can have more than one structure. The only
difference between structures is the location of electrons
Resonance structures is basically a hybrid of all the structures combined. Electrons are constantly
moving meaning their locatiosn are constantly changing

Exceptions to octet rule:

1. Beryllium (Be), Aluminum (Al), boron (B) do not follow the stable octet rule. They are
completely satisfied with having only six electrons instead of eight. Reason is it is related to
nucluear charge and other atomic trends

2. Compounds with off number of total valence electrons. These compounds along with radicals
have and unpaired electron that does not know where to go but because of formal charge, it stays
with the atom

3. Expanded octet happens when atom is large in size. Because of high electronegaiticty and alrge
atomic radius, the central atom of the molecule ca form more bonds thus breaking the stable octet
rule. ( third period and beyond)

Formal Charge:

Formal charge calculations are done to ensure the electons are distributed correctly within
molecule. Structure with numbers at zero or closest to zero indicated that the structure has
electrons balanced evelny throughout the molecule, ensuring the molecule is energetically stable.
Basic idea is to count electrons before and after bonding occurs
Formal Charge =Valence electrons (Before) lone electrons (bonding electrons)
Central electron should be zero
Do not let them cancel out instead, make every atom equl to zero
 Structures 0.6

VSEPR:

Valence shel electron repulsion.

Extension of VB theory
States that electron pairs will repel each other to maximize 3d space around atom
Helps predict molecules shape
Include elctrons

AXE formula

A stands for central atom

X for number of attactchments (ligands)
E for lone pairs

Relation to Hybridization

Easier to determine hybridization of atom using VSEPR

Instead of drawing valence orbitals, count number of attachments and lone pairs. This gives total
number of hybrid orbitals.
All you need to do after is make sure all orbitals are hybrizided in order and in same energy level
LOOK AT DIAGRAM (BOX)

Structures 0.7

Polarity

Using electronegativity difference, a molecule is deemed polar or non-polar.

However, molecules looked at were only simply binary molecules, what about more complec
ones where more than two atoms are involved?
Atom with higher EN is partially negative (able to get more electrons)
Atom with lower EN is partially positive
Subtract both EN and take absolute value. (higher lower for easyiness)
Just because bonds are polar, does not mean entire molecule is polar because of shape.
Examples Refer to sheet

If a bond is polar, but the molecule shape is linear, (think of vectors ) (right side cancels left side)
they cancel each other out. Then EN is zero which means it is non-polar No net dipole moment
Each bond needs to be identicle, their magnitudes are identicle but differ in direction.
When there is a bent shape, like H2O , each bond is identicle and magnitudes are identicle but
they differ in direction. When adding their dipole moments, there is a displacement (physics),
which indicated a net migration of electron.
Therefor, water is a polar molecule with a negative dipole (oxygen end) and a positive dipole
(hydrogen end)

Intermolecular Forces

Polarity of moleculescan affect how they intercat with others. This interaction of molecules is
called intramolectular (intramolecular forces exist withing the molecule, between atoms)
Three types of intermolecular (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole and LDF) this is listed in order of
most strength to least.

Dipole-Dipole

Dipole dipole interactions only exist between pola molecules. The partial positive dipole of one
molecule attracts the partial negative dipole of another.
Cant exist in ionic because there are ions. Charges involed
This accounts for moderate/boiling points of polar substances. The stronger the dipole-dipole
attraction, thereyby resulting in higher MP/BP
The more polar means the more partial charge there is which means there is a stronger dipole
attraction which means stronger molecule which means bigger MP/BP

H-Bonding

Occurs when hydrogen bonds to highly electronegative atoms : Oxygen, nitrogen and fourine
(NOF)
Electrostaic attraction between hydrogens partial positive charge and lone pair of another
electronagtive atom are called hyfrogen bonds. H bonds are just a special tupe of dipole dipole
that gives molecules relay high MP/BP

LDF

Electrons are always moving around in molecule

There are brief unequal sharing of electrons that result in temporary dipole formings within a
non-polar molecule. This in turn can induce a temporay a temporary dipole in neighboring
molecules. These forces are instantaonous and very weak and short lived. Influence by number of
electrons withing a molecule. Because LDF is caused by the random movement of electrons, they
xist in every molecule, but since there so weak, they are only considered for non-polar substances
since there is no ther force(s) in non-polar substances.
Partially negative and partially posibtiive (temporary)
 Equilibrium 0.1

Reverseble Reactions

Under right condition, products can react together to reform reactants

Means there can be two reactions happening simultaneously within same container
One going forward where reactants are forming the products and one going backwards where
prodcuts are forming the reactants.
Special Symbong for reversible reactions

Equilibrium

Is a special point of a reversible reaction. When forward reaction rate is same as backward
reaction rate, equilibrium is achieved for that reversible reaction.
This also means concentrations are unchanging when equilibrium is achieved.
Macroscopic changes are not noitcable during equilibrium, only microscopic changes.
Forward rate = backward rate
Concentrations are constant. Hard to notice with human eye.
At equilibrium, the concentration of reactant and products remain constant but NOT necessarily
equal.
Can only be achieved in an closed system

Open System: Matter and energy can go in and come out

Closed System: Only energy can go in and out. Matter can not escape.

Isolated System: Nothing can go in or out. (ex. Universe)

Side Notes:

Only temperature affects equilibrium. Any other stresses will cause the system to shift but
ultimately achieve equilibrium in the end.
Homogenous equilibrium is when all componenets (reactants and products) and in the same
physical state.
Heterogenous equilibrium is when the componenets (reactants and/or products) are in different
physical states.

Summary

Basically, reversible reations are just reactions that can go forward and ackwards. Products can
recreate reactants. Two reactions happen together in the same container (one frwrd and one
bkwrd.)
Equilibrium is just the point of a reversible reaction where the reaction rate of both forward and
backward are the same. There are not changing any more. Because of this, concentrations are also
not changing anymore hen we reach the equilibrium point.
 Equilibrium 0.2

Le Chateliers Principle:

Equilibrium can onl occur in a closed system because no matter can enter or exit the system
(reactants or products)
Principle states that changes in temperature, concentration, colume or pressure will result in
predictable shifts in the system in order to reestablish equilibrium
System will try to undo change applied in order to establish a new equilibeium
Since reversible reactions means going forward or backward is possible, depending on the change
applied, more produts or reactants will form

Exothermic or Endothermic

Exothermic Reactions Reactions where energy is exiting system

Endothermic Reactions-Reactions where energy is entering the system.
Important because equilibrium has to occur in a closed system, eergy is not affected hence it
needs to be considered

Temperature

Temperature change incolves changing the energy within the system so look for the energy term
in the thermochemical equation

Equilibrium 0.3

Textbook Page 420-424

BReversible Reaactions and Chemical Equilibrium

Reverse reactions are occurring simuntanously along with the forward reaction
The product is decomposing and reforming the rectants.
In a chemical system, when the forward reaction and the reverse reaction are balanced and the
reactions are occurring at the same rate, the ystem is said to be in chemical equilibrium.
Basically, there occurring at the same raet so the concentrations even out which is why
concentration becomes constant.
Reactions are proceeding in both directions, but at the same rate, so there is no net change in the
concentrations of the reactants or products. In the ammonia production process, molecules do not
stop combining and decoN and H molecules continue to combine while, at same time, ammonia
molecules decompose.
Forward and reverse reaction ovvur at same rate so overall concentrations remain constant.
One is dcombinsing and one is combining, so if the rate is the same, then concentrations will
forever remain constant at equilibrium.
Macroscopic property: observable or measurable propert such as concentration, colour, temperature and
pressure and pH.

- When a sysem is changing at molecular level but its macroscopic poperties remain consant,
system is in dynamic equilibrium.
- In the chemical equilibrium system incolved in ammonio production, the system looks static b/c
concentrations are constant but system is dynamic becaue molecules contionuously react to form
prduct and decompose to form reactants.
- At equilibrium, concentrations are constant, but not neccarisly equal. Think about it. Simple

Thermal Energy Requirments of reversible reactions

In a reversible reactions in which the reaction in one direction is exothermic and the reaction in
the opposite direction is endothermic, changing the termperatrure alters rates of frwd and bckwrd
recations.
Temperature increase add energy to chemical system.
Additional energy makes the reaction that absorbs thermal energy to proceed at faster rate than
the reaction that releases thermal energy
Rates are no longer the same.
If temperature is lowered in system, energy is removed. When energy is removed, exothermic
reaction proceeds at faster rate.
Because rates are no longer equal, system is no longer at equilibrium.

Homogenous and Heterogenous Equilibria

A chemical in equilibrium in which all componenets are in the same physical state is known as
homogenous equilibrium.
Heterogenous equilibrium is a chemical system in equilibrium in which componenets are in
different physical ststes.

Le Chateliers Principle

At equilibrium, volume, pressure of the system are constant, and the temperature does not change.
If external stress (change in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature is applied to
chemical system at equilibrium both rates are temporarily unqequal beause the stress afftcts
reaction rates.
Eventuall, equilibrium restores in chemical system
Basically, system undergoes shifts in equilibrium position in a direction that reduces the effect of
the disturbance
Effects of Concentration Changes on Ewuiilibrium

If molecules of ammonia are taken out, there are less ammonia molecules that can decompose and
the quilibrium temporarily shifts right. The rection from left to right (ammonia synthesis) occurs
at a faster rate the reaction preceding from right to left.
As mmonia concentration increases. The rate of its decomposition increases. Eventall,
equilibrium is restored in the reaction when both rates are equal
Basically, ammonia is taken out, so there is less ammonio to decompose, this means the rate of
the synthesis reaction is higher and it will begin to make more Ammonia. As the cocncentration
of ammonia is increasing, it will begin to decompose at a faster rate again until it completely
meets up with the other rate.
If you add N and/or H, the synthesis reaction rate will increase. And the equilibrium shifts to the
right
Ammonia synthesis is temporarily faster . As the reactants are consumed, the rate of ammonia
slows.
Eventually, rates equal.
Equilibrium shifts to the side in need

Another Example:

If you inject a reactant, the reactants concentration will instantaneously shoot up, but the
concentration then immediately begins to drop because the reactants are being consumed
Rate of the reverse reaction also begins to increase because moremore product has been formd
and there s more to decompose.
Soon, a new concentration is formed with new concentrations of reactants and products.
The ration of the new concentrations of products to reactions is the same as the original ratio
which is why Concentrtion does not affect the equilibrium constant. Look at equation.
Looking at concentration graph, once the reactant was injected, concentration immediately
increased increased and the concentration began to derease but it still never reached the same
point as before. Because more product was being formed, the reverse reaction rate increased and
the concentration also increased.
Basiccaly, the reactant rate was fast in the beginning but bagnn to slow as it got consumed.
As mmore products are formed, the rate increases.
Concentration of a solid or pure liquid is constant.

1. Increasing the concentration of a product causes a shift to reactant formation.

a. Means injecting product makes more decomposition and in turn, that makes more
reactant. Both reaction rates increase and slowly become the same. Both their
concentrations will be higher from now on during equilibrium
2. Decreasing concentration of product causes shift to product formation
a. More reactant and reactant is forming faster and will create more product which wil also
increase reactionrate of reverse
 3. Increasing concentration of reactant causes a shift to product formation
4. Decreasing concentration of reactant causes a shift to reactant formation

Keq is not affected by changes in product or reaction concentration, because ratio is still the same

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes on Equilibrium

Changes in colume and pressure in raction has no effect on solids and liquids
Volumes of olids and liquids are constant
Pressure has no effect on solids/liquids because they are incompressible
Still, changes in colume /pressure effect equilibrium system that contains gasses
When volume of mixture of gasses decreases, pressure of gasses increases
When volume of reaction vessel decrease the pressure increases (inversely related), system is no
longer at equilibrium
When pressure of gasses increase, concentration of molecules increase, because same number of
molecules occupies smaller volume.
Becaues concentration of reactant gasses increase, number of collision increase and therefore,
both forward/reverse recations increase.
Equilibrium can shift, but the ratio stays the same, Keq stays the same
Gas pressure is caused by gas partcles stricking te walls of the reaction vessel. If number of
particles or molecules increases, gas pressure increases.
To restore equilibrium, the reaction temporily shifts in the direction that decreases the numerber
of molecules and at the same time decrease the pressure in the system.
Look at number of moles in any system, the one with least total moles is the side that is favoured .
To reduce pressurein the system, the reverse reaction is favoured because there is fewer
molecules formed (eample in textbook)
If the pressure decreases,(volume increases) the reaction temporIily shift in the direction that has
more total moles. In the textbook example, the forward reaction increases because it has more
moles. As more molecules form, the pressure in the container increases and the system shigts
back toward equilibrium.
If the frd reaction and reverse reaction have the same moles, then the increase in the forward
reaction rate equals the increase in the reverse reaction rate and there is no effect on the
equilibrium

1. If pressure increases (volume decreases) the reaction shifts so that the total number of particles
decreases, which decrease the pressure in the system
2. If pressure decreases (volume increases), the reaction shifts so that the total number of particles
increases, which increases the pressure in the system
3. An inert gas added to a chemical system at equilibrium does no cause a shift in either direction in
a reversible reaction
4. Keq is not affected by a change in pressure or volume because he ratio will always be the same
Effects of Temperature change on equilibrium

When system is cooled, thermal energy is removed from system. When system is heated, energy
is added to system.
Follow this example, REACTANT +ENERGY = PRODUCT
When energy decreases, there is less energy available for the forward reaction to occur. The net
result is that the reverse reaction occurs at a faster rate the forward reaction
The reaction shifts to the left. You would see an increase in reactant concentratiotion. In the
reaction
When the reaction shifts left, not only is the concentrationincreasing, bu the amount of energy in
the system Is increasing too. As energy increases in the system, the forward reaction rate
increases.
Eventuall, the rates of the reverse/frd reacteions equalize and equilibrium is restored.
When the temperature increases, the endothermic reation (L to R) is favoured. (increased product
and decreasesd reactant overtime.) Because of this, Keq increases. When the temperature is
lowered, the xothermic eaction (R to L) is favoured (decreased product and increased reactant.
Keq decreases.
ONLY TEMPERATURE ACTUALLY AFFECTS EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT.

1. A temperature increase (addition of energy) favours the endothermic reaction where a

temperatrure decrease, favours the exothermic reaction
2. In an endothermic system, increase in temp increases Keq
3. Exothermic system, increase in temp decrease Keq

Effect of a catylist on Equilibrium

Help speed up chemical reaction

Increases rate of chemical reaction by lowering activation energy without being consumed by
reaction
When catylist is added to chemical system involving reversible reaction, the catylist increase the
rates of the reactions in both directions-towards product formation and towards reactant
formation. Herefore, the system reaches equilibrium faster, but the catylist does no shift the
equilibrium in either direction

Summary of effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium

In equilibrium, macroscopic properties of reactant and preoduct concentration, pressure, volume,

and termperature are constant.
 Change or Stress Equilibrium Shift Effect On Keq
Increasing prduct concentration (left) toward reactant formation No effect
Decreasing product concentration Right toward product No effect
Increasing reactant concentration right product No effect
Decreasing reactant Left - reactant No effect
concentration
Pressure increase (volume Towards fewer total moles No effect
decrease)
Pressure decrease (volume Towards greater total moles No effect
increase)
Pressere increase with inert gas No shift No effect
Temperature increase Toward endothermic reaction Endothermic forward reaction-
Keq increases
Exothermic forward reaction
Keq decreases
Temperature decrease Toward endothermic reaction Endothermic forward reaction
Keq decreases
Exothermic reaction Keq
increases
Catalyst Oresent No shift Equilibrium is reahed faster, but
catylist dosent shift equilibrium

Equilibrium .05

Review
Ionic compounds consist of metals/nonmetals held together in crystal by electrostatic force
1. When placed in water, they dissociated as ions were already existing prior to dissolving
in water
Molecular/covalent consist only of non-metals held by covalent bonds
1. Some can ionize when dissolved in water forming ions, most common ones are acids

Dissociaiton
Ions were already existing
Nacl dissaciotates (crystal)
Ionic compounds
Water seperates it (water is usually polar)

Ionization
Makes the ions
HCl(aq) the ions form in water
Covalent compounds
Makes water when put into water
Solubility Equilibrium
Loks at relationship between solid and resulting ions after the solid is placed in water (most cases
but could be another solvent)
Soluble compounds will completely dissolve when placed in water
Insoluble/slightly soluble compounds will only partially dissolve when placed in water.
Sometimes, a compounds forcecs are too strong and it will not dissolve
Dissolving does not mean dissociating

Rules
Soluble = larger then 0.1 M
Slightly Soluble = 0.001 M to 0.1 M
Insoluble = less than 0.001 M

Solubility Product Constant:

Equilibrium can be achieved with dissolved compounds
Ions can come together to reform the crystal while the crystal is dissolving/dissociating into ions.
Equilibrium constant for this specific type of reaction is now called the solubility product
constant (Ksp)