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Abstract: A spectrum of intrusion-related vein gold deposits is recognized. Representative examples are described of the fol-
lowing geochemical associations: Au-Fe oxide-Cu, Au-Cu-Mo-Zn, Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu, Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu and Au-As-Bi-Sb.
The associated intrusions range from small outcropping stocks to complex batholiths.
The different vein associations are believed to reflect the compositions of related intrusions, which themselves charac-
terize distinct tectonic settings. The Au-Fe oxide-Cu and Au-Cu-Mo-Zn associations belong to two broad groups of deposits,
Fe oxide-Cu-Au and porphyry Cu-Au, both of which are related to highly oxidized calc-alkaline intrusions emplaced in sub-
duction-related arcs. The Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association seems to be linked to somewhat less oxidized intrusions emplaced in a
similar setting. The Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu association, which possesses well-known epithermal counterparts, is also found with
highly oxidized intrusions, but of alkaline composition and back-arc location. In contrast, the Au-As-Bi-Sb association, part
of a newly recognized class of intrusion-hosted Au-Bi-W-As deposits, is related to relatively reduced intrusions, spanning the
boundary between the magnetite- and ilmenite-series. Such intrusions, which may host major bulk-mineable gold deposits,
were emplaced along the landward sides of arcs, possibly during lulls in subduction, as well as in continental collision set-
tings. Therefore, a variety of geological environments is prospective for vein and, by extrapolation, other styles of gold min-
eralization, not all of them fully appreciated in the past.
Several features of vein gold deposits, including imprecise relationships to individual intrusive phases, poorly developed
mineral and metal zoning, apparent time gaps between intrusion and mineralization and presence of low-salinity, CO2-rich fluid
inclusions, are commonly taken to indicate a non-igneous origin and to be more typical of orogenic (mesothermal) gold deposits
generated during accretionary tectonic events. However, several or all of these features apply equally to some intrusion- related
vein gold deposits and, therefore, do not constitute distinguishing criteria. The currently popular assignment of most gold-rich
veins to the orogenic category requires caution, because of the geological convergence that they show with some intrusion-relat-
ed deposits. A proper distinction between intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits is crucial for exploration planning.
237
238 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :
ductile conditions and are followed by cataclasite devel- possess mineralogical similarities to Candelaria (Ryan et
opment after vein formation. The vein, averaging 4 m al., 1995).
wide and extending >300 m vertically, cuts an Early Cre- Most workers accept that the veins, as well as the brec-
taceous volcano-sedimentary sequence only a few tens of cia and replacement deposits, are related temporally to the
metres west of the contact with an equigranular monzodi- Coastal batholith. At Candelaria, radiometric ages and
orite pluton of Early Cretaceous age (Fig. 1). lead-isotopic analyses suggest a genetic relationship
The gold-rich portion of the vein is composed mainly between early batholithic intrusions and mineralization
of quartz, calcite, specular hematite, magnetite, chalcopy- (Marschik et al., 1997), although in most cases the precise
rite and pyrite. Coarse-grained massive calcite is an early phase of the batholith that is related to mineralization
vein filling in places (Ruiz et al., 1965). The magnetite remains to be determined. An alternative model for these
shows textural evidence of having formed by replace- deposits, proposed by Barton and Johnson (1996),
ment of specular hematite. Especially gold-rich vein involves large-scale circulation of connate brines to form
material comprises massive specular hematite with regional sodic-calcic alteration and Fe oxide-Cu-Au min-
chalcopyrite distributed throughout it. The mercury in eralization. While the extent of regional alteration in some
the Azogues sector occurs as schwatzite (mercurian areas is consistent with the Barton and Johnson model, the
tetrahedrite) and cinnabar, which are believed to be par- lead-isotopic data at Candelaria (Marschik et al., 1997)
agenetically late (McAllister et al., 1950; Ruiz et al., and the presence of Fe oxide-Cu veins in some porphyry
1965). Sericitic alteration borders the vein. copper districts (e.g., Copper Mountain, British Columbia;
A reconnaissance fluid-inclusion study of vein quartz Stanley et al., 1995) support a genetic link to magmatism.
and subsidiary calcite revealed homogenization temper-
2.2. Au-Cu-Mo-Zn association: Snip, British Columbia,
atures of 123378C and salinities of 0.244 wt% NaCl
Canada
equivalent, although the saline (polyphase) inclusions
are reportedly scarce (Collao and Ortega, 1998). The The Snip Au-Cu-Mo-Zn vein, in the Stewart-Iskut
fluid cooled northwards from an average of 255C in River area of northwestern British Columbia, lies adja-
the copper-rich Delirio sector to aver-
age 206C in the gold-rich part of the
vein, although corresponding fluid
salinities lack any systematic recorded
change (Collao and Ortega, 1998). Ele-
vated CO2 contents are not reported.
Mantos de Punitaqui is one of the most
gold-rich examples of a group of quartz-
specular hematite-chalcopyritemag-
netite vein deposits controlled by major
faults within and alongside the Coastal
batholith of northern Chile (Ruiz and
Ericksen, 1962; Ruiz et al., 1965). Their
mineralogy and, by inference, conditions
of formation are similar to much larger
breccia-hosted and replacement copper-
gold deposits within and near the Coastal
batholith, such as Punta del Cobre (in the
same district as, and related to, the Can-
delaria copper-gold deposit) and Manto
Verde (Marschik and Fontbot, 1996;
Vila et al., 1996). Like Candelaria, the
Punta del Cobre and Manto Verde
deposits may be assigned to the newly
recognized Fe oxide-Cu-Au category
(Sillitoe, 1992). Indeed, some of the
quartz-specular hematite-chalcopyrite- Fig. 2 Geological map of the Snip gold deposit, British Columbia, Canada,
showing the relationship of proximal gold-copper veins and distal zinc-
gold veins are transitional downwards to
1ead veins to the Red Bluff porphyry (after Rhys, 1995). The broad
quartz-actinolite-magnetite-chalcopyrite-
extent of biotite alteration within and beyond the gold-copper zone sug-
gold veins (Espinosa et al., 1996) that gests existence of a larger intrusion at depth.
240 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :
Fig. 7 Schematic tectonic settings of intrusion-related and orogenic vein gold deposits: A. deposits described herein from arc
and back-arc terranes, with position of orogenic gold deposits shown for comparison; B. reduced I-type plutons and related
vein gold deposits in continental collision setting, with position of orogenic gold deposits shown for comparison.
strong contrast to the rest, the Au-As-Bi-Sb association tion of any intrusions associated with mineralization or,
lacks a well-defined tectonic niche. Thompson et al. for that matter, even to the presence of intrusions, where-
(1999) conclude that these deposits are generated on the as the Au-As-Bi-Sb vein association, for example, occurs
inner cratonic sides of Cordilleran arcs, only locally in or close to a specific type of intrusion.
with concrete evidence for contemporaneous subduction
and arc construction along their trenchward sides, as 4. Discussion
well as in collisional settings (Fig. 7A and B).
A unifying tectonic theme for orogenic gold deposits Four principal criteria have been invoked widely over
has evolved in which these deposits are generated as a the last 10 years or so as a basis for assigning vein gold
result of major accretionary tectonic events, involving deposits in plutonic terranes to the orogenic rather than the
either exotic terranes at convergent margins or a pair of intrusion-related category: (1) compositionally similar
continental plates (e.g., Groves et al., 1998; Fig. 7A and veins are hosted by several different intrusions within a
B). This tectonic scenario is best documented for single batholith or plutonic belt; (2) mineral and metal
younger deposits (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 1997), but has zoning is poorly developed or absent over appreciable ver-
also been invoked for Archean examples (e.g., Kerrich tical and horizontal distances; (3) available radiometric
and Wyman, 1990). The mineralized reverse faults in age determinations suggest time gaps between intrusion
the Parcoy-Pataz belt, the major arc-parallel fault zone and vein formation; and (4) fluid inclusions possess low
hosting Mantos de Punitaqui and the semi-brittle condi- salinities and are rich in CO2 rather than being saline and
tions at Snip could all be used to suggest an orogenic CO2-poor. Current evidence, however, suggests that all
gold environment. Similarly, the collisional setting of four parameters are ambiguous and potentially applicable
some Au-As-Bi-Sb veins (Fig. 7B) is regarded as an equally to both orogenic and intrusion-related gold
environment typical of the orogenic gold environment. deposits, as discussed below.
However, in the accretionary model for orogenic gold,
there is no specific importance attached to the composi-
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit 245
4.1. Vein/intrusion relations 1995), and other veins in the same district exhibit changes
in metal composition with stratigraphic level and distance
In the case of some of the gold vein deposits listed in
from the Red Bluff porphyry as expected around a por-
Table 1, there is a clear spatial, temporal and geochemi-
phyry copper system. Similarly, but over a much greater
cal connection to single intrusions. In the best examples,
interval (2.5 km), there are some indications of higher
Snip and Ryan Lode, the adjacent intrusions host stock-
base-metal contents at deeper levels in the Parcoy-Pataz
work mineralization that is similar mineralogically to
vein system (Schreiber et al., 1990). However, mineralogi-
the veins themselves. These relationships strongly sup-
cally similar veins in the Charters Towers district (Table
port a genetic connection, with magmatic-dominated
1) have metal contents that remain unchanged over at
fluids focused along structures. The structural controls
least 600 vertical metres (Peters and Golding, 1989).
and resultant fabrics, however, show superficial similar-
At Dongping, China, tellurium contents and tellurium/
ities to those documented in orogenic gold systems.
precious-metal ratios increase upwards (Zhang and Mao,
In other cases, the relationship to a single intrusion or
1995). However, this weak zoning is not observed in
intrusive phase is not clear-cut. A particularly good
other systems with this metal signature, even in high-
example is provided by the 70 or so gold-bearing quartz
1evel systems of epithermal character. For example, at
veins in the Palpa-Ocoa belt of southern Peru, which
Cripple Creek, Colorado, mineral and metal zoning are
occur in several different felsic intrusions (Table 1).
subtle throughout this major district over a vertical inter-
Veins in the northern part of the belt occur within the
val of >1000 m (Lindgren and Ransome, 1906; Thomp-
Tiabaya superunit, comprising a sequence of tonalite,
son, 1998).
granodiorite and monzogranite, whereas farther south
At Ryan Lode, the shear veins are not zoned, but
they are hosted by the cross-cutting Incahuasi superunit,
there are differences in the abundance of minerals
made up of quartz diorite, quartz monzodiorite, granodior-
between early stockwork veins in the intrusion and later
ite, monzonite and monzogranite units (Vidal, 1985).
stockwork and shear veins. In the same area, the Fort
The age difference between the two superunits, based
Knox sheeted-vein deposit displays a downward
on K-Ar isochrons, is 23 m.y. (Moore and Agar, 1985).
increase of tungsten at the expense of gold over an inter-
Nevertheless, the fact that the Palpa-Ocoa veins are con-
val of several hundred metres (Bakke, 1995).
fined to a restricted segment of the Mesozoic Coastal
The limited zoning exibited by these intrusion-related
batholith along with their overall geological characteris-
vein deposits provides little direct evidence bearing on
tics suggests that the gold mineralization is intrusion-
the origin of the mineralization. The minor zoning that
related, although the precise intrusion(s) responsible
does occur varies between the vein associations and, in
remain elusive.
some cases, may reflect proximity to magmatic sources.
Trumbull et al. (1992) made the same type of observa-
tions for parts of the North China craton, where miner- 4.3. Age differences
alogically and structurally similar vein gold deposits of
Most of the vein gold deposits and their host intru-
the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association occur with calc-alka-
sions listed in Table 1 have been the subjects of very
line intrusions of various compositions and, therefore,
limited radiometric dating. The ages for several of the
according to these workers, are unlikely to have been
districts were obtained using more than one dating
generated from magmatic fluid. Nevertheless, other
method and some of the results are likely to be of low
observers drew a contrary conclusion (Poulsen et al.,
reliability, especially when the complex thermal events in
1990; Poulsen and Mortensen, 1993). In both the
the areas of some of the deposits and relatively old ages
Jiaodong Peninsula district, including Linglong (Table
are considered.
1), and elsewhere in the North China craton and the
In the case of the best example with detailed
Palpa-Ocoa belt of Peru, more work is needed to 40Ar/39Ar data for both the intrusion and the vein-relat-
examine the relationship of veins to specific intrusive
ed alteration, Ryan Lode, the ages of intrusion and min-
phases. The same conclusion also applies to the Au-Fe
eralization are within error. However, at other deposits,
oxide-Cu deposit at Mantos de Punitaqui and to Fe oxide-
the existing data suggest an apparent age gap between
Cu-Au deposits in general which, as remarked earlier,
the dated intrusion(s) and the vein-related alteration. In
commonly possess ill-defined intrusive progenitors.
the Parcoy-Pataz belt, the gap could be as great as 54 m.
4.2. Lack of zoning y. but, as emphasized by Vidal et al. (1995), the youngest
intrusions in the batholith that are the best candidates as
Zoning in the deposits listed in Table 1 is limited or
progenitors for the gold mineralization remain undated,
non-existent, except for the copper-gold-mercury
and the reported alteration age may be suspect. A similar
sequence developed over a lateral distance of 4 km in the
situation is revealed in the Charters Towers district,
Mantos de Punitaqui vein. Minor changes in mineralogi-
where a 40Ar/39Ar total fusion age of ca. 417 Ma for
cal abundance occur in the Snip vein deposit (Rhys,
246 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :
alteration sericite is some 8 m.y. younger than a Rb-Sr illustrated nicely by Burrows and Spooner (1987) who
age for the host Millchester Creek tonalite (Perkins and noted the existence of similar fluids in an Archean intru-
Kennedy, 1998). Some, possibly all, of the vein gold sion-hosted molybdenum occurrence, presumably of
mineralization, including Linglong, in the Jiaodong magmatic-hydrothermal origin, and Archean vein gold
peninsula took place between 126 Ma, the youngest U- deposits, the type examples of the orogenic class.
Pb zircon age for the Guojialing granitoid suite, and 120 The limited fluid-inclusion data summarized herein are
Ma, the best U-Pb zircon age for post-vein dykes (Wang insufficient to define the fluid type or, by inference, the
et al., 1998). Wang et al. (1998) interpreted these data to deposit type. However, there is more variation, especially
signify a time gap between intrusion and gold mineral- in terms of salinity, in several of our examples than is
ization, although none is required, and to support classi- found in most orogenic gold deposits. Furthermore, the
fication of the veins as orogenic in type. available data, including elevated CO2 contents, are not
inconsistent with magmatic-dominant fluid.
4.4. Fluid compositions
In some of the vein deposits discussed herein, the vari-
Fluid compositions and conditions are poorly con- ation in fluid-inclusion compositions may suggest the
strained in the examples discussed in this paper, as they existence of more than one fluid (e.g., Mantos de Puni-
are for many vein gold deposits worldwide. The avail- taqui, Parcoy-Pataz, Ryan Lode). If the initial fluid is
able data summarized above for Parcoy-Pataz, Dong- magmatic, it is likely that non-magmatic fluid will enter
ping and Ryan Lode, as well as those for veins at Char- an extensive vein system, particularly if the vein extends
ters Towers (Peters and Golding, 1989) and Jiaodong several kilometres away from the intrusive source. These
peninsula and elsewhere in the North China craton (Qiu, secondary fluids, whether derived from the immediate
1989; Poulsen and Mortensen, 1993; Trumbull et al., wallrocks or from circulating meteoric or connate
1992), are fairly similar, with low to moderate homoge- sources, may play a role in mineral deposition or, if the
nization temperatures (130350C) and salinities (025 composition is appropriate, transport metals away from
wt% NaCl equivalent). The higher-salinity inclusions in the intrusive source. A fluid-mixing model involving
the Parcoy-Pataz veins differ significantly from the typi- magmatic and reduced wallrock fluids has been pro-
cal fluid in orogenic vein gold deposits, as do the even posed for the Proterozoic Cosmopolitan Howley gold
higher salinities reported for a few inclusions in quartz deposit in the Northern Territory, Australia, a deposit
from the Mantos de Punitaqui vein. that shows structural and vein features characteristic of
Elevated CO2 contents are reported at Dongping and many orogenic gold deposits (Matthi et al., 1995).
Ryan Lode which, in both cases, allow pressure esti- In addition to fluid mixing, reactions with wallrocks
mates to be made with similar results: 500690 bars at may be a significant process in the deposition of gold
Dongping and <1 kbar at Ryan Lode. The Charters Tow- and other metals in vein systems of magmatic origin, as
ers and Jiaodong peninsula (including Linglong) veins it is in orogenic gold deposits. In the case of vein deposits
also possess high CO2 contents. Elevated CO2 contents of magmatic origin, the intensity of wallrock reactions
are ubiquitous in undisputed orogenic vein gold systems is likely to increase with distance from the magmatic
of Phanerozoic and Precambrian age (e.g., Phillips and source and decreasing fluid temperature, although pre-
Powell, 1993). As a result, the presence of CO2 is often cipitation on vein walls may ultimately armour the vein
taken as evidence for classifying a vein deposit as oro- channel and decrease fluid-wallrock interaction. The
genic, with the common assumption that fluid was of lack of zoning observed in some veins suggests that
metamorphic or deep-crustal/mantle origin. However, it fluid conditions and wallrock reactions were relatively
is clearly possible to generate magmatic fluid with vari- constant over appreciable distances.
able and, in some cases, appreciable CO2 contents. High
CO2 contents are common in fluid associated with some 5. Concluding Remarks
vein and fluorine-deficient porphyry molybdenum and
tungsten deposits (Roedder, 1984). Furthermore, the The balance of evidence is believed to indicate that
intrusion-hosted gold deposits of Alaska, such as Fort the vein gold deposits listed in Table 1 are related genet-
Knox, and similar occurrences in the Yukon (McCoy et ically to their host or nearby intrusions. If this conclu-
al., 1997; Baker et al., in review) contain CO2-rich fluid sion is accepted, it is apparent that a spectrum of intru-
inclusions, which these authors concluded to be magmatic sion compositions displaying a range of redox condi-
in origin. Ryan Lode is a more structurally restricted style tions is capable of generating vein-type and, by analogy,
of the same type of system and, therefore, the CO2-rich other styles of gold deposits. In particular, vein gold
fluid is also likely to be magmatic. Clearly, elevated deposits are related to highly oxidized calc-alkaline and
CO2 contents alone are not diagnostic of the type of alkaline intrusions as well as to relatively reduced calc-
gold system. The convergence in terms of fluid type was alkaline intrusions, all of I-type.
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit 247
In the case of the gold veins, and potentially other other deposit styles expands the geological environment
mineralization styles, there is a convergence of geologi- that is usually considered to be prospective for intru-
cal characteristics with deposits generally assigned a sion-related gold.
non-igneous, commonly metamorphic or deep-crustal/ Intrusion-related gold deposits in arc and back-arc
mantle origin. The criteria used for these assignations positions are widely known to be important economical-
are commonly several or all of those discussed in the ly, but it is also recognized that moderately reduced
previous section. The current state of confusion is high- intrusions beyond these traditional tectonic settings can
lighted by consideration of just three major vein gold give rise to major, multi-million ounce deposits, as
deposits that are traditionally regarded to be of orogenic exemplified by Fort Knox in Alaska, Mokrsko in the
type: Grass Valley, California, Kirkland Lake, Ontario, Czech Republic and elsewhere (Thompson et al., 1999).
Canada and Omai, Guyana. The granodiorite-hosted Many of these chalcophile metal-deficient gold deposits
Grass Valley veins (Johnston. 1940), at the northern end occur in provinces better known for their tungsten and
of the Mother Lode belt, are closely comparable to tin potential. There is an increasing tendency for explo-
members of the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association, especial- ration to target veins rather than bulk-tonnage mineral-
ly Charters Towers (Morrison, 1988). The Kirkland ization because of the greater possibility of encounter-
Lake veins in the Archean Abitibi greenstone belt cut a ing high gold grades, as exemplified by recent activity
fault-localized syenitic intrusion (Thomson et al., 1950) in the Alaska-Yukon region following the discovery of
and possess obvious similarities to the Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu the Pogo vein deposit (Smith, 1998). Veins, whether
association of alkaline-rock affiliation. Indeed, syenite intrusion-hosted or developed alongside genetically
intrusions of similar age in the Abitibi belt apparently related intrusions, may be extensive although not neces-
generated disseminated-gold mineralization (Robert, sarily well-mineralized throughout their strike and
1997). The Omai veins cut a relatively reduced quartz down-dip extents.
syenite and monzonite intrusion in an early Proterozoic Research directed at distinguishing better between
greenstone belt (Crpeau et al., 1996) and are reminiscent closely similar intrusion-related and orogenic vein gold
of the Au-As-Bi-Sb association. deposits is considered a priority if gold exploration pro-
Clearly, we have a major problem on our hands, with grams are to be conducted in a proper fashion. The dis-
current distinctions between intrusion-related and oro- tinction between igneous and non-igneous gold deposits
genic deposits being impossible to apply meaningfully, is of crucial importance at the area selection stage as
even in Phanerozoic provinces. We concur with investi- well as during detailed exploration, because neither
gators, like Goncharov (1983) and Newberry et al. activity can be optimized if the fundamental mineraliza-
(1995), in distinguishing both intrusion-related and oro- tion controls intrusive suite of specific composition,
genic vein gold deposits, although their distinction cri- major arc-parallel fault zone or both are poorly defined.
teria appear to be too parochial for worldwide applica- Acknowledgements: RHS thanks both the organizers of
tion. The currently popular assignment of most vein the Society of Resource Geology/Society of Economic
gold deposits throughout broad regions to the orogenic Geologists Joint Symposium on Granitoid Types and
category, as promoted by Phillips and Powell (1993), Mineralization for the invitation to participate and the
Goldfarb et al. (1997, 1998), Groves et al. (1998) and President of the Metal Mining Agency of Japan for
Miller et al. (1998), is an oversimplification that needs defraying the costs involved in travelling to Tokyo. Con-
to be re-examined. An intrusion-related model will not stantino Mpodozis and Ricardo Muhr kindly provided
be appropriate in many cases, and may even be proven copies of the Gana (1991) and Collao and Ortega (1998)
incorrect in some of the examples that we use herein, but reports, respectively, and gave permission to cite them.
it requires more serious consideration and evaluation.
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