Improving the Voltage Regulation of Secondary Feeders by

Applying Solid-State Tap Changers to MV/LV Transformers

Daro Monroy Antonio Gomez-Exposito Esther Romero-Ramos
Department of Department of Department of
Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering
University of Sevilla University of Sevilla University of Sevilla
Sevilla, Spain Sevilla, Spain Sevilla, Spain
Email: damon@us.es Email: age@us.es Email: eromero@us.es

Abstract Voltage regulation at the subtransmission and distribution
levels strongly relies on the use of transformer tap changers, implemented
nowadays by means of sophisticated electromechanical mechanisms.
The possibility of replacing such slow and prone-to-wear switches by
electronic devices has been the subject of much interest in the last few
years, particularly at subtransmission levels. In this paper, the application
of on-load electronic tap-changers to MV/LV distribution transformers
is proposed and the operational benefits from their widespread use on
a sample realistic feeder, both at normal and emergency conditions, are
illustrated.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Keeping voltage magnitudes within acceptable limits at the sub-
transmission and distribution levels is mainly accomplished through
the use of transformer tap changers along with capacitor banks.
The switching process can take place under load, typically at the
transmission and subtransmission levels where the service cannot
be interrupted, or taking the load off, like in most distribution
transformers [7].
For the first type of applications a voluminous, relatively slow
and fragile electromechanical tap changer is customarily employed.
In spite of being the subject of intensive maintenance routines, this
device is the origin of about 20% of transformer failures. On the other
hand, medium to low voltage transformers are usually equipped with
a simple tap changer which is manually operated upon the premise of
service interruption. While over 20 steps are typically implemented
at the higher voltage levels, only four or five different winding ratios
are employed in secondary distribution transformers.
In the last few years new generations of electronic valves have
arisen which are capable of switching voltages and currents in the
order of what can be found in transformer regulating windings.
An analysis of such devices, as well as a concise reference to
their potential use in transformer voltage regulators is presented in
[1], [2]. Direct replacement of conventional mechanical switches
by thyristor-based bidirectional switches could be in principle a
reasonable approach to develop an electronic under-load tap changer.
However, in addition to those of mechanical switches, solid-state
valves are subject to a series of limitations that should be kept in
mind when designing electronic switches, namely [1]:
Operating voltages and currents, both at steady state and during
transients arising from lightning surges and faults.
Forward-voltage drop and losses during the conducting state.
Switching losses.
Blocking voltage capability.
Of special relevance is the risk that unacceptably high voltages
appear across open switches if the transformer is struck by lightning.
Therefore, existing tap-changer topologies may not always be
acceptable from the technical point of view, particularly for large sub-
transmission transformers [5], [8]. Furthermore, cost considerations
tend obviously to favor those topologies minimizing the number of
switches for a given number of taps [2].
This naturally leads to the problem of determining the optimal tap-
changer topology, that is, the topology minimizing the investment cost
subject to a set of constraints, for a certain type of transformer that
must provide a given number of voltage ratios.
For the purposes of this paper, an electronic bidirectional switch
is a pair of thyristors connected in antiparallel, as shown in Figure 1.
The design of suitable tap changer controllers, specifically adapted
to the use of solid-state switches, can be found elsewhere [5] and is
beyond the scope of this paper. Note, however, that the tap-changer
configurations that will be discussed below remain valid for any kind
of electronic switch and control technique.
Fig. 1. Antiparallel thyristors forming a bidirectional switch.
This paper focuses specifically on the application of electronic
tap changers at the secondary distribution level, where service trans-
formers are customarily equipped with off-load mechanical actuators
which are seldom operated. First, the three-phase MV/LV transformer
configuration most commonly found in Europe is examined. Then,
recently introduced switching configurations, especially adapted to
the needs of this kind of transformers are reviewed. Finally, a typical
urban feeder is resorted to in order to illustrate the possibilities arising
from the application of solid-state technology to the daily operation
of distribution networks.
II. MV/LV TRANSFORMER CONFIGURATION
The huge number of distribution transformers presently installed
and working successfully precludes their massive substitution by
electronically regulated ones in the short term. This means that there
will be a relatively long transient period in which manufacturers will
have to deal simultaneously with both technologies.
The most popular medium voltage to low voltage (MV/LV) trans-
former arrangement in Europe is by far the one whose single-phase
diagram is shown in Figure 2. The main winding, labelled as W, is
split in two halves, each one connected in series with two auxiliary
coils, leading to 5 voltage steps.
W n n n n W
Fig. 2. Taps and regulating windings of a conventional European MV/LV
transformer.
In this case, replacing the off-load mechanical tap changer by a
solid-state under-load device would significantly improve the cus-
tomers voltage profile in long and/or overloaded distribution feeders,
as will be shown below.
Another important improvement arises in case of faults, when some
nearby feeders have to assume, while the fault is repaired, the load
of the affected customers, significantly increasing the voltage drops.
Note that, in those situations, transformers which are located near the
feeder head in normal conditions, may be at the feeder tail transiently.
Therefore, off-load tap settings, calibrated for normal conditions, will
worsen the voltage drop when the feeder in service is probably most
overloaded. The presence of the automated electronic tap-changer, on
the contrary, would maintain acceptable voltage levels both in normal
and faulted operating conditions, with very low reaction times.
III. E LECTRONIC TAP CHANGER ARRANGEMENTS
For a desired number of voltage steps, an optimal electronic tap-
changer should minimize the number of involved switches and taps,
as well as the number of conducting switches in series [1], [2], [3],
[4]. For an existing transformer, with a set of regulating windings and
taps, an optimal tap changer should maximize the voltage steps with a
minimum number of solid-state devices. In what follows, two optimal
schemes recently introduced, especially designed to be applied to
MV/LV distribution transformers, will be reviewed [6].
The first scheme, as shown in Figure 3, leads to 4 voltage
steps by directly replacing mechanical switches without altering
the main or auxiliary windings (note that two of the taps become
now useless). Considering the increased control flexibility provided
by the electronic changer, reducing by one the number of voltage
combinations will pose no problem in many cases. This arrangement
can be useful for transformers located near the head of the feeder,
where the expected voltage excursions are of lower amplitude.
An alternative arrangement is the one shown in Figure 4. In this
case, because of the bidirectional nature of the winding connection,
nine voltage steps result, which may be convenient for certain trans-
formers located at remote locations, where voltage fluctuations are
larger. However, this configuration requires that the auxiliary coils be
W n n n n W
Fig. 3. Application of solid-state switches to MV/LV transformers to obtain
4 steps.
W n n n n W
Fig. 4. Application of soli-state switches to MV/LV transformers to obtain
9 steps.
electrically separated from the main windings, which involves minor
modifications to existing transformers or manufacturing processes.
Note that only seven switches are needed.
In both cases the number of switches is minimized and, for a
given number of voltage steps, only one of them (4 steps) or a
pair (9 steps) works in series while conducting. Last but not least,
these configurations may be applied to present MV/LV transformers
without performing major changes in their structures, offering the
possibility of immediate application at relatively low cost.
IV. I LLUSTRATIVE APPLICATION EXAMPLES
The distribution ring shown in Figure 5, typically found in urban
areas, has been used to illustrate the potential benefits of using
electronic tap changers, automatically switched by a closed-loop
voltage regulator, instead of the usual off-line mechanical changers.
The line section data corresponding to the 28-bus tested system are
presented in Appendix I, Table V, while the load data can be found
in Table I. The nominal voltage ratio of all MV/LV transformers
is 20kV/400V. The assumed off-line tap changer configuration for
each MV/LV transformer follows the arrangement shown in Figure
2, with 5 voltage steps. Each tap step provides a 2.5% voltage ratio
change, the 5 taps leading to a maximum 5% deviation from rated
voltage. In the following discussion, tap position 1 corresponds with
21000/400 V whereas tap position 5 leads to 19000/400 V.
Table I presents the computed voltages both at the MV and LV
sides of each transformer for the configuration depicted in Figure
5 and the specified base-case loading condition. The two feeders
composing the ring can support each other in case of emergency
by manually closing the switch located between the line section 31-
32. Medium voltages have been obtained by solving a conventional
load flow problem, where all buses are of the PQ type except
for the substation, where rated voltage (20 kV) is assumed. Then,
low voltages are deduced for each transformer by selecting the
best tap setting according to several factors (position in the feeder,
average loading conditions and expected voltage deviations at the
feeder head). Table I lists the adopted tap setting for each MV/LV
transformer. Note that those settings remain fixed unless an operator
goes to the transformer center, disconnects it and change the tap
manually. Obviously, the farther from the substation the service
transformer is, the higher its tap position to compensate for the
larger voltage drop along the feeder. The UNE-EN 50160 regulation
recommends that voltage fluctuations must lie between 10% of the
rated voltage. The Spanish regulation further reduces this interval to
7% at the low voltage level. In Figure 6 the low voltage magnitudes
 MV
1 2 3 4 5 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 FP

18 19 20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 32

Fig. 5. The 28-bus distribution system.

TABLE I
BASE - CASE NETWORK CONDITION
Base case Feeder 1
Node Load Load MV Tap LV Feeder 2
(MW) (Mvar) (kV) Pos. (V) 430.00
Subst. 6,127 4,2642 20,000 ** **
1 0,24 0,144 19,979 2 389,83 420.00
18 0,216 0,096 19,965 2 389,56 410.00
2 0,216 0,096 19,871 2 387,72 400.00
3 0,288 0,192 19,797 2 386,28
4 0,144 0,072 19,726 2 384,89 390.00
19 0,216 0,096 19,672 3 393,44 380.00
20 0,216 0,096 19,592 3 391,84
5 0,144 0,048 19,549 3 390,98
370.00
25 0,144 0,06 19,515 3 390,30 360.00
26 0,144 0,06 19,471 3 389,42 0 18 19 20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 32
27 0,144 0,048 19,271 4 395,30
Node
7 0,480 0,240 19,254 4 394,95
8 0,144 0,048 19,131 4 392,43
Fig. 6. Node voltage magnitudes along the two feeders for the base-case
28 0,288 0,168 19,128 4 392,36
condition
29 0,480 1,440 19,067 4 391,12
9 0,144 0,048 19,035 4 390,46
10 0,108 0,072 19,019 4 390,13
30 0,360 0,168 19,002 4 389,78 A. Case A: substation voltage drops to 19 kV
11 0,144 0,084 18,989 5 399,76 In this case it is supposed that the substation voltage reduces to 19
31 0,504 0,240 18,989 5 399,76
12 0,144 0,084 18,867 5 397,20
kV while the power demand is kept constant. As a consequence, not
13 0,288 0,192 18,820 5 396,21 only the voltage level at the MV side of transformers gets reduced
14 0,144 0,024 18,716 5 394,02 (column 2 of Table II) but also at their LV side, since the tap settings
15 0,144 0,048 18,686 5 393,39 remain at their base-case values (columns 3 and 4 of Table II). It is
16 0,144 0,048 18,639 5 392,40 worth noting that a large number of node voltages (shown in purple in
17 0,180 0,090 18,624 5 392,08
the table) are below the acceptable lower bound (372 V), particularly
32 0,080 0,070 18,620 5 392,00
those of feeder 1.
However, if the proposed electronic tap changers are used, along
with appropriate closed-loop voltage regulators, the tap positions are
adapted in each case to the optimal value in such a way that voltages
at each node along the two feeders have been represented to better are held close enough to the rated values. Columns 4 and 5 of Table
grasp their evolution at the base case (the upper and lower feeders II show the tap setting corresponding to each electronic tap changer
will be named feeders 1 and 2 in the sequel). The voltage limits 428 and the resulting voltage, all of them being close to 400 V. Figures
V and 372 V, related with the 7% interval of the rated voltage 7 and 8 compare, for each of the two feeders, the resulting voltages
(400 V) are drawn in red, all voltages being well within limits. Note with and without on-load tap changers, making it evident the benefits
that, contrary to expectations, the low-side voltage at certain nodes attained with the proposed arrangement.
is higher than that of the preceding node in the feeder (for example
the low voltage at node 5 is 391 V whereas the voltage at node 4 B. Case B: Substation voltage drops to 19 kV and load increases by
hardly reaches 385 V). This is due to the discrete nature of the tap 50%
changer and the fact that the base-case tap setting is one step higher
In addition to lowering the substation voltage to 19 kV, a 50%
at node 5 than at node 4.
increase in the total demand is assumed. When tap settings remain
Other cases departing from the base case described above have fixed, this leads to a totally unacceptable scenario in terms of voltage
been tested in order to illustrate the influence of the substation voltage magnitudes, as easily deduced by examining Table III and Figures 9
on consumer voltages when conventional tap changers are considered and 10, counterparts of Table II and Figures 7 and 8 for this case.
and the benefits provided by the use of the electronic tap changer This rather extreme yet realistic case yields voltage magnitudes at the
arrangement of Figure 4. LV side which are lower than 372 V at all nodes, some of them being
 TABLE II
C ASE A
Off-load tap changers
Tap Pos. Tap Pos. Electronic tap changers
Node MV Off-load LV Electronic LV Case A- Feeder 2
(kV) tap changers (V) tap changers (V)
Bus 19,000 ** ** ** ** 420
1 18,977 2 370,28 5 399,52
400
18 18,963 2 370,01 5 399,22
2 18,864 2 368,07 5 397,13 380
3 18,785 2 366,54 5 395,47
4 18,711 2 365,09 6 404,56 360
19 18,653 3 373,06 6 403,31 340
20 18,568 3 371,36 6 401,47 18 19 20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 32
5 18,523 3 370,46 6 400,50
25 18,488 3 369,76 6 399,74 Node
26 18,440 3 368,8 6 398,70
27 18,229 4 373,92 6 394,14 Fig. 8. Case A: low side voltages along feeder 2
7 18,210 4 373,53 7 404,66
8 18,080 4 370,87 7 401,77 TABLE III
28 18,077 4 370,81 7 401,71 C ASE B
29 18,013 4 369,5 7 400,28
9 17,978 4 368,78 7 399,51 Tap Pos. Tap Pos.
10 17,961 4 368,43 7 399,13 Node MV Off-load LV Electronic LV
30 17,944 4 368,08 7 398,75 (kV) tap changers (V) tap changers (V)
31 17,930 5 377,47 7 398,44 Bus 19,000 ** ** ** **
11 17,929 5 377,45 7 398,42 1 18,965 2 370,04 5 399,26
12 17,799 5 374.71 7 395,53 18 18,942 2 369,6 5 398,78
13 17,750 5 373,68 7 394,44 2 18,791 2 366,65 5 395,6
14 17,640 5 371,36 8 403,20 3 18,669 2 364,27 6 403,65
15 17,608 5 370,69 8 402,46 4 18,554 2 362,03 6 401,17
16 17,558 5 369,64 8 401,32 19 18,461 3 369,22 6 399,15
17 17,542 5 369,3 8 400,96 20 18,328 3 366,56 6 396,28
32 17,538 5 369,22 8 400,86 5 18,265 3 365,3 6 394,92
Off-load tap changers
25 18,209 3 364,18 7 404,64
Electronic tap changers 26 18,136 3 362,72 7 403,02
Case A- Feeder 1 27 17,808 4 365,29 7 395,73
7 17,770 4 364,51 7 394,9
420
28 17,574 4 360,49 8 401,69
400 8 17,566 4 360,33 8 401,50
29 17,474 4 358,44 8 399,41
380 9 17,408 4 357,09 8 397,90
10 17,380 4 356,51 8 397,25
360 30 17,367 4 356,25 8 396,96
31 17,346 5 365,17 8 396,48
340 11 17,331 5 364,86 8 396,14
1 2 3 4 5 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 12 17,127 5 360,56 9 402,99
13 17,050 5 358,95 9 401,18
Node 14 16,876 5 355,28 9 397,08
Fig. 7. Case A: low side voltages along feeder 1 15 16,826 5 354,23 9 395,90
16 16,748 5 352,59 9 39407
17 16,722 5 352,04 9 393,46
32 16,716 5 351,91 9 393,31
even lower than 360 V, that is, 0.9 p.u. (these voltages are shown
in red in the different tables). Again, when the proposed on-load tap
changers are adopted, all voltages return to values which are very
close to 400 V. closing the normally open section between nodes 31 and 32. The
resulting radial structure consists now of a short feeder (buses 1
C. Case C: Temporary topology while a faulty section is repaired to 5) and a long feeder (feeding the remaining buses). In order to
This last case analyzes the resulting voltage levels when a perma- compensate as much as possible for the extremely deep voltage drops
nent fault occurs and power is temporarily supplied to certain buses arising along the long feeder, the voltage level at the substation is
from a path significantly different to that of the base case until the raised to 22 kV by shifting the on-load tap changer normally available
faulty section is repaired. at the substation transformer (this may have to be performed remotely
Then, suppose a line fault takes place between buses 5 and 25. by an operator, as the automatic voltage controller is normally not
After identification and isolation of the faulty section (in this case able to detect this emergency situation).
branch 5-25), which may involve several trial-and-error combined These new operating conditions give rise to overvoltages at nodes
switching actions, the switch at node 31 is closed and also the two of the short feeder coexisting with some undervoltages along the
circuit breakers at the head of the feeders. In this situation, loads long feeder when passive mechanical tap changers are assumed
connected to nodes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are still supplied from the original (manually shifting all affected tap settings is not considered a
feeder 1, while nodes from 25 to 31 are transferred to feeder 2 by reasonable option, as the process would take a lot of time and the
 TABLE IV
C ASE C
Off-load tap changers
Electronic tap changers Tap Pos. Tap Pos.
Case B- Feeder 1 Node MV Off-load LV Electronic LV
(kV) tap changers (V) tap changers (V)
420 Bus 22,000 ** ** ** **
1 21,994 2 429,15 1 418,93
400 2 21,972 2 428,72 1 418,51
3 21,959 2 428,46 1 418,27
380 4 21,953 2 428,35 1 418,15
5 21,946 3 438,92 1 418,01
360 18 21,924 2 427,78 1 417,60
19 21,269 3 425,38 1 405,12
340
20 21,075 3 421,5 1 401,42
1 2 3 4 5 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 7 20,223 4 414,83 3 404,46
Node 8 19,872 4 407,63 3 397,44
Fig. 9. Case B: low side voltages along feeder 1 9 19,562 4 401,27 3 401,27
10 19,512 4 400,24 3 400,24
11 19,419 5 408,82 4 398,34
12 18,956 5 399,07 5 399,07
13 18,746 5 394,65 5 394,65
Off-load tap changers
14 18,121 5 381,49 7 402,69
Case B- Feeder 2 Electronic tap changers
15 17,925 5 377,37 7 398.33
16 17,486 5 368,13 8 399,68
17 17,303 5 364,27 8 395,50
420
32 17,170 5 361,47 9 404,00
400 31 16,656 5 350,65 9 391,90
30 16,584 4 340,18 9 390,21
380 29 16,409 4 336,59 9 386,09
28 16,382 4 336,04 9 385,45
360 27 16,354 4 335,47 9 384,80
26 16,329 3 326,58 9 384,21
340
25 16,326 3 326,52 9 384,14
18 19 20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 32
Node
Fig. 10. Case B: low side voltages along feeder 2
Off-load tap changers
Electronic tap changers
Case C-Long feeder

original values would have to be reverted after a few hours). Table 420
IV and Figures11 and 12 provide the relevant data in this situation. 400
Voltages under 340 V (0.85 p.u.) are in brown in Table IV. Once 380
more, if electronic tap changers with 9 positions are considered, all 360
voltage magnitudes return within limits. 340
320
V. C ONCLUSIONS
18 19 20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25
The way subtransmission and distribution networks are operated Node
nowadays is significantly conditioned by the need to keep voltage
magnitudes within relatively narrow bounds, particularly at the LV Fig. 11. Case C: low side voltages along the long feeder
level. Presently, this requirement is essentially achieved by means of
under-load automatic tap changers at the substation transformers, in
combination with off-load mechanical changers at service transform- economic reach of cables, rather than on voltage drop considerations.
ers which are tuned to typical network and loading conditions.
Electronic switches, which are becoming cheaper and more re- A PPENDIX I
liable, currently offer good opportunities to provide added control DATA OF THE 28- BUS SYSTEM
flexibility when they replace conventional mechanical devices (faster Table V shows the resistance and reactance of lines for the 20-kV
response, higher number of shifting actions, etc.). In this paper, distribution test system.
two electronic tap changer configurations, with 4 and 9 voltage
steps respectively, are described to readily replace existing 5-step R EFERENCES
mechanical changers at MV/LV transformers. [1] N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS. Concepts and
The use of the proposed electronic tap changers is illustrated on a Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems, IEEE Press, 2000.
typical MV feeder, showing an important improvement in customers [2] Cigre, Working Group B4.35, Thyristor controlled voltage regulators,
voltage profile, both at normal and emergency situations. February 2004.
[3] J. Faiz and B. Siahkolah, Optimal configurations for taps of windings
The widespread use of such devices, hopefully in a near future, and power electronic switches in electronic tap-changers. Proc. IEE,
will change also the way subtransmission and distribution systems Generation Transmission and Distribution, vol. 149(5), pp. 517-524,
are planned, as network planners will focus on feeder ampacities and September 2003.
 Off-load tap changers

Case C-Short feeder Electronic tap changers

440
435
430
425
420
415
1 2 3 4 5
Node
Fig. 12. Case C: low side voltages along the short feeder

Line Parameter
From To R () X ()
1 2 0.4928 0.2512
33 1 0.092 0.0468
2 3 0.366 0.1864
3 4 0.3812 0.194
4 5 0.8188 0.7068
5 25 0.2028 0.1032
7 8 1.03 0.74
7 20 2 2
8 9 0.7088 0.9372
9 10 0.1964 0.0648
10 11 0.3744 0.1236
11 12 1.468 1.1548
12 13 0.5416 0.7128
13 14 2 2
14 15 0.7464 0.5448
15 16 1.2888 1.7208
16 17 0.732 0.574
17 32 0.5 0.5
18 19 1.504 1.3552
18 33 0.164 0.1564
19 20 0.4096 0.4784
25 26 0.284 0.1448
26 27 1.0588 0.9336
27 28 0.804 0.7004
28 29 0.5076 0.2584
29 30 0.9744 0.9628
30 31 0.3104 0.362
32 31 2 2
TABLE V
L INE DATA FOR THE 28- BUS TEST SYSTEM

[4] J. Faiz and B. Siahkolah, New Solid-State On load Tap-Changers Topol-

ogy for Distribution Transformers, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol.
18(1), pp. 136-141, January 2003.
[5] J. Faiz and B. Siahkolah, Differences Between Conventional and
Electronic Tap-Changers and Modifications of Controller, IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, vol. 21(3), pp. 1342-1349, July 2006.
[6] A. Gomez-Exposito, D. Monroy, Solid-State Tap Changers: New Con-
figurations and Applications, accepted for publication in IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery.
[7] D.G. Fink and H.W.Beaty, Standard Handbook For Electrical Engi-
neers, 13th edition, McGraw-Hill, USA, 1998.
[8] R. Shuttleworth, X. Tian, C. Fan and A. Power, New tap changing
scheme, Proc. IEE, Electric Power Applications, vol. 143(1), pp. 108-
112, January 1996.