+PROBE is the Public Report on Basic Education for India.

It was supported by the Center for Development Economics (India)

and published in 1999 by the Oxford University Press
(http://www.oup.com).What does the Indian Constitution have to do with basic education in
India?:
&quotThe State shall endeavor to provide within a period of
ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for
free and compulsary education for all children until they
complete the age of fourteen years."
(Constitution of India, Directive Principles of
State Policy, Article 45) (p.3)
In 1997, the 83rd amendment was introduced into Parliment
to establish basic education as a fundamental right guaranteed
by the State. It has not yet passed, but there is reason to
have hopes that it will be adopted in the future. (p. 1)What is PROBE based
on?:

PROBE relies on a survey carried out from September to

December 1996, covering school facilities and a sample of
1376 households, in 234 randomly selected villages of Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.
The five states covered by the survey account for 40 percent of
India's population and more than half of all out-of-school
children [in India]. One of the striking findings emerging from
the PROBE survey is the contrast between Himachal Pradesh and
the other four states. In comparison with the other states,
Himachal Pradesh has made remarkable progress towards universal
elementary education. To avoid mixing apples and oranges, the
survey data presented [from PROBE below] will exclude Himachal
Pradesh, and should be understood to apply to the other four
states. (p. 2)

Statistics from the Survey

Number of children aged 6-14 in the sample PROBE households.

enrolled in school = 766/1,331 (male/female)
not enrolled in school = 596/227
total = 1,362/1,558
&quotAs the above figures show, about 70 per cent of all
children aged 6-14 in the sample households are currently
enrolled in a school. This is an encouraging trend,
considering that out-of-school children made up about
three-fifths of the 5-14 age group in the PROBE states
as recently as 1986-7 (Visasia, et. al., 1993).
However, this trend hjas to be read in light of the fact
that (1) 'nominal enrollment' is a common and possibly
growing practice (see chapter 8 and Survey Methodology),
and (2) even among genuinely-enrolled children, attendance
rates and often low.
(p. 7
Parents are not interested in education:

Prents Attitude to Education (PROBE survey),

Is it important for a boy to be educated? 98% said yes
If yes, why?
1. Improves employment and income opportunities. 87%
2. Improves social status. 29%
3. Improves confidence or self-esteem. 24%
Is it important for a girl to be educated? 89% said yes
If yes, why?
1. Helps to write letters and keep accounts. 50%
2. Improves employment and income opportunities. 40%
3. Improves marriage prospects. 35%
(p. 19)

Should primary education be made compulsary for all children? 80% said yes
(p. 14)

Myth 2. Child labor is the main obstacle:

Estimates of Child Labor (All-India, Rural)

percentage (%) of children aged 5-14 who are in
the workforce-
Census of India (1991)= 8.8%/10.0% (female/male)
National Sample Survey= 7.8%/6.9%
NCAER Survey= 3.5%/4.4%
(p. 16)

Work Patterns of Out-of-School Children (PROBE survey)-

Proportion who worked mofe than 8 hours on the day preceding the survey=
22%/20% (boys/girls)
Proportion who performed wage labor on the day preceding the survey= 1%/5%
Average time of work on the day preceding the survey= 5.1 hours/4.2 hours
Extra time of work, compared with children
who are attending school= 2.2 hours/2.1 hours

Myth 3. Elementary Education is free:

Average Cost of Sending a Child to School

Primary level
NSS estimate (1986-7) excluding cloting expenses= Rs. 212
PROBE estimate, 1996= Rs. 318
Elementary level
NCAER estimate, 1994= 478

'If all children were at school':

If all the children aged 6-10 in the PROBE
survey were in primary school, there would be.113 pupils per pacca classroom
68 pupils per appointed teacher.

'School Facilities in the PROBE Villages':

Proportion(%) of primary schools where the

following facilities are unavailable or
available but not functional,
blackboard in every classroom= 26%
playground= 52%
drinking water= 59%
toilet= 89%
maps and charts= 59%
teaching kit= 67%
toys= 75%
library= 77%
musical instrument= 85%

'Teacher Activities at School':

1. Proportion (%) of headteachers who were

engaged in the following activities when the
PROBE investigators arrived,
Teaching activities= 25%
Absent= 33%
Other activities= 42%

2. Activity patterns of teachers when the

PROBE investigators arrived (proportion of
schools in which the relevant activities
were observed, which are not mutuially
exclusive since teachers may be engaged in
different activities)
Teaching= 53%
Minding the class= 21%
Sitting/Standing outside the class= 11%
In the headteacher's room= 7%
Talking with other teachers= 18%
Other non-teaching activities= 23%

KANFED and the Adult Education Scene in Kerala

Prior to Independence, in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore, 47 rural libraries united in
1945 to form Tranvancore Grandhasala Sanghom, which developed into Kerala Grandhasala
Sanghom, with nearly 5000 libraries affiliated to it. “Read and grow” was the slogan of the
Sanghom. Mr P.N. Panicker was the founder and driving force of this movement for 32 years
(until 1977, when the Sanghom was taken over by the State Government). Now it is called the
Kerala State Library Council, with an in-built democratic structure and funding from the State
Government.

The rural libraries organised night schools to combat illiteracy and spread the habit of reading. In
every panchayat ward there was a library with its own building, a good collection of books,
radio, television, sports club, arts club, women’s wing, children’s section, nursery section, etc.
The library movement in Kerala was unique and won acclaim all over India and even abroad.

Kerala State Literacy Council

In 1974, a Kerala State Literacy Council was established with a view to combating illiteracy
even if Kerala Grandhasala Sanghom were to abandon its action plan. This had initial problems
as the Chief Minister and other Ministers sat on the Executive Committee. This organisation
managed to produce one book, “Saksharatha” (Literacy), a collection of articles and treatises by
eminent educationists and practitioners published by the State Institute of Languages. The work
of Kerala State Literacy Council faded away and ceased to make much impact.

KANFED

In June 1977, KANFED (Kerala Association for Non-Formal Education and Development) was
registered under the Travancore-Cochin Charitable Societies Act No 12 of 1955 as an offshoot of
Kerala Grandhasala Sanghom and Kerala State Library Council, comprising the members of the
Literacy Expert Committee of the Sanghom. KANFED had before it certain specific objectives:

1. to eradicate illiteracy from the state

2. to provide opportunities for continuing education for all people in need

3. to strengthen the non-formal mode of education

4. to link development activities with non-formal education

Liberation of the masses, especially the downtrodden scheduled castes and tribes, and women,
was its motivation. Courses were launched at district, block and panchayat level, and literacy
centres established. In many places, “KANFED Bhavans” were set up, and welfare programmes
were launched. State and Central Government approved KANFED and provided grants.

Conclusion

The National Sample Survey has indicated that Mizoram has the highest literacy percentage, and
that Kerala has come down to third or fourth place, although this is yet to be confirmed by the
2001 census. According to the 1991 census, Kerala had 89.1% literacy, although when total
literacy was declared in the state in April 1991, the estimate was 93.58%. A further increase of
2% is claimed by the authorities. However, it is a fact that many have relapsed into illiteracy
(from among the 1,220,000 made literate in the Total Literacy Campaign). School drop-out,
although the lowest among the Indian states, adds to the problem. A realistic estimate would
therefore be that of the 30 million people in Kerala, at least 2.5 million are unable to decipher the
alphabet. This does not of course mean that they are ignorant; they are knowledgeable in many
respects and politically and socially conscious. They are simply devoid of literacy (and
numeracy) skills. They too have to be made literate and liberated at the earliest opportunity.
Maybe in the course of the next five years, before any other Indian state can achieve this target!

India Education Present Condition:

Soon after gaining independence in 1947, making education available to all had become a priority for
the government. As discrimination on the basis of caste and gender has been a major impediment in the
healthy development of the Indian society, they have been made unlawful by the Indian constitution.

The 86th constitutional amendment has also made elementary education a fundamental right for the
children between the age group- 6 to 14. According to the 2001 census, the total literacy rate in India is
65.38%. The female literacy rate is only 54.16%. The gap between rural and urban literacy rate is also
very significant in India. This is evident from the fact that only 59.4% of rural population are literate as
against 80. 3% urban population according to the 2001 census.
In order to develop the higher education system, the government had established the University Grants
Commission in 1953. The primary role of UGC has been to regulate the standard and spread of higher
education in India. There has been a marked progress in the expansion of higher education if we look at
the increase of higher educational institutes in India. The higher education system in India comprise of
more than17000 colleges, 20 central universities, 217 State Universities, 106 Deemed to Universities and
13 institutes of Natioanl importance. This number will soon inflate as the setting up of 30 more central
universities, 8 new IITs, 7 IIMs and 5 new Indian Institutes of Science are now proposed.

Education System in India:

The present education system in India mainly comprises of primary education, secondary education,
senior secondary education and higher education. Elementary education consists of eight years of
education. Each of secondary and senior secondary education consists of two years of education. Higher
education in India starts after passing the higher secondary education or the 12th standard. Depending
on the stream, doing graduation in India can take three to five years. Post graduate courses are
generally of two to three years of duration. After completing post graduation, scope for doing research
in various educational institutes also remains open.
 Prominent Educational Institutes in India:

There are quite a good number of educational institutes in India that can compete with the best
educational institutes of the world. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of
Management (IIMs), Indian Institutes of Science, National Law Schools, Jawaharlal Nehru University are
some such institutes.

Conclusion:
Despite all the efforts to develop the education system in India, access, equity and quality of education
in India continue to haunt the policy makers till this date. This has mainly been due to the widespread
poverty and various prejudices. The inability to check the drop out rates among the marginalized
sections of the population is another cause of worry. However, the renewed emphasis in the education
sector in the 11th five year plan and increased expenditure in both primary and higher education can act
as palliatives for the Indian education system.

ntroduction

FFree and compulsory education to all children up to the age fourteen is the constitutional
commitment in India.  Despite spectacular quantitative expansion in every sphere of elementary
education, the goal to achieve universal enrolment is still a far distant dream.  While adopting the
constitution in 1950, the goal of UEE was to be achieved in a period of ten years i.e. 1960. 
Keeping in view the educational facilities available in the country at that time, the goal of UEE
was far too ambitious to achieve it in a short span of ten years.  Hence, the target date was
revised a number of times.  During the last decade 1991-2001, a number of Centrally Sponsored
Schemes, as well as, new programmes and projects were initiated across the country.  The
Operation Blackboard scheme initiated in 1987 also got momentum during this period so as the
large number of District Institutes of Educational Training (DIETs) established across the
country. The Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project, Bihar Education Project, UP Basic
Education Project, Lok Jumbish and Shiksha Karmi projects of Rajasthan and District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP) were the main programmes initiated during 1991-2001. The mid-
day meal scheme was also initiated during this period. Primary education remained in the focus
in all these programmes. The most recent among these programmes, namely the DPEP is
presently under implementation in about 248 districts across 18 states. In addition, the State
Governments also initiated a number of other programmes. The success of these programmes is
partially reflected in primary enrolment which increased from 97 million in 1991 to 111 million
in 1999; thus giving a rate of growth of 1.75 per cent per annum. The share of girls enrolment
during the same period increased from 41.5 to 43.5 per cent at the primary and from 36.9 to 40.5
per cent at the upper primary level.  The transition rate from primary to upper primary level of
education is about 86 per cent. However, still the dropout rates are high at 40 and 57 per cent
respectively at the primary and upper primary levels of education. The attendance rate and
learners attainment across the country is also low.  To improve upon the situation, Government
recently launched an ambitious programme, namely Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, which envisages
covering all non-DPEP districts before the end of the ninth five-year plan with focus on entire
elementary level.
 The success or failure of primary education system has direct bearing on upper primary,
non-formal and adult and continuing education systems to expand.  An inefficient primary
education system, as it is today, will continue to send a fewer number of primary graduates to
upper primary level of education.  Needless to mention that unless all children of age 6-11 years
graduate primary level and transit to upper primary level, the goal of UEE cannot be achieved.
An efficient primary education system is expected to contribute significantly to total literates and
also to literacy levels of population.  However, an inefficient primary system will extract more
burden on non-formal and adult education programmes.  The NLM authority is the main agency
responsible for the adult education, which undertakes literacy programmes through Total
Literacy Campaigns (TLC). The TLC also got momentum in early 1990's, which created
environment for primary education system to expand. The literacy rates across the country
increased impressively from 52.21 per cent in 1991 to 65.38 per cent in 2001.  However, the
country still has more than 296 million illiterates of age 7 & above and male/female differential
in literacy is also high at 22 percentage points.  

The Census 2001 results are just released. So far, only total population and its male and
female distribution, 0-6 population, sex ratio, density of population and literacy rates have been
disseminated. The data is available both at the all-India, as well as, state level. However,
information on a variety of other indicators included in the Census is eagerly awaited.  An
attempt has been made in the present article to use this set of data to assess the contribution of
formal education system to total literates produced between the period 1991 to 2001. In addition
indicators, such as, male/female differential in literacy rate, literate per lakh population, sex ratio
among literate population and number of decades required to achieve universal literacy have also
been analysed to know more about literacy development in the country. Needless to mention that
the analysis undertaken is purely quantitative in nature and qualitative aspects have not been
touched upon. By and large, the analysis is confined to all-India level but wherever necessary,
state-specific information is also presented and analysed. The analysis presented is tentative in
nature till more detailed set of data about literates in different age groups and their educational
attainment is available. More specifically, the main objectives of the present article are:

        To analyse the Census definitions of literates and possible errors in enumeration;

        To take a view of the literacy development in India; and

        To assess the contribution of both the formal, as well as, non-formal education
systems to total literates produced between different periods.

First, definitions of literacy and possible errors in enumeration are briefly discussed below.

The UNESCO definition of literate is “One who has acquired all the essential knowledge and skills which
enable him/her to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning in
his/her group and community and whose attaining in reading, writing and numeracy make it possible to
use these skills towards his/her own and his/her community’s development” (see Box). On the other
hand, the NLM definition of literacy is acquiring the skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and the
ability to apply them to one's day-to-day life
Improvement in Literacy Rates

More than decline in population growth rate, it is the spurt in literacy rates that make the
present Census stand out from others in post-independence India. More than three-fourths of our
male population and a little more than half of the female population are now literate compared to
one-third of Indians still do not possess even the basic proficiency in literacy. During 1991-2001,
literacy rates improved impressively from 52.21 per cent in 1991 to 65.38 per cent in 2001; thus
showing an improvement of more than 13 percentage points (Table 1). More glaring aspect of
improving literacy rates is the significant increase of 14.87 per cent in case of female literacy
rate, which is more than the increase in the male literacy rate, which is increased by 11.72 per
cent.  However, still the male/female differential in literacy rate is of the tune of almost 22
percentage points. This is also reflected in the sex ratio among literate population, which is as
low as 667 compared to 933 overall sex ratio. Despite the decline in number of illiterates and
improvised literacy rates, India has to go a long way to achieve the goal of universal literacy.  
The progress in literacy during the previous decade looks impressive mainly because of the fact
that during the last four decades, the same remained very low and only a little progress could be
achieved. Because of the parental thirst for education, the literacy rates have now reached to
somewhat reasonable levels (Reddy, 2001). Therefore a literacy rate at 65 per cent appears to be
far more credible.  It is rather a mater of grate shame that Kerala attained 65 per cent literacy
way back in 60’s and even now many states have literacy rates well below the national average
of 65 per cent. The more detailed Census data when available will throw more light on the status
of literates that are being produced.  However, 1991 Census suggests that about 25 per cent of
the total literates were just literates and had never been completed even primary education. As
mentioned above, the Census definition of literacy is read and write but even the poorest of
parents want their child to complete a bare minimum elementary education.  Will it be possible
in the near future? is a moot question.

During 1991-2001, the highest change in literacy rate was recorded in case of Rajasthan (22.48
per cent) followed by Dadra & Nagar Haveli (19.32 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (19.91 per cent), Andhra
Pradesh (17.02 per cent), Meghalaya (14.21 per cent) etc. The improvement in literacy rates in case of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh is worth noticing; all of which are the educationally
deprived states (Table 2).  However, the male/female differential especially in case of Madhya Pradesh
(26.52 per cent) and Rajasthan (32.12 per cent) is still very high and do not suggest that the goal of
universal literacy can be achieved in the near future. The increase during 1991-2001 was lowest in case
of Kerala (1.11 per cent) followed by Chandigarh (3.95 per cent), Nagaland (5.46 per cent) etc.   The low
increase at least in case of Kerala and Chandigarh is mainly because of their base year (1991) literacy
rates, which were as high as 89.81 and 77.81 per cent. In 2001 also, Kerala has the highest literacy rate
(90.92 per cent) followed by Mizoram (88.44 per cent), Lakshadweep (87.52 per cent), Goa (82.52 per
cent), Delhi (81.82 per cent), Dadra & Nagar Haveli (81.09 per cent), etc.   On the other hand, more than
half of the total 7 & above population in Bihar is still illiterate. The state also has the lowest literacy
(47.53 per cent) rate and is the only state, which has less than 50 per cent literacy rate across the
country. Bihar is closely followed by Jharkhand (54.13 per cent), Jammu & Kashmir (54.46 per cent),
Arunachal Pradesh (54.74 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (57.36 per cent). 
 Census 2001 further reveals that the increase in female literacy rate (39.29 to 54.16 per cent)
was much higher than the increase in their counterparts’ males (64.13 to 75.85 per cent). The lowest
female literacy rate is noticed in case of Bihar (33.57 per cent), followed by Jharkhand (41.82 per cent),
Jammu & Kashmir (41.82 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (42.98 per cent), Arunachal Pradesh (44.24 per cent),
Rajasthan (44.34 per cent) etc. Both the Orissa and Madhya Pradesh have a little above 50 per cent
female literacy rate against Kerala’s 87.86 per cent which is also the highest in the country.   The low
female literacy rates in these states are well reflected in the male/female differential, which is still high
at about 22 percentage points. The States of Bihar (26.75 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (26.52 per cent),
Orissa (24.98 per cent), Rajasthan (32.12 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (27.25 per cent) have a very high
significant male/female differential in literacy, all which need immediate attention without which the
goal of universal literacy even cannot be dreamt. Though the situation during 1991-2001 in these states
improved but they still remained (in terms of literacy) the most deprived states of the country. So far as
the ranking of States & UTs by literacy rates are concerned, it is found that the first three states namely,
Kerala, Mizoram and Lakshadweep maintained their position in 2001 also. The ranking of Rajasthan is
worth noticing which improved its position from 33 in 1991 to 29 in 2001. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
maintained their positions respectively at 31 and 34 where as Madhya Pradesh improved from 26 to 25.
Similarly, West Bengal improved its position from 19 to 18 but Orissa and Andhra Pradesh slide from 25
and 27 to 26 and 28.  Maharashtra retained its ranking at number 10 where as, Karnataka (21) and Tamil
Nadu (12) lost their positions to 22 and 13 in 2001.

The improvement in literacy is also reflected in a variety of indicators calculated. Literates per
lakh population suggest that on an average there are 55 thousand literates compared to only 29
thousand illiterates. A wide gap is also noticed between male (64 thousand) and female (46 thousand)
literates per lakh population. Similar is the case with illiterates per lakh population, which are 21
thousand for male and 39 thousand per lakh for female population. Similarly, the female/male ratio of
literacy rate improved from 61 in 1991 to 71 in 2001; which also shows differential in male/female
literacy rate. In 1991, two States/UTs had below 40 per cent literacy rate compared to no state under
this category in 2001. One significant improvement, which is quite visible, is increase in number of states
from 6 to 16 in the literacy range 60-70. Only three State/UTs had literacy levels above 80 per cent in
1991, which has now been increased to 9 in 2001.         

4. Decline in Illiterates

There has been a decline during 1991-2001 in the absolute number of illiterates.  The total
number of illiterates declined is 31.96 million, 21.45 million among males and 10.51 million among
females. It may be noted that the four most educationally deprived states of the country, namely Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh together have 298 million population of 7 & above, which
is about 34 per cent of the total population in 2001. The bifurcated parts of three newly created states,
namely Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Uttaranchal, if considered along with their parent states will increase
the share to 39.69 percent (345 million). However, the number of literates they have is much lower than
their share in the total 7 & above population. Together, they have 169 million literates, which is only 30
per cent of the total literates in the country.  Together with three new states, the share of literates
increases to 34.84 per cent (197 million), which is far below than their share (39.69 per cent) to total 7 &
above population. 

Individually, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh have 34.97, 17.86, 17.94 and
57.80 million illiterates respectively, which gives a total of 128.57 million illiterates.  This is 42.51 per
cent of the total illiterates in the country. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh alone have about 93 million illiterates
(30.75 per cent).  The improvement in literacy programmes in these   states would help in declining
illiterates by at least 43 per cent. Unless the goal of universal literacy is achieved in these states, India
too cannot become a literate state. The trend in illiterates during the period 1991-2001, however
indicate that these states experienced a decline in illiterates but the decline is only marginal.   During
1991-2001, the number of illiterates in these four states along with three new states, declined by only
11.48 million which is about 36 per cent of the total 31.96 million decline at the all-India level. The other
states, which also have significant number of illiterates, are Andhra Pradesh (25.69 million), West Bengal
(21.27 million), Maharashtra (19.00 million), Karnataka (15.13 million), Gujarat (14.70 million), Tamil
Nadu (14.67 million), Orissa (11.47 million) and Assam (7.96 million).  The number of illiterates in rest of
the states varies from 6.38 million in Punjab to 6,454 in Lakshadweep. Kerala too have 2.16 million
illiterates of 7 & above population. Many smaller States & UTs are in a position to achieve the goal of
universal literacy in the near future. Even the female literacy rates in these states are well above the 70
per cent.

Of the total 31.96 million decline in number of illiterates during 1991-2001, the maximum contribution
come from Andhra Pradesh (16.79 per cent) followed by Uttar Pradesh (14.09 per cent), Mahasashtra
(12.48 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (11.43 per cent), Tamil Nadu (10.66 per cent) and Rajasthan (11.46
per cent). Similarly, of the total 203.61 million increase in number of literates, the contribution of these
six states was 55.2 per cent with Uttar Pradesh share to the tune of 17.18 million.  But a few states, such
as, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Delhi, Manipur and Nagaland experienced increase
in number of illiterates during 1991-2001 but except Bihar (- 9.33 per cent), elsewhere the increase is
small in nature. However, Bihar contributed 6.13 per cent to total increase in number of literates.

Literacy Rates (%) in India: 1951 to 2001

Census Year Persons Males Females Differential Female/Male Literacy Ratio

5 & Above

1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30 33

1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05 38

 1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.99 48

7 & Above

1981 43.57 56.38 29.71 26.67 53

1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84 61

2001 65.38 75.85 54.16 21.69 71

             
Source: Census of India 2001, Series-1, India, Provisional Population Totals, Paper-1 of 2001, Registrar General and Census Commissioner,

TABLE 2 (I)

Literacy Statistics, Census of India 2001

Literacy Rate, 2001 Increase in Literacy over Male/Female Differential Rank In

States/UT 1991 Census (%) in Literacy (%) Literacy Rate
Persons Females Total 2001 1991 2001
A & N Islands        81.18        75.29 8.16 10.78 8 8
Andhra Pradesh        61.11        51.17 17.02 19.68 27 28
Arunachal Pradesh        54.74        44.24 13.15 19.83 29 32
Assam        64.28        56.03 11.59 15.90 23 24
Bihar        47.53        33.57 9.05 26.75 34 34
Chandigarh        81.76        76.65 3.95 9.00 4 6
Chattisgarh        65.18        52.40 - 25.46 28 23
D& N Haveli        60.03        42.99 19.32 30.32 32 30
Daman & Diu        81.09        70.37 9.89 18.03 9 9
Delhi        81.82        75.00 6.62 12.36 6 5
Goa        82.32        75.51 6.81 13.37 5 4
Gujarat        69.97        58.60 8.68 21.90 14 15
Haryana        68.59        56.31 12.74 22.94 22 20
Himachal Pradesh        77.13        68.08 13.27 17.94 11 11
Jammu & Kashmir        54.46        41.82 - 23.93 - -
Jharkhand        54.13        39.38 - 28.57 30 33
Karnataka        67.04        57.45 11.00 18.84 21 22
Kerala        90.92        87.86 1.11 6.34 1 1
Lakshadweep        87.52        81.56 5.74 11.59 3 3
Madhya Pradesh        64.11        50.28 19.91 26.52 26 25
Maharashtra        77.27        67.51 12.40 18.75 10 10
Manipur        68.87        59.70 8.98 18.17 16 19
Meghalaya        63.31        60.41 14.21 5.73 24 27
Mizoram        88.49        86.13 6.22 4.56 2 2
Nagaland        67.11        61.92 5.46 9.85 13 21
Orissa        63.61        50.97 14.52 24.98 25 26
Pondicherry        81.49        74.13 6.75 14.76 7 7
Punjab        69.95        63.55 11.44 12.08 17 16
Rajasthan        61.03        44.34 22.48 32.12 33 29
Sikkim        69.68        61.46 12.74 15.27 20 17
Tamil Nadu        73.47        64.55 10.81 17.78 12 13
Tripura        73.66        65.41 13.22 16.06 15 12
Uttar Pradesh        57.36        42.98 15.76 27.25 31 31
 Uttaranchal        72.28        60.26 - 23.75 18 14
West Bengal        69.22        60.22 11.52 17.35 19 18
INDIA       65.38       54.16 13.17 21.70 - -
Source: Adopted/calculated on the basis of Census of India 2001, Series-1, India, Provisional Population Totals, Paper-1 of 2001, Registrar General and

Census Commissioner, India, 2001.            

TABLE 2 (II)

Literacy Statistics, Census of India 2001

Number of Decades Required to Achieve Universal % Contribution in %  Contribution in Illiterates

Literacy* Literates Increase over Decrease over 1991 to 2001
State/UT
1991 to 2001
Persons Male Female
A & N Islands 2.31 1.97 2.52 0.04 0.01
Andhra Pradesh 2.29 1.85 2.65 7.80 16.79
Arunachal 3.44 2.85 3.83 0.10 -0.02
Assam 3.08 2.79 3.38 2.36 1.61
Bihar 5.80 5.07 6.22 6.13 -9.33
Chandigarh 4.62 3.97 5.41 0.11 -0.07
Chattisgarh - - - 2.55 6.50
D  & N Haveli 2.07 1.35 3.56 0.03 -0.02
Daman & Diu 1.91 2.02 2.70 0.02 0.00
Delhi 2.75 2.36 3.12 1.88 -0.70
Goa 2.60 2.12 2.91 0.10 0.13
Gujarat 3.46 2.65 4.16 4.31 0.60
Haryana 2.47 2.04 2.76 2.35 0.91
Himachal Pradesh 1.72 1.31 2.00 0.64 1.08
J & Kashmir - - - - -
Jharkhand - - - 2.33 0.24
Karnataka 3.00 2.63 3.24 4.79 4.24
Kerala - - - 1.44 0.05
Lakshadweep 2.17 2.31 2.13 0.01 0.00
Madhya Pradesh 1.80 1.26 2.32 7.14 11.43
Maharashtra 1.83 1.42 2.14 10.86 12.48
Manipur 3.47 3.55 3.33 0.25 -0.10
Meghalaya 2.58 2.60 2.54 0.24 0.08
Mizoram - - - 0.10 0.04
Nagaland 6.03 6.80 5.31 0.26 -0.56
Orissa 2.51 1.87 3.01 3.51 6.02
Pondicherry 2.74 2.13 3.04 0.09 0.05
Punjab 2.63 2.44 2.77 2.42 2.08
Rajasthan 1.73 1.10 2.33 7.14 11.46
Sikkim 2.38 2.12 2.61 0.07 0.01
Tamil Nadu 2.45 2.06 2.68 5.05 10.66
Tripura 1.99 1.70 2.19 0.33 0.52
Uttar Pradesh 2.71 2.05 3.23 17.18 14.09
Uttaranchal - - - 0.89 1.47
West Bengal 2.67 2.30 2.91 7.47 8.26

State-wise Average Enrolment in Grade IV and V: 1991 to 2001

 (Figures in millions)

Districts Grade IV Grade V

Learners
Total Covered Increase in Total
Made literate
State Number of under TLC Average % to Total Average % to Total Literates between
under TLC
Districts (Up to March Enrolment Literates Enrolment Literates 1991-2001
(1989 to 1998)
1998)
Andhra Pradesh 23 23 7.09 11.95 75.26 11.00 69.25 15.88
Arunachal 13 0 - 0.19 94.96 0.16 80.68 0.20
Assam 23 21 0.39 4.57 94.89 4.67 97.09 4.81
Bihar 55 39 2.26 13.37 107.02 11.66 93.38 12.49
Gujarat 19 19 4.11 10.27 117.20 9.06 103.41 8.77
Haryana 19 16* 0.33 3.42 71.54 3.14 65.72 4.78
Himachal 12 12 0.41 1.26 97.21 1.14 88.05 1.30
Karnataka 27 20* 3.83 11.20 114.71 9.09 93.14 9.76
Kerala 14 14 1.35 5.98 203.30 6.18 210.34 2.94
Madhya Pradesh 61 45* 4.24 15.78 108.58 13.67 94.05 14.54
Maharashtra 33 30* 3.80 19.70 89.06 18.25 82.52 22.12
Manipur 8 1 - 0.41 80.40 0.38 73.55 0.51
Meghalaya 7 6 0.01 0.36 72.46 0.33 67.91 0.49
Mizoram 3 0 - 0.19 93.92 0.17 84.67 0.20
Nagaland 7 0 - 0.30 55.91 0.31 59.35 0.53
Orissa 30 25 2.10 6.22 87.12 5.32 74.52 7.14
Punjab 17 14 0.28 3.98 80.82 3.50 71.19 4.92
Rajasthan 32 31* 2.86 7.65 52.59 6.89 47.40 14.54
Sikkim 4 0 - 0.11 83.41 0.10 72.37 0.13
Tamil Nadu 29 23 5.77 13.65 132.69 13.20 128.29 10.29
Tripura 4 3* 0.36 0.68 100.97 0.53 78.61 0.67
Uttar Pradesh 83 68* 4.63 21.64 61.86 18.56 53.07 34.98
West Bengal 18 17 8.25 13.54 88.98 12.45 81.86 15.21
INDIA** 577 442 52.45 170.40 82.90 153.72 74.79 203.61
    Dantewada district (30.01%) of Chattisgarh has the lowest literacy rate while Aizawl
district (96.6%) of Mizoram has the highest literacy rate in 2001
        About 81 districts have literacy rate lower than 50 per cent
        About 297 districts have lower literacy rates than the national average of 65.38 per
cent
        23 districts in Bihar, 8 in Jharkhand, 7 in Orissa, 18 in Uttar Pradesh etc. have
lower than 50 per cent literacy rates
        More than 59 districts have above 80 per cent literacy rates, most of the districts of
Kerala and Mizoram have above 80 per cent literacy rates
        23 of the 37 districts of Bihar have below 50 per cent literacy rates
        Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh together have 57 districts that
have lower than 50 per cent literacy rate of the total 81 such districts
        Kishanganj (18.49%) district of Bihar has the lowest female literacy rate while
Aizawl (96.06%) district of Mizoram has the highest female literacy rate in the country
        Both the male and female literacy rates in Aizawl district of Mizoram are the
highest in the country
        In about 253 districts, the female literacy rates are lower than 50 per cent
        313 districts have lower female literacy rates than the national average of 54.16 per
cent
        Some of the states which have a number of districts below 50 per cent female
literacy rates are: Andhra Pradesh (14), Arunachal (10), Bihar (36), Gujarat (7), J & K
(11), Jharkhand (15), Karnataka (7), Madhya Pradesh (24), Rajasthan (25), Orissa (15),
Uttar Pradesh (53)
        While in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, only 3 districts have lower than 50 per
cent literacy (Total) rate but the same in case of female literacy rate is 24 (Madhya
Pradesh) and 25 (Rajasthan) districts
        Dantewada district (39.59%) of Chattisgarh has the lowest male literacy rate and
Mahe district of Pondicherry, the highest male literacy rate (97.59%)
        Only 20 districts have male literacy rates lower than 50 per cent
        32 districts have more than 90 per cent male literacy rate and 227 districts above 80
per cent
        323 districts have male literacy rates above the national average of 75.84 per cent
        Jaintia hills districts of Meghalaya is the only district in the country which has
higher female literacy rate (55.54%) than male literacy rate (50.52%)
        In about 11 districts, male/female differential in literacy rate is lower than 5
percentage points, most of which are the districts from Kerala and Mizoram
        The highest male/female differential in literacy rate is noticed in Sawai Madhopur
district (41.31%) of Rajasthan
        In about 100 districts, the male/female differential in literacy rate is above 30
percentage points as against 222 districts having more than 25 percentage points
differential
         310 districts have higher differential in male/female literacy rate than at the
national level (22%)
        546 of the total 593 districts of the country have male/female differential above 10
percentage points
        Murshidabad district of West Bengal has the highest number of illiterates (21.74
lakh, 7 & above) population
        Mahe district of Pondicherry has the lowest number of illiterates, it has only 363
male and 1025 female illiterates
        67 districts have more than 10 lakh illiterates of 7 and above population
        Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal together
have 202 of the total 593 districts of the country. These states together have more than
129 million illiterates of the total 301 million illiterates in the country

1.GROWTH IN LITERACY

The literacy rate of the population aged 7+ according to the 2001 population census is
65.4 whereas it was only 52.2 in 1991. The growth has been much faster compared to that of the
previous decade since the literacy rate increased by 13.2 percentage points between 1991 and
2001, whereas it had increased only by 8.6 percentage points between 1981 and 1991.  In fact,
the growth during 1991-2001 exceeded that of every previous decade.  Since the growth in terms
of percentage points generally slows down as one approaches the ceiling of 100%, the
accelerated growth during 1991-2001 can be considered as a great achievement. Another
remarkable feature of the results on literacy in 2001 census is that, for the first time, the number
of non-literates declined between 1991 and 2001, instead of increasing. Upto 1991, in spite of
some increase in literacy rate between two consecutive census years, the number of non-literates
did not decline, but continued to increase. This trend was reversed in 2001 because of the rapid
rise in the number of literates and some slowing down of population growth rate during 1991-
2001.  Between 1991 and 2001, while the number of literates increased by 203.6 million (that is,
by 56.8%), the number of non-literates decreased by 32.0 million (that is, by 9.7%). It is
expected that the trend of decline in the number of non-literates will continue and the size of
non-literate population will diminish substantially in the years to come.
2.GENDER DIFFERENCE

Table 1 shows the literacy rate in the age group 7+ for the census years 1981, 1991 and 2001,
and Table 2 shows the number of literates and non-literates in 1991 and 2001.

TThe literacy rate of males is 75.85 and of females, 54.16 in 2001. The gender gap has reduced
slightly compared to what it was in 1981 and 1991.  The highest difference between the literacy
rate of males and females of age 7+ was 26.62 in 1981; it reduced to 24.84 in 1991 and further to
21.70 in 2001. Apparently there has been greater progress in improvement of literacy rate of
females over the last two decades, since it increased from 29.76 in 1981 to 54.16 in 2001 (i.e. by
24.40 percentage points), whereas the literacy rate of males increased from 56.38 in 1981 to
75.85 in 2001, that is, by 19.47 percentage points.  But even with the greater increase in the
literacy rate of females, the gender gap is fairly large, since the number of non-literate females is
189.6 million against 106.7 million non-literate males, that is, there are 83 million more non-
literate females.

The relatively higher growth in literacy rate of females (14.9 points) compared to that of males
(11.7 points) between 1991 and 2001, hides the fact that between 1991 and 2001, the increase in
the number of literate females was a little less than the increase in the number of literate males.
While the number of literate males increased by 108.0 million between 1991 and 2001, the
corresponding increase in the number of literate females was by 95.6 million, which is 88.5% of
the former. Since there were 200 non-literate females of age 7+ as against 128 non-literate males
in 1991, the gap was too large to bridge. In a way, the gap has widened as the number of non-
literate males decreased by 21.4 million between 1991 and 2001, while the number of non-
literate females decreased by only 10.5 million over this period. The reason for slower progress
made in reduction of the number of non-literate females can be traced to the difference in
enrolment ratios and dropout rates of boys and girls at the primary stage. According to the
National Family Health Survey  (NFHS-2) while 85.2% boys in the age group 6-10 were
attending school, only 78.3% girls were doing so in 1998-99. The same survey showed that while
the median number of years of schooling was 5.5 for males of age 6+, it was only 1.6 for females
of age 6+. Among the total students enrolled in classes I-V in 1999-2000, only 43.6% were girls
and the Gross Enrolment Ratio was 104.1 for boys against 85.2 for girls, according to the
Ministry of HRD statistical report for 1999-2000. The dropout rate also has been a little higher
for girls; while 38.7% of boys entering grade I dropped out before grade V, 42.3% girls did so
(according to the same Ministry of HRD statistics for the year 1999-2000).

3.STATE TO STATE VARIATIONS IN LITERACY RATE

The literacy rate varies considerably across the states. While Kerala remains on the top with
90.9% literacy rate, Bihar is at the bottom with 47.5% literacy rate. In 1991 also, it had the
lowest literacy rate of 37.5% among the states and Union Territories. Except Bihar, all the states
and Union Territories which had literacy rate below 50% in 1991, are now in 'over 50%' bracket.
Of the states and Union Territories which were close to or below all India literacy rate of 52.2 in
1991, some have made tremendous progress while in others the progress has been rather tardy.
Table 3 shows the literacy rate of these states and UTs in 1991 and 2001.

Table 3: Literacy rate of the below average states

for the population of age 7+ in 2001

  1991 2001 Increase Gender gap

States Male Female Total Male Female Total 1991-2001 1991 2001
Rajasthan 55.0 20.4 38.6 76.5 44.3 61.0 22.4 34.6 32.1
Uttar Pradesh 54.8 24.4 40.7 70.2 43.0 57.4 16.7 30.4 27.3
Bihar 51.4 22.0 37.5 60.3 33.6 47.5 10.0 29.4 26.8
Arunachal Pradesh 51.5 29.7 41.6 64.1 44.2 54.7 13.1 21.8 19.8
Meghalaya 53.1 44.8 49.1 66.1 60.4 63.3 14.2 8.3 5.7
Assam 61.9 43.0 52.9 71.9 56.0 64.3 11.4 18.9 15.9
Jharkhand 55.8 25.5 41.4 67.9 39.4 54.1 12.7 30.3 28.6
Orissa 63.1 34.7 49.1 76.0 51.0 63.6 14.5 28.4 25.0
Chhatisgarh 58.1 27.5 42.9 77.9 52.4 65.2 22.3 30.6 25.5
Madhya Pradesh 58.5 29.4 44.7 76.8 50.3 64.1 19.4 29.1 26.5
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 53.6 27.0 40.7 73.3 43.0 60.0 19.3 26.6 30.3
Andhra Pradesh 55.1 32.7 44.1 70.9 51.2 61.1 17.0 22.4 19.7
INDIA 64.1 39.3 52.2 76.0 54.3 65.5 13.3 24.9 21.7

Incidentally, these are the States and UTs, which are even now below the all India literacy rate of
65.4. The literacy rate in Assam is close to the all India figure in both 1991 and 2001.Bihar and
Jharkhand are the only states in the above group in which the decadal increase is the lowest.  The
most significant increase has taken place in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, which are known to have been backward in education. Orissa and
Meghalaya also made significant progress, though not to the same extent as some other states. In
Rajasthan, there have been some noteworthy initiatives in education during the late eighties and
nineties such as Lok Jumbish and Shiksha Karmi projects, which have apparently made visible
impact.In Madhya Pradesh also, the Education Guarantee Scheme, the District Primary
Education Programme and programmes like Mahila Samakhaya have apparently made some
impact.  Among the new states, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh are both ahead of the states from
which they were carved out, in respect of both male and female literacy rates. These are the tribal
parts of the original states which are generally more backward, but it seems that in literacy they
have benefited significantly from the educational activities of the missionaries and state
Departments of Tribal Welfare. Uttaranchal is also far ahead of Uttar Pradesh from which it was
carved out, showing that the hilly and tribal areas even though economically backward, have
been relatively better off in education.

In respect of female literacy, it is again Bihar and Jharkhand, which are at the bottom (33.6% in
Bihar and 39.4% in Jharkhand). The states where the gender gap is quite large (25% points or
more) are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhatisgarh and Madhya Pradesh,
the gender gap in these states being in the range of 25 to 32 percentage points. In 1991, the state
with lowest female literacy rate was Rajasthan (20.4) followed by Bihar (22.0) and Uttar Pradesh
(24.4). Rajasthan, Chhatisgarh and Madhya Pradesh have achieved maximum decadal growth in
female literacy (23.9, 24.9 and 20.9 respectively). However, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Orissa
and Andhra Pradesh are not far behind, as the decadal increase in their female literacy rate is in
the range of 16 to 19 percentage points. Even though the states with very low female literacy
have made good progress in bridging the gender gap, they require some more concerted efforts to
reduce the gap further in the future. The enrolment and retention of girls in these states must
increase and there should be more emphasis on adult literacy programmes for females.

4.PAST TREND IN LITERACY

Having presented some of the significant features of literacy data available at this stage from the
2001 census, let us now examine the trend in literacy over the period 1961-2001. The literacy
rate was as low as 28.3 for the age group 5+ in 1961; it has now more than doubled to 65.4 for
the age group 7+ in 2001. Table 4 shows the literacy rate for the age groups 7+ and 15+ for the
census years 1961 to 2001 and for the years 1995/96, 1997 and 1998 based on NSS data. For
2001, the literacy rate for age 15+ is obtained by simple extrapolation.

Table 4: Literacy rate of the population in the age groups 7+ and 15+, 1961 to 2001

Year Gender difference

Literacy Rate (Age 7+) Literacy rate (Age 15+)
(M-F)
Male Female Total Male Female Total Age7+ Age15+
1961 40.4 15.4 28.3 41.5 13.2 27.8 25.0 28.3
1971a 46.0 22.0 34.5 47.7 19.4 34.1 24.0 28.3
1981 56.4 29.8 43.6 54.9 25.8 40.9 26.6 29.1
1991 64.1 39.3 52.2 61.3 34.1 48.2 24.8 27.2
1995-96 - - - 67.3 40.7 54.3 - 26.6
1997 73 50 62 70 43 57 23 27
1998 73 51 62 - - - 22 -
2001 75.9 54.2 65.4 71.1 47.1 59.4 21.7 24.0

The growth in literacy rate was almost linear between 1961 and 1991, but there was a clear shift
from the linear trend after 1991.  There was a spurt in growth rate of literacy after 1991;
however, the reduction in gender gap was rather slow.

5.CONTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL EDUCATION TO THE RISE IN LITERACY

Whether the sharp increase in literacy rate after 1991 was more due to the progress made towards
universalisation of primary education or to the adult literacy programmes, can be decided only
when the literacy data by age becomes available. As this stage, only some conjectures can be
made on the basis of the available data on literacy by age from the 1991 census and certain
assumptions that may or may not prove to be true eventually. Table 5 shows the literacy rate of
the population in the different age groups for the years 1961 to 1991.
 Table 5:Literacy rate in different age groups, 1961 - 1998/99

Age group 1961 1971 1981 1991 NFHS-2

1998-99
10-14 42.3 49.6 56.3 68.5 81.8
15-19 38.4 51.3 55.5 65.7 76.9
20-24 33.6 44.7 52.0 57.9 67.0a
25-34 28.5 34.8 45.0 50.9 56.9b
35+ 22.2 25.2 30.3 38.0 45.2c
15+ 27.8 34.1 40.9 48.2 58.6

a) Age group: 20-29; b) Age group: 30-39; c) Age group: 40+

It seems reasonable to assume that the literacy rate for the age group 15-19 will increase by
about 12 percentage points between 1991 and 2001.   Thus it should become about 78 in 2001. 
This assumption is supported by the data of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2)
conducted in 1998-99, which reports the literacy rate for the age group 15-19 as 76.9. The
literacy rate in the different age groups in 2001 will be as shown in Table 6, if there is no impact
of adult literacy programmes during 1991-2001. Actually the literacy rate of any given age
group, say 15-34 in 2001 will be the same as that of the 10 years younger age group, 15-24 in
1991 if it is assumed that no one found literate in 1991 lapsed into illiteracy by 2001, no one
became literate because of adult literacy programmes and there was no significant impact of
migration on literacy. The difference between the literacy rate of the age group 15+ so estimated
and that obtained by extrapolation can be attributed to the impact of adult literacy programmes.

Table 6: Estimated literacy rate and number of literates in different age groups in 2001,
assuming no impact of literacy programmes

Literacy Rate Estimated Estimated no. of

Age-group population literates
1991 2001 (millions)a (millions) 2001
10-14 68.5 --
15-19 65.7 78.0 110.3 86.0
20-24 57.9 68.5 91.2 62.5
15-24 62.0 -- -- --
 25-34 50.9 62.0 142.1 88.1
25+ 42.5 -- -- --
35+ 38.0 42.5 246.2 104.6
15+ 48.2 57.85 589.8 341.2

a) Based on population projections made y RGI for 2001

Since the estimated literacy rate for the age group 15+ in 2001 is 59.4, the number of literates in
this age group should be 350.3 million out of the total estimated population of 589.8 million in
this age group. Thus only 350.3-341.2 = 9.1 million persons in the age group 15+ in 2001 are
those who apparently acquired literacy between 1991 and 2001, as they were not already literate
in 1991. Others were either already literate in 1991 or had acquired literacy by attending formal
schools and programmes of non-formal / alternative schools. This provides rather a disturbing
picture of the impact of adult literacy programmes, since according to the 1998-99 report of the
Directorate of Adult Education, the number of persons made literate between 1988 and March
1999 is 79.5 million (59.4 million through TLC and 20.1 million through other schemes).

Even if we assume that the literacy rate in the age group 15+ in 2001 is 61.4 (just 4.0 percentage
points more than that of age group 7+), the number of literates in the age group 15+ would be
362.1 million, which would imply that 362.1-341.2=20.9 million persons in the age group 15+ in
2001 were those who became literate as a result of adult literacy programmes between 1991 and
2001. It is again much less than the number of those who should have become literate because of
TLC and other literacy schemes. One possible reason for such discrepancy is that some of the
adults reported to be literate in 1991 were actually not literate enough to be excluded from the
literacy imparting programmes of TLC and the like. They were included among those covered in
these programmes.

6.CONCLUDING REMARKS

While it is necessary to give all the importance that is at present being given to Universalisation
of Elementary Education through DPEP and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, it is also important to pay
greater attention to the adult literacy programmes for the vast population of non-literate adults.
They constitute about 40% of the total adult population (of age 15+), which means population of
236 million non-literate adults. The target originally fixed for adult literacy programmes was to
make 100 million non-literate adults literate by 1999; not only this target was not achieved, but
the census data show that the impact was much below the expected achievement. Let us hope
that the situation is not so bad as it appears at present, and the detailed data on literacy by age as
and when become available, will show a better impact of adult literacy programmes.

So far as the literacy scenario of the different states is concerned, the states with low literacy
level have improved greatly over the period 1991-2001, with the exception of Bihar and
Jharkhand.  Among the most populous states of India, there are six, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, which account for 46% of the country's population.
All these states except Bihar have made tremendous progress in improving their literacy rate.
These hold the key to further progress in eradication of illiteracy in the future. Apart from the
programmes of National Literacy Mission for adults, the Universalisation of Elementary
Education through programmes like District Programme Education Programme (DPEP) and
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan will play a key role in achieving another significant rise in literacy rate
during the current decade.  These educational programmes aim at providing universal access,
enrolment of all children in the age group 6-13, reduction of dropout rate and improvement of
quality of education. With the financial resources and other inputs that are being provided to
make these programmes successful, we can certainly hope that the literacy rate will increase to at
least 75% or so by the year of 2011, that is, when the next census takes place

Trends in Literacy Rates

            It may be noted at the outset that, prior to the 1991 census, the Indian census was excluding only
children aged 0-4 years in counting the literate population.  The literacy rates were computed by taking the
total population in the denominator.  On the eve of the 1991 census it was decided that all children in the 0-
6 age group will be treated as illiterate by definition and literacy rates would be computed for population
aged 7 years and above.  In comparison to such (net) literacy rates, those computed by taking the total
population in the denominator are called “crude literacy rates.”  As it is not feasible to work out net literacy
rates right from 1901 onward, Table 1 gives crude literacy rates for India for the past one century, from
1901 to 2001.

Table 1: Crude literacy rates by sex, India, 1901-2001

Census year Crude literacy rates Decadal change (in percentage points)
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
1901 5.4 9.8 0.6 -- -- --
 1911 5.9 10.6 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.4
1921 7.2 12.2 1.8 1.3 1.6 0.8
1931 9.5 15.6 2.9 2.3 3.4 1.1
1941 16.1 24.9 7.3 6.6 9.3 4.4
1951 16.7 25.0 7.9 0.6 0.1 0.6
1961 24.0 34.4 13.0 7.3 9.4 5.1
1971 29.4 39.4 18.7 5.4 5.0 5.7
1981 36.2 45.9 24.8 6.8 6.5 6.1
1991 42.8 52.7 32.2 6.6 7.8 7.4
2001 55.3 64.1 45.8 12.5 11.4 13.6

Source: RGCCI 2001: (2001a: 114)

Note:  1.    Figures from 1901 to 1941 are for undivided India.

2.       Figures for 1981 exclude Assam and those for 1991 exclude Jammu and Kashmir as no census could be
conducted in Assam in 1981 and in Jammu and Kashmir in 1991.

    3.   Figures for 2001 exclude the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and Wankaner         talukas of
Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and entire Kinnaur district of Himachal
Pradesh where 2001 census enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities.

The crude literacy rates in various censuses from 1901 onward show an increase for both males and
females.  The rates were very low till 1931 but there was a sudden jump in 1941, from 9.5 percent to 16.1
percent.  It, however, remained almost stationary at 16.7 percent in 1951.  This may be due to the fact that
earlier figures were for undivided India and, secondly, after the partition of the country into India and
Pakistan in 1947, almost eight million people came to the Indian Union from newly created Pakistan, and
around six to seven million Muslims went from India (Premi 1995: 628).   It is almost impossible to assign
reasons for the observed figures.

There has been a monotonous increase of 5 to 8 percent in the literacy rates after 1951, it becoming
12.5 percent in the 1991-2001 decade.  Thus the literacy rate has become more than three times during the
past half-a-century.

It is noteworthy that, in recent years, the increase in female literacy rate has been higher than in male
literacy rate narrowing the male-female gap particularly during the 1980s and 1990s.  This can be
explained partly by the general expansion of education, partly by the present policies of positive
intervention followed in favour of girls and by implementation of programmes like DPEP, literacy promotion
programmes through NLM and Adult Literacy Programme etc.

Net Literacy Rates

            Literacy rates for the population aged 7 years and above presented in Table 2 indicate a very
significant increase for both males and females particularly during the 1990s.  As of 2001 census, almost
two-thirds of India’s population is now literate, the male literacy rate has risen to three-fourths while females
literacy rate at 54.2 percent indicates that more than half the female population in the country is now
literate, that is, has the ability to read and write with understanding.  An important finding of Table 2 is the
reduction of gap in male and female literacy rates from 26.6 percent in 1981 to 21.7 percent in 2001.

Table 2: Literacy Rates by sex, India, 1981-2001

Year Literacy rate Male –female

Person Male Female Gap
1981 43.6 56.4 29.8 26.6
1991 52.2 64.1 39.3 24.8
2001 65.4 75.8 54.2 21.6

        Source: RGCCI 2001 (2001a: 115)

        Note:

1         Figures for 1981 exclude Assam and those for 1991 exclude Jammu and Kashmir as no census could
be conducted in Assam in 1981 and in Jammu and Kashmir in 1991.

2     Figures for 2001 do not include the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and     Wankaner
talukas of Rajkot district;  Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and entire Kinnaur district
of Himachal Pradesh where 2001 census enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities.

Literacy Rates by Zones and States

The national level literacy rate for persons aged 7 years above conceals more than what it reveals as
there are great statewide disparities. For example, Kerala with literacy rate of 90.9 percent has secured first
rank closely followed by Mizoram.  Among the other six states/UTs with more than 80 percent literacy rate,
the five are union territories and Goa is the only state in this category.

Improvement in Literacy Rates

            At the national level the literacy rate in population 7+ improved from 52.2 percent in 1991 to 65.5
percent in 2001, an improvement of 13.3 percentage points during the decade.  It is only Kerala and Goa in
the south, Mizoram in the northeast, Himachal Pradesh in the north and Maharashtra in the west zone that
recorded literacy rates of more than 75 percent in 2001.  All the UTs except Dadra and Nagar Haveli have
also recorded literacy rate of more than 80 percent (Table 3).  In 1991, among the major states (with
population above 10 million), Tamil Nadu secured second rank in literacy rate, while it has slipped to the
third rank now.

Table 3: Percentage of Literates to Population age 7 Years and above by

Zones and States, 1991 and 2001

Zone/State and Union 1991 2001 Gains in literacy

Territory rates           (LR 2001-
LR 1991)
  P M F  P M F P M F
  INDIA 52.2 64.1 39.3 65.2 75.6 54.0 13.0 11.5 14.7
NORTH ZONE 51.2  63.8 36.9  66.5  77.6  54.1  15.3 13.8 17.2
Haryana 55.9 96.1 40.5 68.6 79.3 56.3 12.7 10.2 15.8
Himachal Pradesh 63.9 75.4 52.1 77.1 86.0 68.1 13.2 10.6 16.0
Jammu & Kashmir 51.5 63.3 38.8 65.4 75.9 54.2 13.9 12.6 15.4
Punjab 58.5 65.7 50.4 70.0 75.6 63.6 11.5 9.9 13.2
Rajasthan 38.6 55.0 20.4 61.0 76.5 44.3 22.4 21.5 23.9
Chandigarh (UT) 77.8 82.0 72.3 81.8 85.7 76.7 4.0 3.7 4.4
Delhi (UT) 75.3 82.0 67.0 81.8 87.4 75.0 6.5 5.4 8.0
EAST ZONE 47.6 60.1 33.9 59.0 70.1 47.0 11.4 10.0 13.1
Bihar 37.5 51.4 22.0 47.5 60.3 33.6 10.0 8.9 11.6
Sikkim 56.9 65.7 46.8 69.7 76.7 61.5 12.8 11.0 14.7
West Bengal 57.7 67.8 46.6 69.2 77.6 60.2 11.5 9.8 13.6
Orissa 49.1 63.1 34.7 63.6 76.0 51.0 14.5 12.9 16.3
A & N Islands (UT) 73.0 79.0 65.5 81.2 86.1 75.3 8.2 7.1 9.8
NORTH EAST 54.5 63.2 44.1 65.8 73.0 58.0 11.3 9.8 13.9
Assam 52.9 61.9 43.0 64.3 71.9 56.0 11.4 10.0 13.0
Arunachal Pradesh* 41.6 51.5 29.7 54.7 64.1 44.2 13.1 12.6 14.5
Manipur 59.9 71.6 47.6 68.9 77.9 59.7 9.0 6.3 12.1
Meghalaya 49.1 53.1 44.9 63.3 66.1 60.4 14.2 13.0 15.5
Mizoram 82.3 85.6 78.6 88.5 90.7 86.1 6.2 5.1 7.5
Nagaland 61.7 67.6 54.8 67.1 71.8 61.9 5.4 4.2 7.1
Tripura 60.4 70.6 49.7 73.7 81.5 65.4 13.3 10.9 15.7
CENTRAL ZONE 42.4 56.6 26.5 60.1 72.8 46.2 17.7 16.2 19.7
Madhya Pradesh 44.7 58.5 29.4 64.1 76.8 50.3 19.4 18.3 20.9
Uttar Pradesh 40.7 54.8 24.4 57.4 70.2 43.0 16.7 15.4 18.6
WEST ZONE 63.6 75.4 51.0 73.5 82.9 63.4 9.9 7.5 12.4
Gujarat 61.3 73.1 48.6 70.0 80.5 58.6 8.7 7.4 10.0
Maharashtra 64.9 76.6 52.3 77.3 86.3 67.5 12.4 9.7 15.2
D & N Haveli (UT) 40.7 53.6 27.0 60.0 73.3 43.0 19.3 19.7 16.0
Daman & Diu (UT) 71.2 82.7 59.4 81.1 88.4 70.4 9.9 5.7 11.0
SOUTHERN ZONE 59.3 69.1 49.2 70.4 78.7 62.0 11.1 9.6 12.8
Andhra Pradesh 44.1 55.1 32.7 61.1 70.9 51.2 17.0 15.8 18.5
Goa 75.5 83.6 67.1 82.3 88.9 75.5 6.8 5.3 8.4
Karnataka 56.0 67.3 44.3 67.0 76.3 57.5 11.0 9.0 13.2
Kerala 89.8 93.6 86.2 90.9 94.2 87.9 1.1 0.6 1.7
Tamil Nadu 62.7 73.8 51.3 73.5 82.3 64.6 10.8 8.5 13.3
Lakshadweep (UT) 81.8 90.2 72.9 87.5 93.2 81.6 5.7 3.0 8.7
Pondicherry (UT) 74.7 83.7 65.6 81.5 88.9 74.1 6.8 5.2 8.5
 Source: RGCCI 2001 (2001a: 123-27)

At the zonal level, in 2001 it is the west zone that has reported the highest literacy rates well above
the south zone.  This is because both Gujarat and Maharashtra have registered literacy rates higher than
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka that fall in the south zone.  Although central zone is constituted by
erstwhile Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, both regarded as low literacy states, it is the east zone that
is marked by lowest literacy rate primarily because of very low literacy rate in Bihar and Orissa (Table 3).

As regards the gains in literacy rates between 1991 and 2001, all the states and union territories
without exception have registered positive increase. Rajasthan recorded a maximum increase of 22.5
percent followed by Chhatisgarh (22.3 percent), Madhya Pradesh (19.4 percent), Andhra Pradesh (17
percent) and Uttar Pradesh (16.6 percent) (Table 3).  Thus, among the so called BIMARU states,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh including Chhatisgarh, and Uttar Pradesh have made significant progress in
their literacy drives. Detailed literacy rates by age groups would indicate whether the increment in literacy
rates is largely contributed by the adult males and females or by the children in the school going age.  The
first factor would mean that efforts of the National Literacy Mission (NLM) and Adult Literacy Mission (ALM)
and other related programmes have succeeded while the second may suggest success of the DPEP and
other projects like Lok Jumbish in Rajasthan have helped in reduction in school dropouts.  Both these
aspects are meaningful from societal perspective and need more detailed examination.

 Among the states and union territories that had literacy rates below 50 percent in 1991, Bihar at
47.5 percent is the only state falling in this category in 2001 as well.  Further, it has recorded the minimum
increase of just 10 percent during 1991-2001.

            Regression analysis conducted with literacy rate (y) as the dependent variable and population
growth rate during 1991-2001 decade (x1) and urbanisation rate in 2001 (x2) as explanatory variables
indicate that growth rate has no correlation with literacy rate.  Urbanisation rate, however, has strong
correlation with literacy rate and is highly significant.  The regression equation in this case works out as

                        y = 63.167 – 0.139x1 + 0.333x2     

Male-Female Difference in Literacy Rate

            It is heartening to note that, at the national level, male-female difference in literacy rate has declined
from 24.8 percent in 1991 to 21.7 percent in 2001 due to faster increase in female literacy rate than male
literacy rate during the 1990s.  Consequently, the male-female gap in literacy rate declined in all the states
and union territories except Dadra & Nagar Haveli during this period.

An examination of the decadal difference in literacy rates by gender for 1991 and 2001, however,
indicates that out of 13 states and UTs where the literacy rates are below the national average of 65.4
percent, nine occupy the first nine positions in male-female gap.  These states are Rajasthan (a gap of 32.1
percentage points), Jharkhand (28.6 percent), Uttar Pradesh (27.2 percent), Bihar (26.7 percent), Madhya
Pradesh (26.5 percent), Chhatisgarh (25.5 percent), Orissa (25 percent), Jammu and Kashmir (23.9
percent) and the UT of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (30.3 percent).  Their ranking in terms of the gap in male-
female literacy rate has remained almost the same between 1991 and 2001 (Table 4).  In contrast, male-
female gap in literacy rate in 2001 is less than ten percent only in the states of Kerala, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland and the union territory of Chandigarh. These are the states where females have high
status in their respective societies. 

Looking at the data in Table 4, one may conclude that the states where the overall literacy rate is
low, they continue to have large gap in male female literacy rates even after substantial improvement in
female literacy.  It also seems that low urbanisation and low density of population also influence the gap in
male-female literacy rates.  One may also say that status of women continues to remain low in those
states.

Table 4: Literacy rates by sex and their decadal differences between

1991 and 2001, India and States/Union Territories

India/State/Union 1991 Gap in 2001 Gap in Decadal difference

Territory/zone M-F literacy in literacy rates
literacy
Rate
Males Females rate Males Females Males Females
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
INDIA 64.1 39.3 24.8 76.0 54.3 21.7 11.8 15.0
North zone 63.8 36.9 26.9 77.6 54.1 23.5 13.8 17.2
Jammu & Kashmir N.A. N.A. N.A. 65.8 41.8 23.9 N.A. N.A.
Himachal Pradesh 75.4 52.3 23.2 86.0 68.1 17.9 10.6 15.8
Punjab 65.7 50.4 15.3 75.6 63.6 12.0 10.0 13.1
Chandigarh* 82.0 72.3 9.7 85.6 76.6 9.0 3.6 4.3
Haryana 69.1 40.5 28.6 79.2 56.3 22.9 10.2 15.8
Delhi* 82.0 67.0 15.0 87.4 75.0 12.4 5.4 8.0
Rajasthan 55.0 20.4 34.6 76.5 44.3 32.1 21.5 23.9
Central zone 56.6 26.5 30.1 72.8 46.2 26.6 16.2 19.7
Chhatisgarh 58.1 27.5 30.5 77.9 52.4 25.5 19.8 24.9
Madhya Pradesh 58.5 29.4 29.2 76.8 50.3 26.5 18.3 20.9
Uttar Pradesh 54.8 24.4 30.5 70.2 43.0 27.2 15.4 18.6
Uttaranchal            72.8 41.6 31.2 84.0 60.3 23.7 11.2 18.6
East zone 60.1 33.9 26.2 70.1 47.0 13.1 10.0 13.1
Bihar 51.4 22.0 29.4 60.3 33.6 26.7 9.0 11.6
Jharkhand 55.8 25.5 30.3 67.9 39.4 28.6 12.1 13.9
Orissa 63.1 34.7 28.4 76.0 51.0 25.0 12.9 16.3
Sikkim 65.7 46.8 18.9 76.7 61.5 15.2 11.0 14.7
West Bengal 67.8 46.6 21.2 77.6 60.2 17.4 9.8 13.7
A. & N, Islands 79.0 65.5 13.5 86.1 75.3 10.8 7.1 9.8
North-Eastern zone 63.2 44.1 19.1 73.0 58.0 15.0 9.8 13.9
Arunachal Pradesh 51.4 29.7 21.7 64.1 44.2 19.9 12.6 14.5
Assam 61.9 43.0 18.9 71.9 56.0 15.9 10.1 13.0
Manipur 71.6 47.6 24.0 77.9 59.7 18.2 6.2 12.1
Meghalaya 53.1 44.8 8.3 66.1 60.4 5.7 13.0 15.6
Mizoram 85.6 78.6 7.0 90.7 86.1 4.6 5.1 7.5
Nagaland 67.6 54.8 12.8 71.8 61.9 9.9 4.2 7.2
Tripura 70.6 49.6 21.0 81.5 65.4 16.1 10.8 15.8
 West zone 75.4 51.0 24.4 82.9 63.4 19.5 7.5 12.4
Gujarat 73.4 48.9 24.5 80.5 58.6 21.9 7.1 9.7
Maharashtra 76.6 52.3 24.3 86.3 67.5 18.8 9.7 15.2
D & N Haveli* 53.6 27.0 26.6 73.3 43.0 30.3 19.8 16.0
Daman & Diu* 82.7 59.4 23.3 88.4 70.4 18.0 5.7 11.0
South zone 69.1 49.2 19.9 78.7 62.0 16.7 9.6 12.8
Andhra Pradesh 55.1 32.7 22.4 70.8 51.2 19.6 15.7 18.4
Goa 83.6 67.1 16.5 88.9 75.5 13.4 5.2 8.4
Karnataka 67.3 44.3 23.0 76.3 57.4 18.9 9.0 13.1
Kerala 93.6 86.2 7.4 94.2 87.9 6.3 0.6 1.7
Tamil Nadu 73.8 51.3 22.5 82.3 64.6 17.7 8.6 13.2
Lakshadweep* 90.2 72.9 17.3 93.2 81.6 11.6 3.0 8.7
Pondicherry* 83.7 65.6 18.1 88.9 74.1 14.8 5.2 8.5

Source: RGCCI (2001a: 126 f.)

Notes:

1.       The literacy rates for India for 1991 Census in col. (3) and (4) exclude Jammu and Kashmir where
1991 census could not be conducted. Similarly, to make the data comparable the 1991 rates
against India exclude entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and Wankaner talukas of Rajkot
district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and entire Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh
where 2001 census enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities.  Further, the literacy rates for
India for 2001 exclude entire state of Jammu and Kashmir. and the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-
Miyana and Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and
entire Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh for the above reasons.

2.       The literacy rates for Himachal Pradesh in for 1991 exclude entire district of Kinnaur to make data
comparable with the literacy rate of the 2001 census of the state.

3.        The literacy rates shown against Gujarat in col. (2), (3), (5) and (6) for 1991 and 2001 respectively exclude
the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of
Jamnagar district where the 2001 census enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities.

4.       N.A. stands for ‘not available.’

Comparison of Census and NSS Literacy Rates

            The NSS had conducted a special survey on literacy and educational attainment in its 53 rd round
(January-December 1997).  It would be useful to compare the literacy rates as obtained in the census with
those of the NSS even though there is a gap of almost four years between the two sets of figures.  The
census literacy rate of 65.5 percent is higher than 62 percent recorded in the NSS.  This may be partly due
to the difference in the two time points for which the data relate.  Of the 32 states and union territories (as
of the 1991 census or in the NSS) 17 recorded a lower literacy rate in 2001 census than in the 53 rd round of
the NSS (Table 5).

Table 5: Literacy rates by sex in the 2001 census and in the

 National Sample Survey (53rd round, Jan-Dec 1997)

India/State/Union Literacy rate Difference between

Territory 2001 Census National Sample Survey 2001 census & NSS

INDIA 65 76 54 62 73 50 3 3 4
Andhra Pradesh 61 71 51 54 64 43 7 7 8
Arunachal Pradesh 55 64 44 60 69 48 -5 -5 -4
Assam 64 72 56 75 82 66 -11 -10 -10
Bihar &  Jharkhand 49 62 35 489 62 34 0 0 1
Goa 82 89 76 86 93 79 -4 -4 -3
Gujarat 70 80 59 68 80 57 2 0 2
Haryana 69 79 56 65 76 52 4 3 4
Himachal Pradesh 77 86 68 77 87 70 0 -1 -2
Jammu and Kashmir 54 66 42 59 71 48 -5 -5 -6
Karnataka 67 76 57 58 66 50 9 10 7
Kerala 91 94 88 93 96 90 -2 -2 -2
Madhya Pradesh & 64 77 51 56 70 41 8 7 10
Chhatisgarh
Manipur 69 78 60 76 86 66 -7 -8 -6
Meghalaya 63 66 60 77 79 74 -14 -13 -14
Mizoram 88 91 86 95 96 95 -7 -5 -9
Nagaland 67 72 62 84 91 77 -17 -19 -15
Orissa 64 76 51 51 64 38 13 12 13
Punjab 70 76 64 67 72 62 3 4 2
Rajasthan 61 76 44 55 73 35 6 3 9
Sikkim 70 77 61 79 86 72 -9 -9 -11
Tamil Nadu 73 82 65 70 80 60 3 2 5
Tripura 74 81 65 73 79 67 1 2 -2
Uttar Pradesh & 58 71 44 56 69 41 2 2 3
Uttaranchal
West Bengal 69 78 60 72 81 63 -3 -3 -3
Union Territories
A & N Islands 80 86 75 97 100 94 -16 -14 -19
Chandigarh
Dadra & Nagar 60 73 43 49 66 30 11 7 13
Haveli
Daman and Diu 81 788 70 86 95 73 -5 -7 -3
Delhi 82 87 75 85 91 76 -3 -4 -1
Lakshadweep 88 93 82 96 98 93 -8 -5 -11
Pondicherry 81 89 74 90 94 86 -9 -5 -12

Source: RGCCI (2001a: 121f)

Notes:

1.The literacy rates for India have been worked out by excluding en tire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-
Miyana and Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and entire
Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh where 2001 census enumeration could not be held due to natural
 calamities.  The literacy rates for Himachal Pradesh in for 1991 exclude entire district of Kinnaur to make data
comparable with the literacy rate of the 2001 census of the state.

2. The literacy rates for Himachal Pradesh for 2001 exclude entire Kinnaur district where 2001 census
enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities. 

3.       The literacy rates shown against Gujarat exclude the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and
Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district where the 2001 census
enumeration could not be held due to natural calamities.

Among the major states Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka, erstwhile Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and erstwhile Uttar Pradesh have recorded
higher literacy rates than reported in the NSS by varying percentage points. Increase in literacy rate of
Orissa by 13 percentage points is very significant and needs probing.   It is, however, noteworthy that all
the northeastern states, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Sikkim, West Bengal and the UTs of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Lakshadweep and Pondicherry have recorded lower literacy rates in the census
than what was found in the NSS for 1997. The gaps in smaller states and some of the UTs have been quite
large and need explanation.  Probably the NSS sample size in those states is not large enough but this
needs to be examined further.

It is satisfying to note that the states that have registered higher literacy rates in the census
compared to the NSS had recorded appreciable rise in literacy rates between 1991 and 2001.  It is,
however, surprising that Assam and West Bengal that have reported 11.4 and 11.5 percentage points
increase in their literacy rates during the 1990s slid behind in comparison to the NSS.  This would need
some probing.

The Illiterate Population

Despite the rise in literacy both among males and females, there has been an increase in absolute
number of illiterates (in the total population) in the country in each of the censuses up till 1991 (Table 6).
The number of illiterates increased from 334 million in 1961 to 479 million in 1991.  The 2001 census has,
however, indicated a decline in their numbers, more so among males, even though the 1991-2001 growth
in literacy rate has been higher among females.

Table 6: Number of illiterates in India by sex in different censuses

                                                                                                   (Figures in millions)

Year Persons Males Females

1961 333.9 148.5 135.4
1971 386.5 171.9 214.6
1981 424.2 182.6 241.6
1991 479.2 205.6 273.6
2001 454.1 188.6 265.5

                Source: Premi (1991: 68)

 The major contribution to the decline in the number of male illiterates came from Uttar Pradesh
(19.5 percent), Andhra Pradesh (13.6 percent), Rajasthan (12.4 percent), Madhya Pradesh (11.4 percent),
Maharashtra (9.2 percent), Tamil Nadu (7.1 percent), and West Bengal    (7 percent) that accounted for a
total of 80 percent reduction in male illiterates.  Similarly, the major reduction in the number of female
illiterates during the 1990s came from Andhra Pradesh (23.3 percent), Maharashtra (19.1 percent), Tamil
Nadu (17.9 percent), West Bengal (10.8 percent) and Chhatisgarh and Rajasthan (each accounting for 9.5
percent).  Bihar, however registered an increase of 2.31 million in the number of female illiterates (22
percent) during the 1990s.  Other states and UTs that have shown an increase in the number of illiterates
are Gujarat, Jharkhand, Manipur, Nagaland and the UTs of Delhi and Chandigarh.  In-migration of illiterate
workers from other states can, to a large extent, explain the increase of illiterates in the population of Delhi,
Chandigarh, and Gujarat.  It is, however, difficult to explain the increase in the number of illiterates in Bihar,
it is quite likely that the education system in that state has come to a grinding halt; the other explanation
can be large immigration of illiterate persons from Nepal and Bangladesh.

As the data on illiterate by age of the 2001 census would take time the pattern of illiterates in the
age group 10-14 and 15-34 has been examined here from 1961 to 1991 (Table 7).  A reduction in the
number of illiterates in the age group 10-14 indicates the impact of the drive for formal and non-formal
education, and that in 15-34 age group indicates the impact of adult literacy programme along with that of
school education. 

Table 7: Number of illiterates aged 10-14 and 15-34, India, 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991

(Figures in million)

Sex 10-14 15-34

1961 1971 1981 1991 1961 1971 1981 1991
Persons 28.5 34.7 37.5 30.8 85.7 97.1 107.2 121.3
Males 12.0 14.7 15.1 12.0 28.5 37.0 39.8 43.9
Females 16.5 20.0 22.4 18.8 57.2 60.1 67.4 77.4

Source: Premi (1991: 68)

It is noteworthy that the number of illiterates in the age group 10-14 declined substantially after
increasing between 1961 and 1981.  It is hoped that the 2001 census would show further decline in the
absolute number of illiterates in this age group.  It is a matter of concern that the number of adult illiterates
in the country remained increasing monotonically from 1961 to 1991, that is, the Adult Literacy Programme
was not very successful in the country during the 1980s. As there is a reduction in the absolute number of
illiterates in the country between 1991 and 2001, it is expected that there would be significant reduction in
the number of illiterates in both the above age groups in 2001.

District Level Scenario

In the Indian context even state is too big a unit for any meaningful analysis or policy intervention in
respect of literacy.  District is both an administrative unit as well as a culturally and socially homogenous
unit.  Within a state one finds great diversities among its districts.  On the other hand, a cluster of districts
bordering two or more states can be more homogenous than far and in-between districts in the same state. 
District has, therefore, been recognised as a viable unit for decentralised planning and policy making.  
Table 8 presents frequency distribution of the districts of the 1991 and 2001 censuses by their literacy
rates.  The Census Organisation has already recast the 1991 district level data according to new
boundaries of the districts as of the

Table 8: Frequency distribution of districts according to

total and female literacy rates, 1991 and 2001

Percent literacy 1991 2001

rate Persons Females Persons Females
Greater than 90 11 5 13 7
80-90 14 11 46 16
70-80 37 17 152 59
60-70 100 37 174 119
50-60 119 73 126 138
40-50 144 87 55 127
30-40 110 122 26 81
20-30 42 125 0 43
Less than and 3 103 0 2
equal to 20
TOTAL 580 580 592 592

Note (a) Literacy rates for the districts of Jammu and Kashmir for 1991 are not available as no census
could by conducted there at that time.

(b)    Figures for 2001 do not include the entire Kachchh district; Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and
Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district; Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat state, and
entire Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh where 2001 census enumeration could not be
held due to natural calamities.

        Source: RGCCI 2001 (2001b: 118-49)

2001 census.  There are now 594 districts in the country; 1991 data are not available for 14 districts of
Jammu and Kashmir where the census could not be conducted at that time.  Similarly, 2001 literacy data
are not available for two districts, Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh and Kachchh in Gujarat.

There were 25 districts in the country in 1991 where the literacy rate of persons was above 80
percent; of these 11 districts had recorded literacy rate of more than 90 percent.  In the 2001 census one
finds 59 districts with literacy rate of persons above 80 percent with 13 districts recording literacy rate
above 90 percent.  Since literacy rates are computed for population aged 7 and above, a rate of more than
90 percent implies that all children above 7 are literate, many of them might have been able to read and
write with understanding before being 7 years old.  Similarly, among the older people, almost every one is
regarded as literate even if they have crossed the age of 75 or 80 years.   It would be useful to understand
the patterns with the help of age specific literacy rates that have led to the observed figures; it may also be
necessary to evaluate these data when the results of Post Enumeration Check become available. 

There were 45 districts in 1991 where the overall literacy rate was below 30 percent.  Most of these
districts were in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.  It is heartening to note that
in the 2001 census, none of the 592 districts has recorded literacy rate below 30 percent.  Further, there
were 228 districts (more than one-third) where the female literacy rate in 1991 was below 30 percent; of
those 103 districts recorded female literacy rate of less than 20 percent.  In the 2001 census, the number of
districts wherein the female literacy rate is below 30 percent declined to just 45, and there are only two
districts – Shravasti in Uttar Pradesh and Kishanganj in Bihar – that registered female literacy rate below 20
percent.

An examination of the top 20 districts in respect of literacy rate of persons indicates that it varied
from 96.6 percent in Aizwal to 86.8 percent in Mumbai.  Aizwal is the capital of Mizoram while Mumbai is
the capital of Maharashtra.  Of the 14 districts of Kerala, 11 are among the first twenty.  Of the remaining
nine districts among the top twenty, four are from Mizoram, two from Maharashtra and one each from
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu and Lakshadweep. 

On the other end of the scale, among the bottom twenty districts eight belong to Bihar, while four
each are in Uttar Pradesh and Orissa, two are in Jharkhand, and one each from Chhatisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh. There are 13 districts out of the bottom 20 districts of 1991 that have continued in this category
even in 2001.  In 1991, there were only three districts in Bihar falling in bottom 20 districts category but, in
2001, there are eight districts in this category.  The three districts of Rajasthan- Banswara, Jalor and
Barmer – that were in bottom 20 districts, have all improved their literacy rates substantially and there is no
district now in this category from that state.

Female literacy rate among the bottom twenty districts in 1991 was well below 15 percent and
three districts had it below 10 percent.  In 2001, there was no district with female literacy rates below 15
percent and only two districts, as indicated above, had literacy rate below 20 percent.  The statewise
distribution of these districts is just the same as for the literacy rates of all persons, and the districts are
also the same except Sheohar in Bihar and Sahibganj in Jharkhand. When the situation is compared with
1991, all the five districts of Rajasthan that fell among bottom 20 districts have moved out of this category
in 2001.  Further, there was only Kishanganj in Bihar in 1991 that fell among the bottom 20 districts; in
2001, there are eight districts from that state falling in this category.  The districts identified above along
with the remaining districts in Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh need very special attention in the years to
come as part of the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan to very substantially raise both male and female literacy
levels.           

As stated earlier, there are wide variations in literacy rates of different districts within the same
state.  Table 9 gives the highest and lowest literacy rate districts of all the states except Goa for 1991 and
2001.  In 1991 the differences in literacy rates between the highest and lowest districts are given according
to the district boundaries as of 2001.

Of the 27 states for which the data are presented in Table 9, the districts with highest and lowest
literacy rates are the same in 1991 and 2001 in 13 states.  The difference in highest and lowest literacy rate
declined in 15 states while the same increased in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Manipur, Tripura, Jharkhand and
Chhatisgarh (Table 9).  In the remaining six states the change is only marginal within one to two percent
points.  It is noteworthy that the gap in the literacy rate of the districts with highest and lowest values was
more than 40 percent even in 2001 in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland and
Mizoram.  All the four major states are educationally backward.

The district level literacy rates for the 14 districts of Kerala in 2001 varied from 95.9 percent in
Kottayam to 84.3 percent in Palakkad (Table 9).  In contrast, the literacy rates among the 70 districts of
Uttar Pradesh varied from a high of 77.6 percent in Kanpur Nagar to a low of 34.2 percent in Shravasti. 
Similarly, among the 45 districts of Madhya Pradesh, the literacy rate in 2001 has varied from 78.3 percent
in Narasimhapur to a low of 36.9 percent in Jhabua. Neither Kanpur Nagar nor Narsimhapur has reached
even the lowest level of Kerala’s literacy rate.

Impact of DPEP and Other Education Promotion Programmes

Ever since the formulation of National Policy on Education (1986) and its updating in 1992,
concerted efforts have been made by the national and state governments to improve the enrolment of
children and increase the literacy level of adults.  To give impetus to adult education programmes, the
government of India launched a “National Literacy Mission in May 1988.   This programme along with the
Adult Literacy Programme made some headway during the late 1980s and early 1990s.  In 1994, the
Government of India introduced a new District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) with funding from the
World Bank as soft loan.  This programme was introduced in the first instance in 42 districts in seven states
– Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.  In the second
stage 94 districts were added, some in the already covered states and more in the new states.  Thus, the
first and second phase have coved 136 districts in the country.  A third phase of the project started in 1998
and covered only 27 districts, that too in Bihar alone.  There have been several NGOs like Lok Jumbish in
Rajasthan that are working in the field of primary education and have changed the scenario substantially in
their area of operation.

By the time of the 2001 census, as the first and second phase had run in the country for at least
five years, it is felt that there should be significant improvement in both boys and girls enrolment at least in
the selected districts and, consequently, an improvement in literacy rate.   Keeping in view the scope of the
present paper, here the changes in literacy level in the DPEP districts in comparison to the non-DPEP
districts is presented in Table 10.  Here one should not assume that it is only the DPEP that has brought
change in literacy rate since other efforts have always been there and have been helping in raising literacy
rates.

An examination of Table 10 indicates that, by all large, most of the states have recorded
substantially higher gains in literacy rates between 1991 and 2001, gains have been marginal in Uttar
Pradesh, Assam, Orissa and Karnataka.  The gain in literacy rate in Kerala could not been very much as
the literacy rate is above 90 percent.

Table 9: Districts with maximum and minimum values

of literacy rate, States, 1991 and 2001

1991 2001
Sl. State District with LR District with LR Gap District with LR District with LR Gap
No maximum minimum LR maximum LR minimum LR
. LR
1 Jammu and N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Jammu 77.3 Badgam 39.5 37.8
Kashmir
2 Himachal Hamirpur 74. Chamba 54.7 20. Hamirpur 83.2 Chamba 63.7 19.5
Pradesh 9 2
3 Punjab Hoshiarpur 72. Mansa 37.2 34. Hoshiarpur 81.4 Mansa 52.5 28.9
1 9
4 Uttaranchal Dehradun 69. Uttarkashi 47.2 22. Nainital 79.6 Hardwar 64.6 15.0
5 3
5 Haryana Ambala 66. Kaithal 42.8 23. Panchkula 76.5 Fatehabad 58.2 18.3
6 8
6 Rajasthan Kota 55. Barmer 23.0 32. Kota 74.4 Banswara 44.2 30.2
2 2
7 Uttar Kanpur 64. Bahraich 22.7 41. Kanpur 77.6 Shravasti 34.2 43.4
Pradesh Nagar 0 3 Nagar
8 Bihar Patna 56. Kishanganj 22.2 34. Patna 63.8 Kishanganj 31.0 32.8
3 1
9 Sikkim East 65. West 45.6 19. East 75.6 West 59.3 16.3
1 5
10 Arunachal Papum Pare 55. East Kameng 26.2 28. Papum Pare 70.9 East Kameng 40.9 30.0
Pradesh 1 9
11 Nagaland Mokokchung 77. Mon 36.0 41. Mokokchung 84.3 Mon 42.2 42.1
8 8
12 Manipur Imphal West 73. Senapati 46.0 27. Imphal West 80.6 Senapati 50.5 30.1
0 0
13 Mizoram Aizwal 93. Lawngtlai 42.7 50. Aizwal 96.6 Lawngtlai 56.4 40.2
1 4
14 Tripura West Tripura 65. South Tripura 53.0 12. West Tripura 77.8 Dhalai 61.6 16.2
8 8
15 Meghalaya East Khasi 64. Jaintia Hills 35.3 29. East Khasi 77.0 West Garo 51.0 26.0
Hills 6 3 Hills Hills
16 Assam Jorhat 65. Dhubri 38.4 27. Jorhat 77.9 Dhobri 49.9 28.0
5 1
17 West Kolkata 77. Uttar Dinajpur 34.6 43. Kolkata 81.3 Uttar Dinajpur 48.6 32.7
Bengal 6 0
18 Jharkhand Purbi 59. Pakaur 24.0 35. Purbi 69.4 Pakaur 30.5 38.9
Singhbhum 0 0 Singhbhum
19 Orissa Khordha 67. Nabarangapur 18.6 49. Khordha 80.2 Malkangiri 31.3 48.9
7 1
20 Chhatisgarh Durg 58. Dantewala 16.5 42. Rajnandgaon 77.6 Dantewala 30.0 47.6
7 2
21 Madhya Indore 66. Jhabua 19.0 47. Narsimhapur 78.3 Jhabua 36.9 41.4
Pradesh 3 3
22 Gujarat Gandhinagar 73. Dohad 35.8 38. Ahmedabad 79.9 Dohad 45.6 34.3
8 0
23 Maharashtra Mumbai 83. Gadchiroli 42.9 40. Mumbai 87.1 Nandurbar 56.1 31.0
6 7 (Suburban)
24 Andhra Hyderabad 71. Mahboobnagar 29.6 41. Hyderabad 79.0 Mahboobnagar 45.5 33.5
Pradesh 5 9
25 Karnataka Dakshina 76. Raichur 34.3 42. Bangalore 83.9 Raichur 49.5 34.4
Kannada 7 4
26 Kerala Kottayam 95. Palakkad 81.3 14. Kottayam 95.9 Palakkad 84.3 11.6
7 4
27 Tamil Nadu Kanyakumari 82. Dharmapuri 46.0 36. Kanyakumari 88.1 Dharmapuri 59.2 28.9
1 1
 SouPlanning Implications

The above scenario based on a quick analysis of the provisional figures of 2001 regarding literacy
rates can be taken as indicative of the changes that have been noticed in this regard.  To arrive at some
firm conclusions, one would need more detailed data and a more rigorous analysis than presented here. 
Based on trend analysis, it is, however, possible to draw some implications for future educational planning.

The gains in literacy rates have been quite good during the 1990s.  Moreover, there has been a
substantial reduction in the absolute number of illiterates in the country for the first time.  But, still a lot of
efforts have to be made to bring the country’s overall literacy rate above 90 percent and that of the females
above 80 percent during the present decade. For, population control it is necessary to intensify our efforts
particularly in raising the level of girls' education.  The National Population Policy has emphasized this
aspect in very clear terms.

Though male-female disparities at the macro level have reduced, the literacy situation of females
still has to be given priority.  The state level situation indicates very significant improvement in both male
and female literacy rate, especially in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.  It would be important for Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and Orissa to review their own literacy programmes and take necessary steps in this regard.