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Set 2: Background
Shahriar Mirabbasi
SM 2
EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Reading Assignments
Reading:
Chapter 17
All the figures in the lecture notes are Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits,
McGraw-Hill, 2001, unless otherwise noted.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Transistor
Transistor stands for
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Simplistic Model
MOS transistors have three terminals: Gate, Source, and Drain
NMOS PMOS
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Physical Structure - 1
Source and Drain terminals are identical except that Source provides
charge carriers, and Drain receives them.
MOS devices have in fact 4 terminals:
Source, Drain, Gate, Substrate (bulk)
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Physical Structure - 2
Charge Carriers are electrons in NMOS devices, and holes in
PMOS devices.
Electrons have a higher mobility than holes
So, NMOS devices are faster than PMOS devices
We rather to have a p-type substrate?!
Actual length of the channel (Leff) is less than the length of gate
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Physical Structure - 3
N-wells allow both NMOS and PMOS devices to reside on the
same piece of die.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Physical Structure - 4
MOS transistor Symbols:
(a) An NMOS driven by a gate voltage, (b) formation of depletion region, (c) onset of inversion,
and (d) channel formation
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Threshold Voltage - 3
Analytically:
Qdep
VTH = MS + 2 F +
C ox
Where:
K T N
= Work Function (electrostatic potential) =
F
ln
sub
q n
i
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Threshold Voltage - 4
In practice, the native threshold value may not be suited for
circuit design, e.g., VTH may be zero and the device may be on for
any positive gate voltage.
When VDS is more than zero, there is some horizontal electric field
which causes a flow of electrons from source to drain.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 1
The voltage of the surface under the gate, V(x), depends on the
voltages of Source and Drain.
If VDS is zero, VD= VS=V(x). The charge density Qd (unit C/m) is uniform.
Q C V (C oxWL ) (VGS VTH )
Qd = = =
L L L
Qd = WC ox (VGS VTH )
If VDS is not zero, the channel is tapered, and V(x) is not constant. The
charge density depends on x.
Qd ( x) = WC ox (VGS V ( x) VTH )
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 3
Current :
dQ dQ dx
I= = = Qd velocity
dt dx dt
Velocity in terms of V(x):
dV
velocity = E , E =
dt
dV ( x)
velocity = ( )
dx
Qd in terms of V(x):
Qd ( x) = WC ox (VGS V ( x) VTH )
1 2
(VGS VTH ) VDS VDS
W
Current in Triode Region: I D = n C ox
L 2
Terminology:
W
Aspect Ratio =
L
Overdrive Voltage = Effective Voltage = VGS VTH = Veff
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 5
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 6
Increasing VDS causes the channel to acquire a tapered shape. Eventually,
as VDS reaches VGS VTH the channel is pinched off at the drain. Increasing
VDS above VGS VTH has little effect (ideally, no effect) on the channels
shape.
When VDS is more than VGS VTH the channel is pinched off, and the
horizontal electric field produces a current.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 7
L''
L VGS VTH
I D dx = WC ox n [VGS V ( x) VTH ]dV
x=0 V =0
1 W
ID = n C ox (VGS VTH ) 2
2 L'
Lets, for now, assume that L=L. The fact that
L is not equal to L is a second-order effect
known as channel-length modulation.
Since ID only depends on VGS, MOS transistors in saturation can be
used as current sources.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 8
Current Equation for NMOS:
0 ; if VGS < VTH (Cut off )
n C ox (VGS VTH ) VDS ; if VGS > VTH , VDS << 2(VGS VTH ) ( Deep Triode)
W
L
I D = I DS =
L
[
n C ox (VGS VTH ) VDS V DS
W 1 2
2
]
; if VGS > VTH , V DS < VGS VTH (Triode)
1 C W (V V ) 2 ; if V > V , V > V V ( Saturation )
2 n ox L GS TH GS TH DS GS TH
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Long Channel Current Equations - 9
Current Equation for PMOS:
0 ; if VSG < VTH (Cut off )
p C ox (VSG VTH ) VSD ; if VSG > VTH , VSD << 2(VSG VTH ) ( Deep Triode)
W
L
I D = I SD =
L
[
p C ox (VSG VTH ) VSD VSD
W 1 2
2
]
; if VSG > VTH , VSD < VSG VTH (Triode)
1 C W (V V ) 2 ; if V > V , V > V V ( Saturation )
2 p ox L SG TH SG TH SD SG TH
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Regions of Operation - 1
Regions of Operation:
Cut-off, triode (linear), and saturation (active or pinch-off)
Once the channel is pinched off, the current through the channel is
almost constant. As a result, the I-V curves have a very small slope in
the pinch-off (saturation) region, indicating the large channel
resistance.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Regions of Operation - 2
The following illustrates the transition from pinch-off to triode region for
NMOS and PMOS devices.
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Regions of Operation - 4
PMOS Regions of Operation:
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Regions of Operation - 5
Example:
For the following circuit assume that VTH=0.7V.
When is the device on?
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Transconductance - 1
The drain current of the MOSFET in saturation region is ideally a
function of gate-overdrive voltage (effective voltage). In reality, it is also
a function of VDS.
It makes sense to define a figure of merit that indicates how well the
device converts the voltage to current.
I D
gm =
VGS VDS = Const.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Transconductance - 2
Example:
Plot the transconductance of the following circuit as a function of VDS
(assume Vb is a constant voltage).
Transconductance in triode:
gm =
VGS
[
W
L
1 2
2
]
n C ox (VGS VTH ) V DS V DS
VDS = Const.
W
= n C ox V DS
L
Transconductance in saturation:
1 W
gm = n C ox (VGS VTH )
2
VGS2 L V DS = Const.
W
= n C ox (VGS VTH )
L
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Second-Order Effects (Body Effect)
Substrate Voltage:
So far, we assumed that the bulk and source of the transistor are at the
same voltage (VB=VS).
If VB >Vs, then the bulk-source PN junction will be forward biased, and
the device will not operate properly.
If VB <Vs,
the bulk-source PN junction will be reverse biased.
the depletion region widens, and Qdep increases.
VTH will be increased (Body effect or Backgate effect).
2 q si N sub
VTH = VTH 0 + 2 F + VSB 2 F where =
Cox
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Body Effect - 2
Example:
Consider the circuit below (assume the transistor is in the active region):
If body-effect is ignored, VTH will be constant, and I1 will only depend on
VGS1=Vin-Vout. Since I1 is constant, Vin-Vout remains constant.
Vin Vout VTH = C = Const . Vin Vout = VTH + C = D = Conts.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Channel Length Modulation - 1
1 W
The drain current is I D = nCox (VGS VTH ) 2 where L' = L-L
2 L'
1
=
1 1
=
1
L' L L L 1 L
1
(
1 + L
L L
)
L
Assuming L
L
= VDS we get:
1 1
L' L
( 1
L L
)
1 + L = (1 + VDS )
2 L' 2 L
As ID actually depends on both VGS and VDS, MOS transistors are
not ideal current sources (why?).
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Channel Length Modulation - 2
represents the relative variation in effective length of the channel for a given
increment in VDS.
In Triode:
W
g m = n C ox VDS
L
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Channel Length Modulation - 3
Example:
Given all other parameters constant, plot ID-VDS characteristic of an NMOS
for L=L1 and L=2L1
In Triode Region: W
I D n Cox
L [(
VGS VTH )V DS
1 2
2
VDS ]
I D W
Therefore :
VDS L
Changing the length of the device from L1 to 2L1 will flatten the ID-VDS
curves (slope will be divided by two in triode and by four in saturation).
Increasing L will make a transistor a better current source, while
degrading its current capability.
Increasing W will improve the current capability.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Sub-threshold Conduction
If VGS < VTH, the drain current is not zero.
The MOS transistors behave similar to BJTs.
VBE
In BJT: I C = I S e
VT
VGS
VT
In MOS: I D = I 0 e
In BJT devices the current drops faster (one decade for approximately
each 60mv of drop in VGS).
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
CMOS Processing Technology
Top and side views of a typical CMOS process
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Self-Aligned Process
Why source and drain junctions are formed after the gate oxide
and polysilicon layers are deposited?
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
MOS Layout - 2
Example:
Figures below show a circuit with a suggested layout.
The same circuit can be laid out in different ways, producing different
electrical parameters (such as different terminal capacitances).
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Device Capacitances - 1
The quadratic model determines the DC behavior of a MOS transistor.
The capacitances associated with the devices are important when
studying the AC behavior of a device.
There is a capacitance between any two terminals of a MOS transistor.
So there are 6 Capacitances in total.
The Capacitance between Drain and Source is negligible (CDS=0).
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Device Capacitances - 2
The following will be used to calculate the capacitances between
terminals:
C = W LC , C =
ox
1. Oxide Capacitance: 1 t ox ox
ox
q si N sub
2. Depletion Capacitance: C 2 = C dep = W L
4F
4. Junction Capacitance:
Sidewall Capacitance: C jsw C j0
C jun = m
VR
Bottom-plate Capacitance: Cj 1 +
B
C 5 = C 6 = C j + C jsw
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Device Capacitances - 3
In Cut-off:
1. CGS: is equal to the overlap capacitance. C = C = C GS ov 3
C DB = C 6
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Device Capacitances - 4
In Triode:
The channel isolates the gate from the substrate. This means that if VG
changes, the charge of the inversion layer are supplied by the drain
and source as long as VDS is close to zero. So, C1 is divided between
gate and drain terminals, and gate and source terminals, and C2 is
divided between bulk and drain terminals, and bulk and source
terminals.
C
1. CGS: CGS = Cov + 21
2. CGD: CGD = C ov + C1
2
3. CGB: the channel isolates the gate from the substrate. C GB = 0
C
4. CSB: C SB = C 5 + 2
2
5. CDB: C
C DB = C 6 + 2
2
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Device Capacitances - 5
In Saturation:
The channel isolates the gate from the substrate. The voltage across
the channel varies which can be accounted for by adding two
equivalent capacitances to the source. One is between source and
gate, and is equal to two thirds of C1. The other is between source and
bulk, and is equal to two thirds of C2.
2
1. CGS: C = C + 3 C
GS ov 1
2. CGD: C =C
GD ov
3. CGB: the channel isolates the gate from the substrate. C = 0GB
4. CSB: C =C + C
SB 5
2
2
3
5. CDB: C =C
DB 6
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Device Capacitances - 6
In summary:
Cut-off Triode Saturation
C1 2
CGS C ov C ov + C ov + C1
3
2
C1
CGD C ov C ov + C ov
2
CGB C1 C 2
C GB C1 0 0
C1 + C 2
C2
CSB C5 C5 + 2
C5 + C 2
2 3
C2
CDB C6 C6 +
2
C6
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Importance of Layout
Example (Folded Structure):
Calculate the gate resistance of the circuits shown below.
Folded structure:
Decreases the drain capacitance
Decreases the gate resistance
Keeps the aspect ratio the same
SM EECE 588 Set 1: Introduction and Background 53
Passive Devices
Resistors
In general, ID is a function of VGS, VDS, and VBS. We can use this Taylor
series approximation:
I D I I
Taylor Expansion : I D = I D 0 + VGS + D VDS + D VBS + second order terms
VGS VDS VBS
I D I I VDS
I D VGS + D VDS + D VBS = g m VGS + + g mb VBS
VGS VDS VBS ro
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Small Signal Models - 2
(VGS VTH ) 2 n C ox (VGS VTH ) (1 + VDS )
1 W 1 W
Current in Saturation: I D = n C ox 2
2 L' 2 L
I D I I
Taylor approximation: I D VGS + D V DS + D V BS
VGS VDS V BS
Partial Derivatives:
I D
= n C ox (VGS VTH ) (1 + VDS ) = g m
W
VGS L
I D 1 W 1
= n C ox (VGS VTH ) 2 I D =
VDS 2 L ro
I D I D VTH
= n C ox (VGS VTH ) (1 + VDS )
W
=
VBS VTH VBS L 2 2 F + VSB
= g m = g m = g mb
2 2 F + VSB
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Small Signal Models - 3
Small-Signal Model:
v DS
i D = g m vGS + + g mb v BS
ro
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Small Signal Models - 4
Complete Small-Signal Model with Capacitances:
Small signal model including all the capacitance makes the intuitive
(qualitative) analysis of even a few-transistor circuit difficult!
For intuitive analysis we try to find a simplest model that can represent
the role of each transistor with reasonable accuracy.
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Circuit Impedance - 1
It is often useful to determine the impedance of a circuit seen from a
specific pair of terminals.
V
R =
X
X
I X
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Circuit Impedance - 2
Example:
Find the small-signal impedance of the following current
sources.
We draw the small-signal model, which is the same for both
circuits, and connect a voltage source as shown below:
v v
i =
X
+ g v =
X
m GS
X
r o
r o
v
R = X
=r X
o
i X
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Circuit Impedance - 3
Example:
Find the small-signal impedance of the following circuits.
We draw the small-signal model, which is the same for both
circuits, and connect a voltage source as shown below:
v v
i =
X
X
g v g v = + g v + g v
m GS mb BS
X
m X mb X
r
o
r o
v 1 1 1
R = = X
=r
X
i 1 g g
o
X
+g +g m mb
m mb
r o
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Circuit Impedance - 4
Example:
Find the small-signal impedance of the following circuit. This
circuit is known as the diode-connected load, and is used
frequently in analog circuits.
v 1 1
R = = X
=r
X
i 1 g
o
X
+g m
m
r o
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Circuit Impedance - 5
Example:
Find the small-signal impedance of the following circuit. This
circuit is a diode-connected load with body effect.
v v
i = X
X
g v g v = + g v + g v
m GS mb BS
X
m X mb X
ro
r o
1
= v + g + g
X m mb
r o
v 1 1 1 1
R = = X
=r =r
1 g +g
X o o
i X
+g +g g g m mb m mb
m mb
r o
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Equivalent Transconductance - 1
Recall that the transconductance of a transistor was a a figure of
merit that indicates how well the device converts a voltage to current.
I
g = D
V V = Const.
m
GS DS
V V = Const .
m
IN OUT
i
G = OUT
=0
m
v v
IN OUT
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Equivalent Transconductance - 2
Example:
Find the equivalent transconductance of an NMOS transistor
in saturation from its small-signal model.
iOUT
= g v = g v
m GS m IN
i
G = m
=g
OUT
m
v IN
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Equivalent Transconductance - 3
Example:
Find the equivalent transconductance of the following circuit
when the NMOS transistor in saturation.
v =v +v =v +i
IN GS S GS OUT
R S
v i R
i
OUT
= g v + g v
m GS mb BS
= g (v i
S
m IN OUT
R ) + g ( i
S mb OUT
R )
S
OUT S
r O
r
O
R
i 1 + g R + g R + = g v
OUT m S mb S
S
m IN
r O
i g g r
G = =
OUT
= m m O
R r + r (g R + g R ) + R
m
v 1+ g R + g R +
IN S O O m S mb S S
m S mb S
r O
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Short-Channel Effects
Threshold Reduction
Drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL)
Mobility degradation
Velocity saturation
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Threshold Voltage Variation in Short Channel Devices
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering (DIBL)
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Effects of Velocity Saturation
Due to drop in mobility at high electric fields
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Hot Carrier Effects
Short channel devices may experience high lateral drain-source
electric field
Hot carriers may hit silicon atoms at high speed and cause
impact ionization
The resulting electron and holes are absorbed by the drain and
substrate causing extra drain-substrate current
Really hot carriers may be injected into gate oxide and flow out
of gate causing gate current!
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Output Impedance Variation
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background
Output Impedance Variation in Short-Channel Devices
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EECE 488 Set 2: Background