Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

CHEMISTRY 1

Name: Ellah Mae G. Jandayan Date: September 23, 2017

Activity
2. The Octet Rule. A stable arrangement is attended when the atom is surrounded by eight electrons.
This octet can be made up by own electrons and some electrons which are shared. Thus, an atom
continues to form bonds until an octet of electrons is made.

1. Normally two electrons pairs up and forms a bond, e.g., H2H2

2. For most atoms there will be a maximum of eight electrons in the valence shell (octet structure),
e.g., CH4CH4

Figure 1: Bonding in H2H2 and methane (CH4CH4)

The other tendency of atoms is to maintain a neutral charge. Only the noble gases (the elements on the
right-most column of the periodic table) have zero charge with filled valence octets. All of the other
elements have a charge when they have eight electrons all to themselves. The result of these two
guiding principles is the explanation for much of the reactivity and bonding that is observed within
atoms: atoms seek to share electrons in a way that minimizes charge while fulfilling an octet in the
valence shell.

NOTE

The noble gases rarely form compounds. They have the most stable configuration (full octet, no charge),
so they have no reason to react and change their configuration. All other elements attempt to gain, lose,
or share electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration.
3. Geometry of Simple Compounds

Molecular geometry, also known as the molecular structure, is the three-dimensional structure
or arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Understanding the molecular structure of a compound can help
determine the polarity, reactivity, phase of matter, color, magnetism, as well as the biological activity.
The shape of a molecule is determined by the location of the nuclei and its electrons. The
electrons and the nuclei settle into positions that minimize repulsion and maximize attraction. Thus, the
molecule's shape reflects its equilibrium state in which it has the lowest possible energy in the system.
Although VSEPR theory predicts the distribution of the electrons, we have to take in consideration of the
actual determinant of the molecular shape. We separate this into two categories, the electron-group
geometry and the molecular geometry.

Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups.

Number of electron groups Name of electron group geometry

2 linear
3 trigonal-planar
4 tetrahedral
5 trigonal-bipyramidal
6 octahedral
4. Bond Polarity and Electronegativity

The polarity of a bondthe extent to which it is polaris determined largely by the relative
electronegativities of the bonded atoms. Electronegativity () was defined as the ability of an atom in a
molecule or an ion to attract electrons to itself. Thus there is a direct correlation between
electronegativity and bond polarity. A bond is nonpolar if the bonded atoms have equal
electronegativities. If the electronegativities of the bonded atoms are not equal, however, the bond
is polarized toward the more electronegative atom. A bond in which the electronegativity of B ( B) is
greater than the electronegativity of A (A), for example, is indicated with the partial negative charge on
the more electronegative atom:

One way of estimating the ionic character of a bondthat is, the magnitude of the charge
separation in a polar covalent bondis to calculate the difference in electronegativity between the two
atoms: = B A.

To predict the polarity of the bonds in Cl2, HCl, and NaCl, for example, we look at the
electronegativities of the relevant atoms: Cl = 3.16, H = 2.20, and Na = 0.93. Cl2 must be nonpolar
because the electronegativity difference () is zero; hence the two chlorine atoms share the bonding
electrons equally. In NaCl, is 2.23. This high value is typical of an ionic compound ( 1.5) and
means that the valence electron of sodium has been completely transferred to chlorine to form Na+ and
Cl ions. In HCl, however, is only 0.96. The bonding electrons are more strongly attracted to the more
electronegative chlorine atom, and so the charge distribution is

Remember that electronegativities are difficult to measure precisely and different definitions
produce slightly different numbers. In practice, the polarity of a bond is usually estimated rather than
calculated.

Bond polarity and ionic character increase with an increasing difference in electronegativity.

As with bond energies, the electronegativity of an atom depends to some extent on its chemical
environment. It is therefore unlikely that the reported electronegativities of a chlorine atom in NaCl, Cl 2,
ClF5, and HClO4 would be exactly the same.

5. Special Nature of Carbon

Carbon is unique among the other elements in that its atoms can form stable covalent bonds
with each other and with atoms of other elements in a multitude of variations. The resulting molecules
can contain from one to millions of carbon atoms. We previously surveyed organic chemistry by dividing
its compounds into families based on functional groups. We begin with the simplest members of a
family and then move on to molecules that are organic in the original sensethat is, they are made by
and found in living organisms. These complex molecules (all containing carbon) determine the forms and
functions of living systems and are the subject of biochemistry

6. General Characteristics of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are mainly composed of ten elements. These are C, H, O, N, S, P, F, Cl, Br
and I. compounds obtained from plants such as starch, sugar, cellulose, oils, fats, etc., contain mainly
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen while those obtained from animals such as urea, uric acid, proteins, etc.,
contain nitrogen besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Certain organic compounds are very complex
and possess very high molecular masses. For instance, molecular masses for proteins range from several
thousands to over a million.

ii) Quadri-covalency of carbon:- the carbon present in organic compounds is always quadric-
covalent in nature. It combines with other atoms by covalent bonds. This gives rise to the identical
behavior of all organic compounds. A carbon atom can link with other carbon atom by single, double or
triple bonds. The property of catenation is very strong in organic compounds.

Organic compounds are essentially covalent compounds. They show characteristics of covalent
compounds.

a) They are volatile in nature.

b) They have low melting and boiling points.
c) They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
d) They are bad conductors of electricity.
e) They do not furnish ions. They show molecular reactions.

In general, the reactions of organic compounds are slow. They never proceed to completion and
their yields are generally of low order.

iii) Colour and odour:- Organic compounds possess distinct colour and odour.
iv) Action of heat:- Organic compounds are not stable towards heat. They decompose on heating at high
temperature. Some of them decompose on heating leaving a black residue.
v) Combustion:- Organic compounds readily burn in air. They burn with smoky or non-smoky flame. One
of the products of combustion is always carbon dioxide.
vi) Homologous series:- Organic compounds have been classified into many classes each having the
same functional group. The classes are known as homologous series. The compounds belonging to the
same class show similar chemical properties.
vii) Polymerism: - Quite a number of organic compounds exhibit polymerism (when a molecular formula
of an organic compound is a simple multiple of the other). For example, benzene (C6H6) is a polymer of
acetylene (C2H2).
viii) Isomerism:- Organic compounds show the phenomenon of isomerism.
7. Functional Groups

Functional groups are structural units within organic compounds that are defined by specific
bonding arrangements between specific atoms.

Alkanes
The 'default' in organic chemistry
(essentially, the lack of any functional groups) is
given the term alkane, characterized by single
bonds between carbon and carbon, or between
carbon and hydrogen.

Alkenes and Alkynes

Alkenes (sometimes called olefins) have

carbon-carbon double bonds, and alkynes have
carboncarbon triple bonds.

Aromatic Group
The aromatic group is exemplified by
benzene (which used to be a commonly used
solvent on the organic lab, but which was
shown to be carcinogenic), and naphthalene, a
compound with a distinctive 'mothball' smell.

Haloalkanes
When the carbon of an alkane is
bonded to one or more halogens, the group is
referred to as a alkyl halide or haloalkane.
Alcohols, phenols, and thiols
In the alcohol functional group, a
carbon is single-bonded to an OH group (the OH
group, by itself, is referred to as a hydroxyl).
When the hydroxyl group is directly attached to
an aromatic ring, the resulting group is called a
phenol. The sulfur analog of an alcohol is called
a thiol (from the Greek thio, for sulfur).

Ethers and sulfides

In an ether functional group, a central
oxygen is bonded to two carbons. Below is the
structure of diethyl ether, a common laboratory
solvent and also one of the first compounds to
be used as an anesthetic during operations. The
sulfur analog of an ether is called a thioether or
sulfide.

Amines
Amines are characterized by nitrogen
atoms with single bonds to hydrogen and
carbon. Just as there are primary, secondary,
and tertiary alcohols, there are primary,
secondary, and tertiary amines.

Organic phosphates
Phosphate and its derivative functional
groups are ubiquitous in biomolecules.
Phosphate linked to a single organic group is
called a phosphate ester; when it has two links
to organic groups it is called a phosphate
diester. A linkage between two phosphates
creates a phosphate anhydride.

Aldehydes, ketones, and imines

Ketones and aldehydes are two closely
related carbonylbased functional groups that
react in very similar ways. In a ketone, the
carbon atom of a carbonyl is bonded to two
other carbons. In an aldehyde, the carbonyl
carbon is bonded on one side to a hydrogen,
and on the other side to a carbon.
A group with a carbon-nitrogen double bond is
called an imine, or sometimes a Schiff base

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

When a carbonyl carbon is bonded on
one side to a carbon (or hydrogen) and on the
other side to an oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, the
functional group is considered to be one of the
carboxylic acid derivatives, a designation that
describes a set of related functional groups.

Nitriles
Nitrile group is characterized by a
carbon triple-bonded to a nitrogen.
8. Uses of representative examples of compounds bearing the different functional
groups

1. Alkanes
Methane, CH4, is the natural gas you may burn in your furnace. Octane, C8H18, is a component of
gasoline.

2. Alkenes and Alkynes

Ethene, the simplest alkene example, is a gas that serves as a cellular signal in fruits to
stimulate ripening. (If you want bananas to ripen quickly, put them in a paper bag along with an apple
- the apple emits ethene gas, setting off the ripening process in the bananas). Ethyne, commonly
called acetylene, is used as a fuel in welding blow torches.

3. Aromatic Group
Benzenes most widely-produced derivatives include styrene, which is used to make polymers and
plastics, phenol for resins and adhesives (via cumene), and cyclohexane, which is used in the manufacture
of nylon. Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make some types of rubbers, lubricants, dyes,
detergents, drugs, explosives, napalm and pesticides

4. Haloalkanes
Chloroform is a useful solvent in the laboratory, and was one of the earlier anesthetic drugs used
in surgery. Chlorodifluoromethane was used as a refrigerant and in aerosol sprays until the late twentieth
century, but its use was discontinued after it was found to have harmful effects on the ozone layer.
Bromoethane is a simple alkyl halide often used in organic synthesis.

5. Alcohols, phenols, and thiols

Methanol is industrially used as a solvent and starting material for production of
formaldehyde and acetic acid.

6. Ethers and sulfides

One of the most common ethers is diethyl ether, which is used as an anesthetic and a drug.
Diethyl ether was one of the first anesthetics used in hospitals. Anesthetics make people go to sleep, or go
unconscious during surgery.

7. Amines
Morphine and Demerol are used as analgesics that are pain killers. Novocaine is used as anesthetic
and Ephedra is a very common decongestant. We use tetramethyl ammonium iodide for disinfecting
drinking water.

8. Organic phosphates
Of the various phosphoric acids and phosphates, organic phosphates are important in
biochemistry and biogeochemistry, also called ecology, and inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain
phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry.
9. Aldehydes, ketones, and imines
Formaldehyde can be used to preserve dead animals. Acetone is a common fingernail polish
remover and is a solvent.

10. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

They make up a series of fatty acids which are extremely good for human health. The omega-6
and omega-3 are essential fatty acids which are not produced by the body. They help in maintaining the
cell membrane and control nutrient use along with metabolism.

11. Nitriles
One of the most common occurrences of nitriles is in Nitrile rubber. Nitrile rubber is a synthetic
copolymer of acrylonitrile and butadiene. This form of rubber is highly resistant to chemicals and is used
to make protective gloves, hoses and seals.

9. Structural Isomerism

Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement
of the atoms in space. In structural isomerism, the atoms are arranged in a completely different order.
That excludes any different arrangements which are simply due to the molecule rotating as a whole, or
rotating about particular bonds.

For example, both of the following are the same molecule. They are not isomers. Both are butane.

There are also endless other possible ways that this molecule could twist itself. There is completely free
rotation around all the carbon-carbon single bonds.

Types of structural isomerism:

Chain isomerism
These isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains. For example, there
are two isomers of butane, C4H10. In one of them, the carbon atoms lie in a "straight chain" whereas in
the other the chain is branched.
Position isomerism
In position isomerism, the basic carbon skeleton remains unchanged, but important groups are
moved around on that skeleton. For example, there are two structural isomers with the molecular
formula C3H7Br. In one of them the bromine atom is on the end of the chain, whereas in the other it's
attached in the middle.

Functional group isomerism

In this variety of structural isomerism, the isomers contain different functional groups - that is,
they belong to different families of compounds (different homologous series). For example, a molecular
formula C3H6O could be either propanal (an aldehyde) or propanone (a ketone).

10. Formation and Structure of Polymers

Polymers are used in corrective eye lenses, plastic containers, clothing and textiles, and medical
implant devices, among many other uses. They consist of basic structural units called monomers, which
are repeated many times in each molecule. Polymerization is the process by which monomers are
connected into chains or networks by covalent bonds. Polymers can form via a condensation reaction, in
which two monomer molecules are joined by a new covalent bond and a small molecule such as water is
eliminated, or by an addition reaction, a variant of a condensation reaction in which the components of
a species AB are added to adjacent atoms of a multiple bond.

The figure above shows polymer formation. During a polymerization reaction, a large number of
monomers become connected by covalent bonds to form a single long molecule, a polymer. Polymers
are formed via condensation or addition reactions.
11. Examples of Polymers

Polymers are of two types:

Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been
used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main
constituent of wood and paper.
The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin (or
Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC or vinyl), polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.

12. Properties of some Polymers in terms of their Structures

HDPE is a rigid translucent solid which softens on heating above 100 C, and can be fashioned
into various forms including films. It is not as easily stretched and deformed as is LDPE. HDPE is insoluble
in water and most organic solvents, although some swelling may occur on immersion in the latter. HDPE
is an excellent electrical insulator.
LDPE is a soft translucent solid which deforms badly above 75 C. Films made from LDPE stretch
easily and are commonly used for wrapping. LDPE is insoluble in water, but softens and swells on
exposure to hydrocarbon solvents. Both LDPE and HDPE become brittle at very low temperatures (below
-80 C). Ethylene, the common monomer for these polymers, is a low boiling (-104 C) gas.
Natural (latex) rubber is an opaque, soft, easily deformable solid that becomes sticky when
heated (above. 60 C), and brittle when cooled below -50 C. It swells to more than double its size in
nonpolar organic solvents like toluene, eventually dissolving, but is impermeable to water. The C5H8
monomer isoprene is a volatile liquid (b.p. 34 C).
Pure cellulose, in the form of cotton, is a soft flexible fiber, essentially unchanged by variations
in temperature ranging from -70 to 80 C. Cotton absorbs water readily, but is unaffected by immersion
in toluene or most other organic solvents. Cellulose fibers may be bent and twisted, but do not stretch
much before breaking. The monomer of cellulose is the C6H12O6 aldohexose D-glucose. Glucose is a
water soluble solid melting below 150 C.

13. Some Biomolecules Description and Their Functions

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates consist of single-sugar units called monosaccharides, double-monosaccharide
units known as disaccharides and multiple-monosaccharide molecules that make up starches. The
predominant purpose of the carbohydrates you eat is to provide fuel to your cells.
Proteins
The building blocks that make up proteins are called amino acids. Proteins consist of 20 different
amino acids, mixed and matched to create a vast array of larger molecules that support every process in
your body.
Lipids
Unlike the other macromolecules, lipids are not soluble in water, and they dont form long
sequences made up of similar or repeating smaller units. The fats you consume are molecules called
triglycerides, consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
Nucleic Acids
Your cells contain two types of nucleic acids, ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid, or RNA
and DNA, respectively. They differ from the other macronutrients in that they are not a source of
calories in your diet, and their role is strictly to direct the synthesis of new protein molecules.
 Proteins, nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, carbohydrates, and lipids are the major
macromolecules within the cell. Macromolecules are large molecules within your body that serve
essential physiological functions. Encompassing carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids,
macromolecules exhibit a number of similarities. For example, all except lipids are long chains made up
of smaller building blocks, and digestion reduces the size of macromolecules so your body can absorb
their component parts