Introduction

Lecture 1
Contents: L1
Introduction

Review of types of faults

Consequences of faults

Need for protective systems

Introduction
Power System Components
The modern 3-phase AC interconnected power system has:

Several conventional & non-conventional power plants

EHV AC & HVDC transmission systems

Back-to-back HVDC coupling stations

HV transmission network

Substations

MV & LV Distribution Systems, &

Connected electrical loads.

Power System Components
The electrical energy is supplied to various consumers
located in a vast geographic area, instantly, automatically,
& safely at all times.

The service continuity & high-quality of power supply have

become very important.
Switchgear
Switchgear & Protection/Control Panels are installed at
each voltage level at each switching point for:

Normal routine switching, control & monitoring, &

Automatic switching during abnormal & faulty operating

conditions such as short-circuits, under-voltage, overloads.
Switchgear
A switch is used for opening & closing in electric circuit
(i.e., a switching device) & a fuse is used for overcurrent
protection (a protective device).

Every electric circuit needs a switching device & a

protective device.

These devices are developed in various forms.

Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of

equipment concerned with switching & protection.
Example
A circuit-breaker is a switching & current-interrupting device
in a switchgear.

It serves two basic purposes:

Switching during normal operating conditions for the

purpose of operation & maintenance.

Switching during abnormal conditions such as short-circuits

& interrupting the fault currents.
Example
The first function is relatively simple as it involves normal
currents which are easy to interrupt.

The second function is complex as the fault currents are

relatively high & they should be interrupted automatically
within a short time of the order of few cycles.
Example
There are several types of faults & abnormal conditions.

If allowed to persist for a longer duration, these can damage the

equipment & the supply installation.

In order to avoid such a damage, every part of the power

system is provided with a protective relaying system & an
associated switching device.

The protective relays are automatic devices which can sense the
fault & send instructions to the associated circuit-breaker to open.

The circuit-breaker opens & clears the fault.

Example
All equipment associated with the fault clearing process
are converted by the term switchgear.

Switchgear is an essential part of a power system & also

that of any electric circuit.

In addition to circuit-breaker & protective relays, the

associated equipment for controlling, regulating &
measuring can also be considered as switchgear devices.

Switchgear includes switches, fuses, circuit-breakers,

isolators, relays, control panels, lightning arresters, current
transformers & various associated equipment.
Example
Switchgears are necessary at every switching point in AC
power system.

There are several voltage levels & fault levels between the
generating station & final load point.

Thus, the requirements of switchgear vary depending upon

the location, ratings & switching duty.

Besides the supply network, switchgear is necessary in

industrial works, industrial projects, domestic & commercial
buildings.
Faults
Faults & Abnormal conditions
A fault in an electrical equipment is defined as a defect in its
electrical circuit due to which the electrical current is diverted
from the intended path.

Faults are generally caused by breaking of conductors or failure

of insulation.

Other causes include mechanical failure, accidents, excessive

internal & external stresses, etc.

The fault impedance being low, the fault currents are relatively
high.

During the faults, the voltages of the three-phases become

unbalanced.
Faults & Abnormal conditions
The fault currents being excessive, they can damage the
faulty equipment & the supply installation.

During the faults, the power flow is diverted towards the

fault & the supply to the neighbouring zone is affected.

Voltage becomes unbalanced.

The faults can be minimized by improving the system,

design, quality of the equipment & maintenance.

However, they can NOT be eliminated completely.

Types of Faults
Types of Faults
Two broad classifications of faults are:

Symmetrical faults

Unsymmetrical faults
Types of Faults
Symmetrical faults:

A three-phase (3-) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault.

In a 3- fault, all the three-phases are short-circuited.

There may be two situations:

All the three phases may be short circuited to the ground, or

They may be short-circuited without involving the ground.

A 3- is generally treated as a standard fault to determine the

system fault level.
Types of Faults
Unsymmetrical faults:

Single-phase to ground

Two-phase to ground

Phase-to-phase short circuits

Single-phase open circuit

Two-phase open circuit

Types of Faults
Single-phase to Ground (L-G) fault:

A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors &

earth.

May be due to:

The failure of the insulation between a phase conductor & the

earth, or

due to phase conductor breaking & falling to the ground.

Types of Faults
Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) or Double line to ground fault:

A short circuit between any two phases & the earth.

Phase-to-Phase or Line-to-Line (L-L) fault:

A short circuit between any two phases.

Types of Faults
Open-circuited Phases:

Caused by a break in the conducting path.

Occur when one or more phase conductors break or a

cable joint or a joint on the overhead line fails.

May also occur when circuit-breakers or isolators open but

fail to close one or more phases.

Unbalanced currents flow in the system due to the opening

of one or two phases, thereby heating rotating machines.
Types of Faults
Winding faults:

All types of faults discussed above also occur on the

alternator, motor & transformer windings.

In addition, theres one more type, namely, the short

circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings.
Types of Faults
Simultaneous faults:

Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system.

The same or different types of faults may occur at the same

or different points of the system.

Eg:
Single line to ground fault on one phase & breaking of the
conductor of another phase, both present simultaneously at the
same point.

Simultaneous presence of an L-G fault on one point & a second L-

G fault on another phase at some other point
Types of Faults
The other abnormal conditions in AC system include:

Voltage & current unbalance

Overvoltages

Under frequency

Reversal of power

Temperature rise

Power swings

Instability, etc.
Faults & Abnormal conditions
Some of the abnormal conditions are not serious enough to call
for tripping of the circuit-breaker.

In such cases, the protective relaying is arranged for giving an

alarm.

In more serious cases, the continuation of the abnormal

condition can be harmful.

In such cases, the faulty part should be disconnected from the

system without any delay.

This function is performed by protective relaying & switchgear.

Faults & Abnormal conditions
As a fault occurs in a power system, the current increases
to several times its normal value because of the low fault
impedance.

The value of the fault current depends on the voltage at the

faulty point & the total impedance upto the fault.

The voltage at the fault location changes from its normal

value.
Faults & Abnormal conditions
During the fault, the current & voltage undergo a
continuous change.

The phenomena observed are called transient

phenomena.

The fault current varies with time.

During the first 2 to 3 cycles, the fault current is very high

but decreases very rapidly.

This zone is called the sub-transient state.

Faults & Abnormal conditions
After the first few cycles, the decrease in current is less
rapid.

This zone is called the transient state & lasts for several
cycles.

After the transient state, steady state is reached.

During the steady state, the RMS value of the fault current
remains almost constant.

The circuit-breakers operate during the transient state.

Consequences of Faults
Consequences of Faults
The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit.

If it remains uncleared, it may have the following effects.

Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to

equipment or any other element of the system due to
overheating & high mechanical forces set up due to heavy
current.
Consequences of Faults
Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards.

Such fires may destroy the faulty element of the system.

Theres also a possibility of the fire spreading to other parts of the

system if the fault is not isolated quickly.

There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy

feeders.

Results in the loss of industrial loads.

Consequences of Faults
Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages & currents,
thereby heating rotating machines.

There may be a loss of system stability.

Individual generators in a power station may lose synchronism,

resulting in a complete shutdown of the system.

Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result.

Subsystems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load
shedding would have to be resorted in the sub-system which was
receiving power from the other subsystem before the occurrence of
the fault.

The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers,

thereby causing a loss of revenue.
Requirements
High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the
essential requirements of a power system to minimize the
effects of faults & other abnormalities.
Fault Statistics
Fault Statistics
For the design & application of protective scheme, it is very useful to
have an idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various
elements of power system.

Usually, generating stations are situated far away from the load
centers. This results in:

Hundreds of kilometers length of overhead lines being exposed to

atmospheric conditions.

Chances of faults occurring are greater for overhead lines than for
other parts of the power system due to:
Storms
Falling of external objects on the lines
Flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators.
Fault Statistics

50 % of the total faults occur on overhead lines.

These require more attention while planning & designing

protective schemes for a power system.
Fault Statistics

It is evident that the frequency of line to ground faults is

more than any other type of fault occurring on overhead
lines.
Need for Protective Systems
Need for Protective Systems
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers,
transmission & distribution lines, etc.

Short circuits & other abnormal conditions often occur on a power

system.

The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause

damage to equipment if suitable protective systems are not provided.

Short circuits are usually called faults by power engineers.

Some defects, other than short circuits, are also called faults.

Eg: The failure of conducting path due to a break in a conductor is a

type of fault.
Need for Protective Systems
If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is
needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy
section of the system in normal operation.

The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second.

If a short circuit persists for long, it may cause damage to some important sections
of the system.

A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire.

Fire may spread in the system & damage a part of it.

The system voltage may reduce to a low level & individual generators in a power
station of groups of generators in different power stations may lose synchronism.

Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total failure of the system.
Need for Protective Systems
Protection is also needed against any other abnormal conditions which
may arise on a power system.

Eg:
Over-speed of generators & motors
Over-voltage
Under-frequency
Loss of excitation
Overheating of stator & rotor of an alternator

Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions

and issue alarm signals to alert the operators or to trip the circuit
breaker.

The cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about

5 % of the total cost of the system.
References
References
Switchgear Protection & Power Systems by Sunil S. Rao

Power System Protection & Switchgear by Badri Ram &

Vishwakarma

Power System Protection & Switchgear by Ravindranath &

Chander