Literature Review 1

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Cometto G, Tulenko K, Muula AS, Krech R (2013). Health workforce brain drain: From

denouncing the challenge to solving the problem. PLoS Med 10(9): e1001514.

doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001514

One of the most controversial aspects of globalization is the migration of health workers

from low and middle income countries (LMICs) to high income countries (HICs). This has led to

a considerable attention when it comes to health policy discussions at both technical and political

level. Some countries like the Philippines are in the habit of training health workers with the sole

aim of exporting them overseas just to get financial benefits in the form of remittances and direct

investment. However, contrary to this form of migration, migration of health workers is

unplanned and constitute brain drain for their home countries such as the Gambia. This form of

migration is brought about by many factors which include: better wages, better working

conditions, developmental career opportunities, and lack of motivation just to name a few.

Migration of highly qualified professional comes with many challenges to the source country. It

is not just enough to identify these challenges, it is important to put in place effective solutions.

To effect changes, more domestic training of health workers needs to be carried out and changes

in the immigration laws be done to discourage migration of skilled workers. It is also necessary

to institute bilateral relationships with the source countries as to entice highly qualified

professionals to stay and work in their home countries.

Network of African Science Academies (2009). Brain drain in Africa. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/NASACbraindrain09.pdf

The Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) is of the conviction that

sustaining the economic future of Africa lies in the strengthening and consolidation of the
 Literature Review 2

continents science and technology capacity. This can be achieved if Africa educates and retains

her most educated and most talented professionals especially those in the fields of science and

technology. These professionals can address critical societal issues and problems which relate to

science, technology and economic issues. A good number of Africas most educated and most

talented workers live and work in the developed countries where scientific and technological

knowledge and skills drive development even though most of them were trained by their source

countries. Often, African scientists migrate to the developed countries due to personal reasons

which include, better pay, career opportunities and better conditions of living. This situation can

be ameliorated if source countries develop and implement policies which are geared towards

improving the living and working conditions of Africas most educated and most talented

professionals.

Nica, E. (2013). The casual impact of brain drain migration on economic development.

Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, 5(1), pp. 9499. Retrieved from

http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/89990370/causal-impact-brain-drain-

migration-economic-development

Nica highlighted the negative impacts of brain drain on the deserted countries and the

reasoning behind brain drain. The paper examines how brain drain increases poverty and other

harmful effects of brain drain to the home country and how brain drain can result to development

for the receiving countries. Different relevant literature had been reviewed, which gave more

insight into the effects of brain drain on the home country, which loses her trained personnel to

the developed countries. The research is conceptually and methodologically a good contribution

to the causes and to different forms of migration. It focuses on the many devastating effects of
 Literature Review 3

brain drain on the source countries and the dynamism of the returned migrants after the

experience of brain drain effects on the source country.

Shumba, A. and Mawere, D. (2012). The causes and impact of the brain drain in institutions of

higher learning in Zimbabwe. International Migration, 50(4), 107 - 123.

doi:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00749.x

The rate at which professionals migrate to the developed world is of major concern to

many developing countries especially Zimbabwe. This article seeks to determine the real causes

of professional brain drain. The paper examines the impact of emigration of skill workers with

college education on the Zimbabwean education system. It examines how brain drain affects the

quality of Zimbabwean present and future graduates. It also seeks to offer practical solutions to

the mass emigration of highly skilled Zimbabwean professionals. A sample comprising of former

lecturers and students are included in this research. Questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups

were statistical tools used in this study to highlight the effects of brain drain on Zimbabweans.

Research indicates that there was mass emigration of many skilled Zimbabwean professionals.

Brain drain, for instance, seriously affected the faculty of Veterinary Science at the University of

Zimbabwe. Solution to the issue of brain drain lies with the faculty of management and

government of Zimbabwe. There should be more motivation of staff, creation of a more

conducive work environment and better salaries and wages so that University of Zimbabwe can

attract the very best lecturers.

 Literature Review 4

Iravani, M. R, (2011). Brian drain: A review. International Journal of Business and Social

Science, 2(15), 284 289. Retrieved from

http://www.ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_15_August_2011/32.pdf

The flight of human capital or brain drain is the emigration of highly qualified professional (most

educated and most talented workers) to more developed countries than their countries of origin.

Migration of people differs from country to country or from time to time. Making a

generalization of migration of people from Low Developed Countries (LDCs) can be misleading

because the possible effects of migration can be different. Since different brain drain studies

measured different things, therefore, all migration cannot be brought under the same analytical

umbrella. Brain drain constitutes economic cost to the source countries because the workers who

migrate to the developed countries go with their knowledge and expertise and in some cases a

rare talent which was nurtured by their home countries. Their home countries educated them,

trained them and gave them the opportunities to develop and discover their expertise in different

fields or work. The converse of brain drain is brain grain which many developed countries

experience when there is a large scale immigration of educated and talented professional mostly

from developing countries. With the provision of better wages, better living and working

conditions and better opportunities for career development and improvement, issues related to

brain drain can be minimized. Professionals like self-actualization and self-fulfillment. Wherever

they feel that they can actualize and fulfil their potentials to the fullest, they will most likely stay

in such workplaces or organizations.

Ibraheem, A. I. & Devine, C. (2013) Brain drain in African academic libraries: a survey. Library

Review, 62(6/7), 362 - 374. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald

Management. doi:10.1108/LR-10-2012-0113
 Literature Review 5

The study examines the extent and impact of the emigration of professional librarians in

all university libraries in Anglophone Africa. It also examines the attitude of librarians towards

educational programs which are designed to use the skills of African librarians living in the

diaspora. The conduct of the research uses online surveys sent to 121 African academic libraries.

The findings reveal that there were both positive and negative impacts associated with the effects

of brain drain. Library administrators in Africa welcome the idea of working with African

emigrants librarians in different capacities which include permanent, temporary or virtual work

related programs. The low response rates to the survey documents imply that brain drain has

seriously affected African academic libraries. Further studies need to be conducted to ascertain

the nature of brain drain in African libraries. The nature of brain drain impact and the variation

of the impact across different regions in Africa need to be examined. There is a suggestion in this

study that, academic libraries in Anglophone Africa offer a promising environment for return

programs designed to ameliorate the bad effects of brain drain. The research conducted is of

great value to practicing librarians and researchers as well as individuals and organizations

working on international development projects in Africa. It attempted to fill the gaps in the

academic literature pertaining to African academic library administration.

Ngoma, A. L. & Ismail, N. W. (2013). The determinants of brain drain in developing countries.

International Journal of Social Economics, 40(8), 744 754. Retrieved from Walden

Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/IJSE-05-2013-0109

Skilled migrants move relatively in a unidirectional manner in response to different

migration factors (from developing to developed countries). It is the aim of this article to

examine some factors which influenced the migration of the skilled workers to the developed

countries. The authors use both the conceptual and analytical approach as means of finding
 Literature Review 6

solutions to this research problem(s). The authors use econometric models known as the inverted

U-shaped relationship which exists between skilled migration rates, differences in wages and

income generation in the receiving countries. Factors in this study which are related to brain

drain include: population size, domestic political instability and distance to destination

countries. The paper provides an understanding of the factors which influence migration of

skilled workers from mostly developing countries which increases over the years even though,

there are continuous demand for skilled workers in all the developing countries which

experienced high rates of brain drain figures.

Chaichian, M. A. (2011). The new phase of globalization and brain drain. International Journal

of Social Economics, 39(1/2), 18 38. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald

Management. doi:10.1108/0306829121118885

This paper examines the migration of highly qualified professional (most skilled and

most educated) from Southwest Asia, Iran where there has been fundamental social changes

since the early 1970s to United States. The education profile of Iranian migrants in the last two

decades is examined. They are examined in terms of internal and external socio-economic and

political forces. The author further examines the forces and processes that influence the

emigration in terms of costs and benefits to both the source and receiving countries. Using

world-system and dependency theories, the author came up with finding that center-periphery

relations is the root cause of emigration. He applied David Harveys analysis of the new phase of

globalization as a way of distinguishing the emigration dynamics of Iran educated individuals

from 1950 to 1980. The findings reveal that in that period, emigration of educated Iranians was

to further their education and sharpen their skills as sojourners and were willing to return and

serve their nation. However in the latter period (1980 to present) migration was for personal
 Literature Review 7

reasons related to better wages and better conditions of living. Most migrants reasoning was

gaining international identity which gave them the opportunity to respond to the global market

and maintain their Iranian cultural identity. This research is original and is based on

documentation and personal interviews of a non-random sample of Iranian students at the

University of Iowa.

Mpinganjira, M. (2011). Retaining Africa's talent: The role of Africa's higher education.

International Journal of Emerging Markets, 6(2), 168 17. . Retrieved from Walden

Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/17468801111119515

One of the most serious problems facing the African continent is brain drain. Initially,

most Africans migrate to foreign countries to pursue higher education. Allowing African

students to study abroad was seen as a way of dealing with brain drain issues. This paper aims to

examine the factors which establish the reasoning which encourages African student to undergo

postgraduate studies in foreign countries. The methodology and approach used to reveal these

findings was through the use of focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and an online

structured questionnaire. The sample used in this study comprises of 94 international post

graduate students from Africa studying at University of Witwatersrand in South Africa. Better

working and living conditions in the developed countries are the reasoning why African students

prefer to pursue post graduate studies in the developed countries. Also, African students want to

acquire education which has world class and worldwide recognition as opposed to what is

obtainable in their countries of origin. The findings also reveal that management of higher

education in Africa needs to work on the marketing of their universities so that they can attract

their own students to pursue post graduates studies in their home countries.

Cavallaro, E. (2012). The great brain race: How global Universities are reshaping the World.
 Literature Review 8

South Asian Journal of Global Business Research, 1(2), 318 321. Retrieved from

Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/20454451211252813

With globalization, there is an increase mobility of both students and faculty all over the

world. This results to worldwide expansion of campuses and coordination of college ranking

internationally. There is the emergence of satellite and branch campuses of some universities

globally and Asia and the Middle East have expanded university education to stay competitive.

Globalization of higher education has created an impact on every aspect of development in the

globe. Higher education provides economic benefits for individuals as well as societies they

live. Intellectual horizons widen through higher education and create improvement of personal

economic prospects. University research fosters innovation and invention of ideas as well as

entrepreneurship which results to economic growth and development. Economic creativity is

stunted and constrained by traditional forms of trading. Preventing free flow of people and ideas

impeded knowledge creation and development which is necessary for economic growth and

development. The implementation of higher educational reformation in South Asia will provide

opportunities for global educational benefits. There is the need to lower or eradicate barriers

which impede global education. When South Asia opens to global education, there will be

knowledge gain and economic development. With the gradual elimination of political, economic

and cultural barriers to overseas study, educational globalization can lead to fluidity, mobility,

and economic growth and development. When there are higher numbers of young Asian

graduates in global education, they will gain desirable skills in management and international

business leadership and this will result to South Asia gaining a larger share of the global

workforce and much needed economic development.

Azam, M. (2015). The role of migrant workers remittances in fostering economic growth.
 Literature Review 9

International Journal of Social Economics, 42(8), 690 705. Retrieved from Walden

Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/IJSE-11-2013-0255

The remittance made by migrants to their home countries is very significant to the

economic development of the source countries. Remittance is simply the different amount of

money sent to home countries by immigrants in the developed countries. Remittance attracted

the attention of both policy makers and academicians when it comes to how it impacts on the

macroeconomic variables of the country of origin. This does not replace foreign direct

investment (FDI), official development assistance or other public sources of finance for

development. There is a rapid growth of the flow of remittances to the developing countries.

There is an ongoing debate as to the role of remittance on macroeconomic variables and how it

foresters the economic development of the migrants country of origin. The study examined the

role played by remittance in the process of economic growth and development of four

developing Asian countries. The finding reveals that there is a significant positive relationship

between migrant workers remittances and economic growth. There are statistically significant

control variables which include foreign direct investment, openness to trade and infrastructure.

Duwicquet, V., Mouhoud, E. M., & Oudinet, J. (2014). International migration by 2030: Impact

of immigration policies scenarios on growth and employment. Foresight, 16(2), 142

164. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/FS-

06-2012-0045

International migration plays a key role in the development of the source countries and

the promotion of functional labor markets and welfare systems of receiving countries. These

migration effects are divergent among different countries. The source countries and receiving

countries have different incomes and immigration policies. The structures of international
 Literature Review 10

migration were analyzed using migration rates. Irrespective of income differentials between

economies, immigration policies and shocks of various kinds can cause changes in the magnitude

and direction of migration ows. The impacts of the labor-market characteristics and public-

good amenities enables us to distinguish between countries, which are actively open to migration

ows. There are different immigration policies which affect brain drain and these include

restrictive immigration policies, selective immigration policies and mass immigration scenarios

which allow for letting go of the growth related constraints and getting out of the deationist

spiral. It is important to note that the relationship between network and migration cost is not

linear. There is negative variation between migration cost and the number of migrants from the

same nationality. However, this variation is only up to a certain point where counteracting effects

of congestion costs appear which increase with the number of emigrants.

Mapulanga, P. (2014). Prospects and constraints of staff development in the University of

Malawi Libraries. The Bottom Line: Managing library finances, 27(1), 29 41. Retrieved

from Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/BL-08-2013-0023

Most library staff at the University of Malawi Libraries possess only Malawi Library

Association (MALA) certificate in Library and Information System (LIS), which demonstrate

real shortage of skills when it comes to staff development. There are low budgets for staff

development when compared to UML staff salaries. There should be more effort geared towards

staff development and training by seeking for funding which provide training and other means of

staff development. This will lead to better training of library staff in information technology

which is needed in the delivery of library and information services. The library should consider

provision of budgets which allows continuous professional development. There is the need to

enact education levy which promotes skills training in all institutes of higher learning in Malawi.
 Literature Review 11

The researcher uses case study design to collect qualitative and quantitative data. The analysis

included budget estimates from 2004/2005 to 2010/2011 financial year. Strategic planning data

from 2005 to 2009 were examined and interviews conducted. The research findings reveal that

there is the need to conduct staff development which provides great qualifications in library and

information studies. However, financial constraints impeded training opportunities which allow

library staff to be well trained in library and information studies.

Medina, C., & Posso, C. (2013). South American immigrants in the USA. Journal of Economic

Studies, 40(2), 255 279. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald

Management. doi:10.1108/01443581311283709

There has been large migration flow of South Americans in the past few decades,

particularly to the United States. Proper understanding of the evolution and determinants of

migration from the South American countries could help policymakers to design long-term

development policies in response to the need of better measures of curbing migration related

issues. Where there is proper understanding of why migrants stay in their adopted countries or

return to their home countries could help governments in the source countries formulate more

functional immigration policies. Where there is a proper education of people about the realistic

situations of migrants in the developed countries would be migrants will make more informed

decisions based on full and unbiased knowledge, something they usually lacked..

Usually, would be migrants lack clear cut ideas about why some migrants decide to

return home after so many years in the developed countries. Both Colombia and Peru are

adversely affected by brain drain but other South American countries are equally affected by the

migration of their most highly educated professionals. There are high migration rates of skilled

people from South America. However, the South American phenomenon is moderate when
 Literature Review 12

compared to the magnitude in regions like Central America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast

Asia and, more recently, Eastern Europe, all of them with brain drain percentages at least two

folds than those of South America. The finding of this study reveals that South Americans in the

USA with higher or more advanced education are less likely to be systematically employed in

manual tasks, and more likely to nd jobs requiring analytical and cognitive skills.

Simplice, A. (2013). Globalization and Africa: Implications for human development.

International Journal of Development Issues, 12(3), 213 238. Retrieved from Walden

Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/IJDI-10-2012-0064

The main force dominating the economic universe is globalization. It lights-up the world

with economic prosperity and seeks to be victorious over market and self-interest in terms of

magnanimity. There is a global commitment to continuing and accelerating the pace of human

development, this involves the historical processes of cultural progress. A great concern about

globalization is the fear that the developed countries will draw economic gains from the

developing countries to the developed countries. The developing countries will be deprived of

the much needed scientic advancements carried-out in the developed world thereby widening

the pre-existing disparities in the level of economic wellbeing of developing nations. The

existence of these economic disparities due to globalization becomes socially, morally and

economically unacceptable. The African continent experiences appalling statistics in human and

economic development. The assessment in this study comprises 52 countries out 54 African

countries and provided an in depth and general picture of the nancial and trade globalization

trends in the continent. This study employed the inequality adjusted HDI rst published in the

2010 Human Development Report. Their research findings reveal that globalization leads to

human development but nancial globalization has the opposite effect.

 Literature Review 13

Gaiduk, R., Gaiduk, J., & Fields, D. (2009). Limiting the brain drain. Baltic Journal of

Management, 4(2), 149 168. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald

Management. doi: 10.1108/17465260910958782

Lithuanian organizations have a big issue when it comes to employee retention within the

public and private organizations. The European Union provides them the luxury of moving freely

within EU member states. According to the Lithuanian Statistical Bureau, there were migration

of more than 400, 000 people since 1990 and this significantly impacted the country with a

population of 3.4 million in 2007. Questionnaire comprising of 84 items (describing jobs and

organizational attributes) were administered to workers in a plastic manufacturing company and

190 employees responded. The analysis of the data was done using multivariate regression. The

analysis reveals that there were equal proportions of the variance when it comes to employee

attachment.

Employees attributed organizational attachment to opportunities for promotion and

training. Using jobs and organizational variables reveals that there were 56% variances in

attachment to the organization. These findings are an insight for managers to understand that

organizational attachment has a great relationship with job satisfaction. Where there are

promotion and training opportunities for employees, the retention rate might be higher. Managers

need to take steps geared toward making the working environment more conducive and create a

well-structured promotion scheme which gives deserving employees opportunities for promotion

and training in their respective jobs.

Harvey, W. (2012). Brain circulation to the UK? Journal of Management Development, 31(2),

173 186. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:

10.1108/02621711211199502.
 Literature Review 14

Most debates about foreign talent are centered on how they impacted regional economies

and how the developed countries can attract and retain foreign people who are highly skilled and

highly talented. When it comes to brain circulation, the poorer countries tend to benefit more

because the migrants always feel obligated to give back to their country of origin. However,

migrants from wealthier countries do not feel obligated to give back to their country of origin.

This argument is a bit narrow minded, the short term gain by few individuals cannot be

compared with long term national gain. People trained in the developing countries using the

mega resources of the poor countries could have benefited their countries more by working in

their home countries rather than working for the developed countries.

There is more likelihood for migrants from poor countries to return to their home

countries and run development projects or invest towards the socio-economic development of

their home countries. In most cases, migrants from developed countries have no intent to return

to their home countries and do not have any development or investment plans once they leave.

Only 56% of the British respondents have intentions of returning to the UK after completion of

their expatriate missions in Canada. This implies 44 % of these British expatriates may never

return to the UK let alone make any form of investment or development in their home country.

The results of this research further reveals that most of the respondent in this research are not

investing in their home country and do not intend to return to their home country. Therefore, the

contribution of these people towards brain circulation is very limited.

Neubecker, N (2014). Two new data sets on south-north migration by occupational category.

International Journal of Manpower, 35(6), 834 872. Retrieved from Walden Library

database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/IJM-10-2013-0231.

 Literature Review 15

The least acknowledge component of globalization is international migration when

compared to international trade or capital flow. An important phenomenon is migration of high-

skilled workers from developing countries to countries of Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD). In both the developing and developed countries, there is a

great concern by politicians when it comes to migration of skilled workers. These skilled

workers constitute great resources for the developing and developed countries. Therefore,

migration of the most skilled and most talented workers from developing countries to the

developed countries is a threat to the socio-economic development of developing countries like

The Gambia.

Evaluation of the constructed data reveals that the mean value of the aggregate of south-

north migration rates of highly skilled workers was larger when compared to the mean value of

migrants of workers with just primary or secondary education. The mean value aggregate south-

north was even higher among professionals, senior officials and managers with tertiary

education. At a more disaggregated level, professionals in rare skills such as mathematics,

physical and engineering sciences experience more migration rate than those in less attractive

fields of study. If migration of the most talented and most skilled workers from the developing

countries continues to grow and remains unchecked by the governments of the developing

countries, there will be drastic decline in socio-economic growth and development.

Qureshi, K., Varghese, V. J., & Osella, F. (2013). Indian Punjabi skilled migrants in Britain: Of

brain drain and under-employment. Journal of Management Development, 32(2), 182

192. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management.

doi:10.1108/02621711311305683.
 Literature Review 16

There are more than one million skilled Indian immigrants living abroad. India is only

second to Britain and the Philippines in terms of migration of skilled workers to developed

countries. However, this is seen as a win-win situation because these migrants have very

lucrative career opportunities in Britain and other developed countries. The authors examined 20

life history interviews from migrants who are originally from India to Britain who were

professionals in IT, media, law and hospitality industries, health and welfare professionals, and

student migrants. Through migration economies in Punjab grew or decline, the migrants

migrated on their own to the UK. They went to universities where they could use their

qualification and experience.

However, they experienced under-employment, devaluation of their qualifications and

downward mobility. These conditions compel them to work in ethnic and gendered markets

within the Indian network where they attain different levels of success. The research findings

further reveal that the migrants were not able to advance their respective careers as they

originally thought. Instead, these Indian migrants experienced devaluation and lack of

recognition of qualifications and experiences, discrimination of migrants combined with gender

inequality in labor markets. There were many odds working against many skilled Indian migrants

which prevented them from getting their dream jobs or be gainfully and meaningfully employed

in Britain.

Simplice, A. (2015). Determinants of health professionals migration in Africa: A WHO based

assessment. International Journal of Social Economics, 42(7), 666 686. Retrieved from

Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/IJSE-12-2013-0287.

For there to be fate in the global health and development in the twenty-first century, there

is the need to address health crises globally. The demand for health workers is overwhelming and
 Literature Review 17

hardest hit by health crises is Africa due to mass exodos of health workers to the developed

countries. This has resulted to the rapid rise in communicable diseases such as HIV/ AIDS and

very recently Ebola in West Africa. There are acute shortages of health workers in Africa due to

migration and lack of empirical data to adequately address the health crises in Africa. Many

issues need to be addressed in Africa if the current health crises are to be reduced or eradicated.

These issues include economic prosperity, health expenditure, savings, price-stability,

demographic change, democracy, corruption control, press freedom, government effectiveness,

human development, foreign aid, physical security, trade openness and financial liberalization.

Adequately addressing these issues would go a long way in minimizing migration of

health workers across the African continent. These research findings reveal broad range of issues

and tools which could be used to curb health-worker brain-drain in Africa. There is the need to

institute policies which adequately addressed emigration control through the provision of

conducing living and working environments and opportunities for growth and development

among health care workers. Immigration policies should be tailored according to the needs of

each African country because they have different political, social and economic conditions.

Beenstock, M., Ramos, R., & Suriach, J. (2015). Migration, human capital and social capital:

Lessons for the EU neighboring countries. International Journal of Manpower, 36(4),

434 440. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management.

doi:10.1108/IJM-01-2015-0001

One of the fundamental principles which led to the foundation of the European Union

(EU) was the free movement of workers across the EU. Due to the aging population of most EU

countries, they face challenges related to importation of foreign labor. With aging population,

low birth rates, and prospects of collapsing social security systems, there is the need to attract
 Literature Review 18

and retain skilled migrants. The integration of European migration policy and European

Neighborhood Policy (ENP) was to improve the current control over immigration flow. There is

a sharp contrast in the population of Europe and the population in the south ENC countries. The

proximity, economic, cultural and historical links of the south ENC countries make them an

important potential source of labor to E U countries. More importantly these south ENC

countries are the main countries of origin and transit of legal and illegal migration towards

Europe.

In the Spanish labor market, there are higher dismissal rates for EU immigrants than the

native born and migrants from the developing countries. Empirical evidence shows that

immigrants from neighboring countries even face more dismissal in moments of crises when

compared to native born and immigrants from developing countries. This situation, poses great

concerns for immigrants from neighboring EU countries. There are problems related to the

integration of the highly qualified and highly skilled immigrants into the Spanish labor market.

There is also an imperfect degree of transferability of human capital acquired from the original

countries of the immigrants which forces immigrants to accept jobs which are lower than their

qualifications. They will be view as overeducated when they perform jobs which are lower than

the qualifications they acquired from their country of origin. These situations will often lead to

brain wastage because immigrants perform jobs which are lower than their education, expertise

and experience. Therefore, no matter how educated and skilled these immigrants are, they hardly

utilize such education and skills.

Chand, M. (2012). Diasporas, migration, and trade: The Indian diaspora in North America.
 Literature Review 19

Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 6(4),

383 396. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management.

doi:10.1108/17506201211272805

There is a vital role played by Diasporas in the facilitation of trade and investment

between their countries of origin (COOs) and countries of residence (CORs). These roles are in

the form of direct investments in their COO. People in the diaspora have superiority when it

comes to language, culture, preferences, and the regulatory environment of their home countries.

In emerging markets, cross-border social networks are very important and crucial when it comes

to developing business linkages. Chinese entrepreneurs are successful in Southeast Asia due to

their status as diaspora members with international social networks that span multiple countries.

There is provision of needed capital and improvement of foreign investment perception

climate through Diaspora Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Diasporas have sound knowledge

and market information about their COR and this give them competitive advantage when it

comes to setting up businesses in their COO. Brain drain usually refers to the migration of well-

educated and most talented people from developing countries in Africa and Asia to the

developed countries in North America and Europe. Migrants in the COR often have network,

trust and cross-national partnerships which give them an edge when it comes to setting up

businesses in their respective COO. The findings of this study reveal that the Indian diaspora

have the knowledge, connection and multi-faceted relationship in both India and their COR. This

shows why they have competitive and business advantage when it comes to establishing

businesses and entrepreneurship in their respective countries of origin.

Kelman, I., & Khan, S. (2012). Tracking a moving target of migration: Island perspectives.
 Literature Review 20

Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 21(5), 634 639.

Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management.

doi:10.1108/09653561211278752

When there are natural hazards or rapid environmental changes, people often respond by

migrating to safer places. This form of migration has an impact on those who migrate and those

who stay and deal with natural hazards or environmental changes. Between the years 2008, 2009

and 2010; it is estimated that 36 million, 17 million, and 42 million has been displaced due to

sudden-onset environmental hazards. This form of migration mostly occurred in Small Island

Developing States (SIDS). There are changes in freshwater and geomorphology which are

brought about due to climate changes which forces the inhabitants of affected places to migrate.

There has been continuous migration of Tuvaluans and it is uncertain what the root cause of their

migration is associated with, without challenging their fundamental beliefs.

There could be brain drain when the skilled population migrates and leaves the less

skilled people behind. The fear in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) is the migration of the

most skilled and competence population which increases the vulnerability of the less skilled

people left behind. These less skilled people might eventually resort to illegal migration to places

which do not experience hazardous climate change. To figuratively and literally analyze

migration requires understanding the linkages between migration and environmental hazards

including climate change. It also requires working with communities in SIDS with the aim of

understanding their historical and current reasons for migration. It is also necessary to analyze

the different negative impacts of different forms of voluntary and forced migration. This will

lead to the formulation of migration policies and practices which are disaster and climate change

related.
 Literature Review 21

Liu, J. (2011). Human capital, migration and rural entrepreneurship in China. Indian Growth

and Development Review, 4(2), 100 122. Retrieved from Walden Library database,

Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/17538251111172023

Higher income motivates the migration from rural to urban areas in China. However,

where there is relatively high return on human capital in non-farm related businesses, talented

migrants can return to the countryside as entrepreneurs. The migration to cities and subsequent

inward migration to the countryside creates credit constraints for rural China. It is necessary to

understand Chinas migration policies and background in order to adequately address migration

issues in China. The transition of China from a central plannned economy to market economy

started towards the end of 1978 when serious economic reformations were launched. These

reformations came with implications which include relaxation of restrictions on rural-urban labor

mobility and allowing migration to urban areas. There were initiations of economic reformations

which encouraged the development of rural non-farm sectors. There was noticeable growth in

migration to the rural non-farm sector through the provision of financial capital to rural areas and

return migration from urban to rural areas.

The 1978 economic reformations in China resulted in large numbers of rural-urban

migration. Human capital was used to understand the type of migration experienced in China.

There was a noticeable trend of migration in which young people migrate to the cities when

young and conversely migrate back to the rural areas when they are old. These types of

migrations were occupational choices, the young migrants worked in urban sectors and the older

migrants returned to rural areas to set up entrepreneurship. Migration encourages the setting up

of entrepreneurship in the rural areas without which, there would have been fewer entrepreneurs

due to borrowing constraints. Human capital played a key role in the determination of income
 Literature Review 22

across different sectors. When migrants return to the rural areas and invest their savings in non-

farm business, they created employment opportunities in the rural areas. The expensive cost of

migration discourages both temporary and permanent migrants from migrating to the urban areas

thus creating income inequality in the rural-urban incomes and further deterioration of rural

income.

Tharmaseelan, N., Inkson, K., & Carr, S. C. (2010). Migration and career success: Testing a time

sequenced model. Career Development International, 15(3), 218 238. Retrieved from

Walden Library database, Emerald Management. doi:10.1108/13620431011053712

Contemporary career research and practices indicate that migration is becoming a key

issue in the global market. The workforce in many countries is provided through immigration

and migrants are attracted to developed countries. The International Organization for Migration

reports that in 2009, 200 million people or over 3 per cent of worlds population live in countries

other than were they were born. Even though migration can be involuntary due to wars and

natural disasters, in most cases, migration is voluntary. In the U S A, there are over 35 million

people who were born outside the United States when compared to 10 million in 1970. This

reality led to economic changes where there were too many jobs with few people in exact in

reverse situations now. There are many reasons why people migrate which include social

integration, quest for better wages and livelihood, career management and personal development.

However, it is important for there to be migration interventions which target would-be migrants

by educating them about the experiences of migrants in the developed countries in terms of

career development, cultural assimilation and possibilities for further education. There are

tendencies for migrants to experience employment discrimination due the different cultural
 Literature Review 23

backgrounds and variation in socialization of the migrants when compared to citizens of the

home countries.

Dwivedi, S., Kaushik, S., & Luxmi, V. (2014). Impact of organizational culture on commitment

of employee: An empirical study of BPO sector in India. The Journal for Decision

Makers, 39(3), 77 92. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

In the corporate arena, one of the most challenging issues is the retention of employees.

There is diversification in the job market which makes it difficult if not impossible for HR

managers to satisfy the aspiration of each employee to their fullest satisfaction. With high levels

of attrition, one of the biggest challenges confronting HR managers is how to make employees

well committed to an organization. This research supports the assertion that there is a direct

correlation between organizational cultural variables and organizational commitment because

employees typically like to achieve self-actualization and self-fulfillment.

Therefore, organizations, which provide them opportunities for training, growth, and

development, are likely to win the hearts and commitment of their employees. Some employees

motivation comes from job satisfaction and peaceful working environment which might be

lacking in developing countries like The Gambia. HR professionals should ensure that there are

just and fair treatment of employees and all forms of promotion are done through merit and great

job performance. Above all, HR professionals should be sensitive to the personal lives of their

employees especially during moments of extreme difficulties or constraints.

Ganapathi, N. & Panchanatham, N. (2014). The role of Human resource management in cross-

cultural environment The way to managerial communication. Journal of Exclusive

Management Science, 3(1), 1 8. Retrieved from

www.academia.edu/.../The_Role_of_Human_Resource_M...
 Literature Review 24

There are multifaceted business environments which are highly competitive, and where

products are knowledge based with a well-diversified workforce. With the rapid development in

technology, network communication, and high capabilities of computer systems, there are

changes in current organizational settings. Organizations are always scouting for special skills

and rare talents as a result; organizations continue to be more multinational. This promotes brain

drain from developing countries to the developed countries. HR managers not only need to be

communication knowledgeable but create cross-cultural atmosphere, which improves

organizational performance by maximizing productivity.

For international businesses to run more successfully there is the need for effective cross-

cultural communication. Dealing with different employees of different cultural background

requires understanding cultural differences and overcoming language barriers. This is very

important when it comes to organizations established in the developing countries by western

investors. HRM involves effective management of people and resources of an organization so

that there is maximum performance of employees and the organization as a whole. With a well

organized work culture, employees perform to the best of their abilities and become loyal to an

organization for a long time. This in turn has the potential to inspire well educated professionals

like those in The Gambia to stay and work in their home country instead of migrating to

developed countries searching for greener pastures.

Tabaghdehi, S. L. H. & Salehi (2015). Evaluating the relationship between the organizational

culture and the human capital of faculty members of universities. International Journal of

Academic Research, 7(1), 351 355. doi: 10.7813/2075-4124.2015/7-1/B.59

As organizations transform from the industrial-oriented economy to the knowledge-

oriented economy, they face challenges such as dynamism, unreliability, complexity, rapid
 Literature Review 25

changes, and increase competition among other predicaments. These traits are common

occurrences in many organizations like big universities. The management of knowledge-oriented

economies involves recognizing knowledge as the power source and most organizational success

depends on her intellectual capital rather than the tangible and material resources. The study

established that there was a significant degree of relationship between organizational culture and

human capital of faculty members of the Islamic Azad University. Within human capital, there is

a high impact based on the prediction variables of organizational learning and task involvement.

Organizational culture is a fundamental factor when it comes to development of human capital.

There could be establishment of new knowledge and its development when there is

reinforcement of culture and proper knowledge and talent management in an organizational

setting. Where there is proper knowledge and talent management, there could be innovation of

new ideas and development of new knowledge, which is rare to find in other organizations.

Tan, J., & Wang, L. (2011). MNC strategic responses to ethical pressure: An institutional logic

perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 98(3), 373390. doi: 10.1007/s10551-010-0553-

7. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

Balancing ethical pressure from both home and host country is a big issue for most

multinational corporations (MNCs). The past literature is of the view that there is great prospect

of MNCs doing great when established in developing countries, which have great ethical

background and philosophy incorporated in the code of conduct of the organization. The ethical

behavior of MNCs is within the intersection of institutional theory, international business, and

business ethics. When foreign businesses are established in developing countries, there is the

need to establish logics and principles of the home country while responding to local needs and

the ethical expectation of the host country. There is bound to be some ethical contradictions
 Literature Review 26

when it comes to the establishment of a foreign organization in a developing country. It is highly

crucial for there to be a balance in the difference in ethical beliefs and values. Where there is a

good recognition of ethical values of the host country and that of the foreign organization, there

is a likelihood to have effective job performance and maximization of productivity. All over the

world, people like their ethical values and beliefs respected by foreigners and other individuals.

Tian, F. (2013). Skilled flows and selectivity of Chinese scientists at global leading universities

between 1998 and 2006. Journal of Science and Technology Policy in China, 4(2), 99

118. Retrieved from Walden Library database, Emerald Management.

doi:10.1108/JSTPC-01-2013-0003

Since the emergence of the knowledge economy in the twentieth century, there has been

expansion of national knowledge pool in many countries. This resulted to continuous investment

in educational reformation alongside research and development (R & D). With rapid increase

demand for skilled workers, governments in the developed countries have resorted to employing

highly educated migrant workers from foreign countries on either temporary or permanent basis.

This created a huge imbalance in the flow of migrant workers from mostly developing countries

to the developed countries in Europe and North America thereby leading to brain drain in the

developing countries. Migrant students have realized that skillful emigrants can bring a lot of

benefit to their home countries in the form of remittances, returnees, technology transfer, and

foreign investment. Brain drain can become reverse brain gain in developing countries when

there are more positive effects of brain drain. In such situations, skilled emigration is not a lost to

the source country but an important means of creating development in the source country like

The Gambia.
 Literature Review 27

The sample of this study included 451 scientists in leading English Universities. These

were leading scientist who gain expertise in science and were great contributors towards the

progression of science in both China and their current host countries. There was an increase in

the number of Chinese scientist and this increases the scientist talent pool for the supply of

overseas Chinese scientists. In the end, there were returnees but most of them do have foreign

degrees but gain some experience performing different jobs while staying overseas. This form of

migration resulted to brain circulation in China.

Balsam, S., Fernando, G. D., & Tripathy, A. (2011). The impact of firm strategy on performance

measures used in executive compensation. Journal of Business Research, 64(2), 187-193.

doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2010.01.006

When firms pursue cost effective leadership strategy, there tend to be increased emphasis

in sales which may lead to the determination of compensation of executives. When it comes to

the pursue of differentiation strategy, there is decrease emphasis on accounting measures. Top

management can create positive influence in an organization by determining and executing well-

articulated strategies. Great strategies provide firms with competitive advantages, which enable

them to perform better than their immediate competitors. An alignment of a firms compensation

policy, for instance, with the strategies of the firm is important when ensuring the effectiveness

of top executives of a firm. Therefore, for effective implementation of the strategies of a firm,

stakeholders need to design well-articulated compensation policies. This will hopefully lead to

the satisfaction of employees and minimize any form of brain drain in the developing country.

Chuo, S., Fonkoua, J., & Pollard, D. (2011). Determination of the performance measure of

executive compensation. Journal of Business & Economics Research, 9(2), 121- 136.

Retrieved from the Walden Library databases, ABI/INFORM Complete.

 Literature Review 28

The agency theory is of the view that where firms owners (stakeholders) fail to take

control of their organization, firm managers (agents) will obtain personal benefits by taking

advantages of their positions in the organization. Where stakeholders want to be in control of

their organization, they should design compensation plans and policies, which ensure that firms

executives assessment depends on the performance of the organization. That is the

compensation of executive is closely linked to the market value of the company and this ensures

that there is effectiveness in every department within the organization. Where top executive

realizes that when the organization gains increases in market value, there will be more

compensation for top executives, there would be more efforts, which aims to ensure job

effectiveness and increase in productivity in all departments with an organization. They will

ensure that there is proper supervision of all staff and compensation of employees are just and

fair and above all, all forms of bias promotion and bias incentives are discouraged. This will

eventually lead to self-fulfillment and self-actualization. These two qualities will curb brain drain

in the developing countries.

Heslin, P. A., & VandeWalle, D. (2011). Performance appraisal procedure justice: The role of a

managers implicit person theory. Journal of Management, 37(6), 1694 1718. doi:

10.1177/01492063099342895

For organizations to develop dependable and reliable leadership there is the need to

develop a performance appraisal system, which is well structured and fair and just to all

employees. The academic literature emphasizes employee reaction to procedural injustice within

organizations. There is no enough empirical evidence as to why some managers do less than

others in terms of their management procedures. Employees, who work for organizations in

which management treat all employees equally with justice and fair play, tend to be more loyal
 Literature Review 29

to both management and organization. This loyalty, leads to effectiveness, productivity and high

level of performance for both employees and organization. Therefore, employee appraisal should

aim at guiding and improving the performance of both employees and organizations at all levels.

Justifiable managerial procedures should be at every level within an organization. This should

include opportunities for training, promotion, remediation, and discipline. Provision of job

opportunities will lead to highly qualified professionals staying in their home countries and

positively contributing towards the socio-economic development of their home countries.

Joseph, M. L. (2015). Organizational culture and climate for promoting innovativeness. The

Journal of Nursing Administration, 45(3), 172 -178. doi:

10.1097/NNA.0000000000000178

The job of nurses put them in a critical position of providing creative and innovative

solution with the aim of providing differences in the lives of patients, organization, communities,

and the nursing profession. For nursing innovation to be implemented successfully,

organizational commitment is needed which allows and encourages nurses to ask questions and

make inquiries about organizational practices such as patient care and general nursing practice.

Many organizations use brainstorming as a guide to the development of innovative initiatives

and solutions to major cultural barriers. For the healthcare system to progress, it is fundamental

for there to be nursing innovation. Innovation requires ideal cultural environment in which the

workers respect each others culture and create a climate of innovativeness. A society which is

innovative and inventive will eventually become a developed society. The more developed a

country becomes, the more likely that her citizenry stay in their home countries and positively

contribute towards the socio-economic development of their home countries.

Muscalu, E. (2014). Organizational culture change in the organization. Journal of Management

 Literature Review 30

and Economics, 19(4), 392 396. Retrieved from

http://www.armyacademy.ro/reviste/rev4_2014/MUSCALU.pdf and the Walden Library

databases.

There is a deep connection between organizational culture and its history, myths, public

figures, and symbols. This situation keeps on changing values inherited from the founding

fathers of an organization and affects change and change management. Cultural changes within

an organization take years of hard work and are almost impossible to achieve within few years.

Cultural changes within an organization can be from an internal or external source. These

sources include the methods and mechanisms in which changes are maintained within an

organizational culture. Environmental changes may result to some cultural changes within an

organization, since there is no universally accepted definition of organizational culture.

Organizational culture needs good planning and proper implementation for it to positively impact

on the performance of an organization. It requires creating a learning organization in which all

the different multinationals learn the cultures of each other. In this way, there will be

maximization of organizational performance. Where there is effective organizational

performance and effective performance of employees, there will be self-fulfillment and self-

actualization of employees and there will be less issues associated with brain drain or brain

wastage.
Literature Review 31