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This article proposes a paradigm for the social sciences derived from Pitirim A. Sorokin's
writings about Integralism. His conception of a three-component system of truth and
knowledge which includes the senses, reason, and faith is the foundation of this
integral perspective. The paradigm entails the incorporation of religious-ethical ideas
within the established frame of reference of the social sciences. The consensus among
several world religions that some version of the Golden Rule is the most fundamental
ethical principle, and the idea of individual transformation involving the realization of
this principle, are advanced as the foundation for integral social science. The virtues,
the vices and the Ten Commandments are presented as more specific schemes which
articulate the positive and negative precepts associated with the Golden Rule. The
incorporation of these religious-ethical ideas in value premises, existing paradigms
and theories, special fields, and empirical research is considered. Integralism is pro-
posed as a solution to the current crisis of fragmentation and anomie in the social
sciences.
Sorokin's Integralism
A paradigm is a fundamental image of the subject matter within a science. It serves to define
what should be studied, what questions should be asked, and what rules should be followed in
interpreting the answers obtained. The paradigm is the broadest unit of consensus within a
science and serves to differentiate one scientific community (or subcommunity) from another.
It subsumes, defines, and interrelates the exemplars, theories, and methods and instruments
that exist within it.
Jeffries 37
Analyses of Sorokin's work by Ford (1963; 1996), Johnston (1995; 1996:166-
220; 1998), and Nichols (1999) agree that integralism is the foundation of his
epistemology, his theory of culture types and change, and his later analysis of
altruism and personal and social reconstruction. The basic characteristics of a
paradigm which could be called "integral" (Sorokin 1960) in accordance with
Sorokin's ideas can be derived from his writings. This perspective is an important
legacy of his work. It contains the potential solution to the current crisis in the
social sciences.
Integralism is derived by Sorokin from his historical study of the culture types
of ideational, sensate, and idealistic (Ford 1963). Sorokin believed that, in accor-
dance with the prevailing culture type, cultures fluctuate in the dominance of one
of three systems of truth and knowledge: sense, faith, or reason (Sorokin 1937:3-
476; 1947:607-619; 1957a:226-283). The system of truth and knowledge is the
compartment of culture that includes religious, philosophical, and scientific thought,
and thus addresses fundamental ontological and epistemological issues.
The truth of the senses, or sensate truth, is empiricism. It relies primarily on the
testimony of the sense organs as a method of validation, as exemplified in induc-
tion and experimentation (Sorokin 1947:610--616). The truth of faith, or ideational
truth, is "...disclosed in a supersensory way through mystic experience, direct
revelation, Divine intuition, and inspiration" (Sorokin 1947:607). Ideational truth
develops concepts and propositions from religious ideas and from theology, par-
ticularly from what is viewed as the Sacred Scripture of a given religion. The truth
of reason relies primarily on rational argument to determine validity or invalidity.
As an integrated system of truth within idealistic culture, reason is used to bring
the sensory-empirical and supersensory into "one organic whole" (Sorokin
1947:610).
The true and absolute reality contains empirical-sensory aspects, rational-mindful
aspects, and superrational-supersensory aspects. A system of truth and knowl-
edge based only on sense, or reason, or faith, apprehends a limited part of this
manifold reality, thus presenting a partial and distorted view of the subject mat-
ter. An integral system of truth entails a synthesis of each of these three aspects,
thus most closely approximating the true threefold nature of reality. Hence
integralism is the most adequate system of truth and knowledge. (Sorokin 1964:226-
237; 1957a:679-697; 1957b). Change to an integral ontology and epistemology
was viewed by Sorokin as a necessary condition for realizing the creative poten-
tial of the social sciences (Sorokin 1964:226-237; 1947:617-619, 545-547; 1957a;
1961; 1963:372-408).
In his description of integralism, intuition is identified by Sorokin as the third
method of cognition, in addition to sense and reason. Sorokin views intuition as
a source of cognition, irrespective of content, of anything which is not accessible
through sensory and rational methods alone. In this sense, it may in some in-
stances include supersensory-superrational aspects of the total reality (Sorokin
1964:227-229; 1956; 1957b; 1961; 1963:372-408). Krishna (1960) has observed
that this concept of intuition includes two different contents, one which refers to
the empirical, such as in physics or art, and another which is concerned with
supersensory-superrational truths, such as the nature of God or the Ultimate Re-
ality. The first form of intuition has the possibility of being i n d e p e n d e n t l y
verified, the second does not, hence in Krishna's view the two should be clearly
Jefffies 39
This approach to incorporating religious ideas in the social sciences is most
consistent with a synthesis of the three historical cultural systems of truth and
knowledge as they are described in Sorokin's culture types of ideational, idealis-
tic, and sensate. The idealistic system of truth and knowledge as it has occurred
historically becomes the factual model of such a system (Krishna 1960). This
approach is consistent with the later writings of Sorokin, in which he to some
degree equates "idealistic" and "integral" (Sorokin 1961:95-96; 1963:481; Ford
1963:53). Idealistic rationalism, Aristotle, and Thomas Aquinas provide historical
exemplars of this integral perspective (Sorokin 1937:95-103).
Two contrasting models of the integral paradigm are possible in this regard.
The first is primarily derived from the teachings of religion. In this model certain
ideas become assumptions because they are believed to be revealed truth. From
this perspective, for example, the Golden Rule is a fundamental component of
the truth of faith advocated in some form by all major world religions. The truth
of faith is the foundation of this model, as in Aquinas's (1981:1-7) hierarchy of
the sciences. The second model is derived solely from rational-empirical sources.
From this perspective the Golden Rule is a value and normative system which
should be studied because it is fundamental in influencing both human behavior
and social organization. As ideal types stipulating sources of truth these models
appear incompatible. However, in the process of incorporating ideas and verify-
ing them through empirical research they are similar. Both models are centered
around the effort to understand important and universal aspects of human behav-
ior. The basic variables in each model are the same, as in this example of the
Golden Rule and its positive and negative precepts.
The incorporation of religious ideas within the frame of reference of the social
sciences is consistent with Popper's (1959:38-39) view that metaphysical ideas
have furthered scientific advancement throughout history. Metaphysical ideas are
described as ideas which cannot be demonstrated to be false. They may be highly
speculative. However, these ideas must be "demarcated" from ideas which are
presented in falsifiable form. These are scientific ideas. In the integral paradigm
appropriate religious ideas can be used as metaphysical value premises which
guide various aspects of scientific endeavors, or they can be used as concepts
which are incorporated in falsifiable propositions.
A social science paradigm derived from Sorokin's integralism entails a synthe-
sis of the existing systems of sensate and rational truth with ideas from the truth
of faith. Sensate truth is exemplified by positivism. Its basic assumption is that
social science is possible because sociocultural phenom ena have invarient prop-
erties which can be identified, objectively studied, and ultimately be explained
by general laws (Turner 1987). Integralism fully incorporates this assumption in
its research agenda. The positivism of integralism is based on the principles of
critical realism (Bell 1997:191-238; Musgrave 1995). Critical realism incorporates re-
cent valid criticisms of positivism, while advocating a theory of knowledge based on
a strong realist epistemology. Alexander (1990) has noted the importance of theoreti-
cal discourse in which the role of reason in conceptual and theoretical develop-
ment predominates. Integralism incorporates this emphasis through an agenda of
theoretical synthesis of religious ideas with existing theories. The truth of faith
consists of religious ideas which have import for understanding personality, soci-
ety, and culture. These ideas guide the content of theory and research.
Jeffries 41
Rule to research and theory in the social sciences by an extended analysis of both
the functions and dysfunctions of the norms of reciprocity and of beneficence.
An emphasis upon personal transformation is also uniform in the traditions of
the major world religions. Hick (1989:36-55) observes that there is a c o m m o n
focus upon the individual changing from preoccupation with self-concern to
centeredness upon God or a transcendental Reality. Despite differences, each
tradition recognizes human weakness, failure, and insecurity, proposes an alter-
native through involvement with a Supreme Being or transcendental Reality, and
teaches the way to realize this transformation (Hick 1989:56). Charitable works to
benefit those in need are one manifestation of this transformation (Hick 1989:304-
305). Individual transformation entails growth in "moral goodness," which can be
viewed as expressed in various facets of the Golden Rule.
The emphasis upon a movement toward greater perfection entailing the real-
ization of both positive and negative precepts of the Golden Rule further focuses
theory and research in the integral paradigm. In this perspective the goal of the
social sciences is to provide valid scientific knowledge of how to realize all facets
of the Golden Rule in its personal, social, and cultural manifestations. Acquiring
knowledge of how to achieve this tripartate increase in the altruism entailed in
religious ethical systems was considered essential by Sorokin (1941:317-318;
1948:154-158, 233-236; Johnston 1998).
T h e Virtues, Vices, a n d C o m m a n d m e n t s
If the Golden Rule is to serve as the primary focal point of theoretical and
research endeavors in integral social science, then this abstract and general prin-
ciple must be broken down into constituent parts. There is a fundamental distinc-
tion between the positive and negative precepts of "doing good" and "avoiding
evil," and their behavioral realization or violation. Three schemes of religious
ideas which appear to have a bearing on this distinction, and hence upon the
Golden Rule, are the concepts of virtue, of vice or sin, and the Ten Command-
ments. Each of these ideas can be considered as part of the truth of faith from a
religious perspective, or from a rational and empirical perspective as pertaining
to important and universal aspects of human behavior.
The virtues, vices and Ten Commandments can be viewed as systems of ethics
and morality. As such they provide a frame of reference for the scientific study of
morality, and their causes and effects can be studied within this context. An
emphasis on morality follows in the tradition of Durkheim (1953; 1961) and con-
temporary theorists such as Etzioni (1988), Kohlberg (1984), Wilson (1993), and
Wuthnow (1987). The importance of morality to society is also stressed in
communitarian thinking (Etzioni 1993).
The relevance of these ethical schemes to understanding the fundamental sub-
ject matter of the social sciences transcends the fact that there is always some
discrepancy between ethical systems and the behavior of their adherents (Sorokin
1957a:41d 715). This has certainly been true historically in the case of adherents
to various religions, who have often violated their own ethics in the name of
religion (Bell 1994). In integral social science this discrepancy is an important
topic of theory and research as part of the broader focus upon how these prin-
ciples can be most fully realized in personality, society, and culture.
Jeffries 43
scholars representing a wide range of disciplines, including anthropology (Montagu
1975:5-16, 150-174), psychology (Fromm 1956; Maslow 1968:41-43), psychiatry
(Peck 1978:81-182), and sociology ( G o u l d n e r 1973; Shibutani 1961:341-346;
Sorokin 1954a:3-79). A review of recent empirical studies of love shows that most
include some measure of this dimension of love (Jeffries 1993). Benevolent love is
also central to definitions of altruism in the interdisciplinary field of altruistic and
prosocial behavior (Jeffries 1998; Oliner and Oliner 1988:4-6; Rushton 1980:8).
The c o m m o n theme which emerges from these writings is that the essence of
the love of b e n e v o l e n c e is the attempt to benefit another person through caring
and giving. Each virtue makes a particular contribution to this general end. Tem-
perance limits behavior contradictory to love, and provides the discipline neces-
sary for giving to another in a consistent m a n n e r over time. Fortitude provides
the steadfastness which is often necessary in doing g o o d to others in the face of
hardship or danger. Justice provides for fulfilling basic responsibilities and obli-
gations which are c o m m o n l y entailed in relations with others. Charity goes be-
y o n d obligation to meeting needs, providing support, and in s o m e instances
correcting and forgiving. Prudence is the rational element which is necessary in
making the best decisions about h o w to love another most effectively. The full
and consistent expression of the love of b e n e v o l e n c e requires all of these virtues,
although their relevance varies according to circumstances (Jeffries 1987; 1998).
In its positive form of the virtues, the Golden Rule represents an emphasis
u p o n what is often currently called altruistic love. This topic was a major focus
for Sorokin in his later writings (1950a; 1954a) and in two edited symposiums
(1950b; 1954b), thus further laying the foundations for the d e v e l o p m e n t of inte-
gral sociology. The major work in this series, The Ways a n d P o w e r o f Love (Sorokin
1954a), can be considered as an exemplar of the integral paradigm, since it con-
tains a major effort at synthesizing the three systems of truth and their respective
contributions in relation to an understanding of the characteristics of love, its
sources, and its effects.
The Vices
Value premises are standards of desirability, or good. They are at the meta-
physical end of the scientific continuum. Myrdal (1958; 1962) has maintained
value premises are relevant to many aspects of the scientific process, such as
choosing problems to be investigated, formulating research designs, and evaluat-
ing results. As long as value premises are clearly identified as such, they n e e d not
interfere with the objective scientific analysis of a given research topic. The im-
portance of value premises and the possibility and procedures justifying t h e m on
empirical grounds has been further analyzed by Bell (1993).
The frame of reference of culture, society, and personality provides the broad
context within which value premises serve as organizing principles for the theo-
Jeffries 45
retical and research agenda of integralism. In a classic statement T h o m a s and
Znaniecki (1958:20) p o s e d the relation b e t w e e n science and values as follows:
Now there are two fundamental practical problems which have constituted the center of atten-
tion of reflective social practice in all times. These are (1) the problem of the dependence of
the individual upon social organization and culture, and (2) the problem of the dependence of
social organization and culture upon the individual. Practically, the first problem is expressed
in the question, how shall we produce with the help of the existing social organization and
culture the desirable mental and moral characteristics in the individuals constituting the social
group? And the second problem means in practice, how shall we produce, with the help of the
existing mental and moral characteristics of the members of the group, the desirable type of
social organization and culture? (Thomas and Znaniecki 1958:20)
Reform Orientation
This explicit focus of theory and research u p o n the G o l d e n Rule and other
widely recognized ethical traditions will provide a shared universe of ideas for a
potential discourse b e t w e e n social science and the general public. With this cen-
tral interest, integral social science can generate ideas and findings that relate
"history to biography" and "issues to troubles" in the m a n n e r envisioned b y C.
Wright Mills (1959:1-24). This is the role of theory and research in personal,
social, and cultural reform advocated b y Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swindler, and
Tipton (1985:297-307). In this role the social sciences and the humanities, includ-
ing religion and philosophy, provide a source of understanding and impetus for
public dialogue regarding major social issues. In a similar vein, Denzin (1992:166-
167) advocates social scientists being e n g a g e d intellectuals. In this role they w o u l d
have a clear sense of identity, take themselves and their discipline seriously, b e
Paradigms
Choices pertaining to tile Golden Rule are a fundamental focal point for the
integral synthesis of religious and philosophical ideas with paradigms and with
more specific theories. Personal transformation directed toward more complete
realization of the Golden Rule is a basic value premise derived from the truth of
faith. Sorokin believed that society and culture are ultimately created by the
aggregate effect of individual choices. In this context, choice of altruistic love is a
key determinant of both personal and social reconstruction (Sorokin 1954a:287-
355; 1948:243-244; Johnston 1996; 1998). In varying degrees of awareness and
magnitude, individuals are continually choosing virtue or vice, or conformity or
violation of the precepts of the Ten Commandments. These choices and their
causes and effects are a central focus of integralism which transcends the bound-
aries of particular theories.
Consistent choices that are contradictory to benevolent love as virtue can be
viewed as central to what Marx (1963) and Fromm (1963:1-83) viewed as alien-
ation, a condition in which false needs are habitually given preference over the
true needs of human nature. Denzin (1987:135-166) gives an example of such an
alienation in his analysis of the "divided self" of the alcoholic. Basic needs for
security, esteem, love, and self-actualization (Maslow 1954) are sacrificed for al-
cohol, which fosters fear, anger, self-hatred and other negative emotions. Integralism
raises the question of the role of the vices in alienation.
This concentration of integral social science on the effects of choice can be
manifested in theory and research in the context of the micro-macro continuum
and the problem of linkage (Alexander, Gieson, Munch and Smelser 1987; Ritzer
1992:397-456, 511-535). This emphasis upon a two-way interchange of influence
between individuals and the socio-cultural and the attempt to develop adequate
conceptualization of the linkage between levels of analysis is evident in such ap-
Jeffries 47
proaches as agency-structure analysis (Ritzer 1992:427-456), Berger and Luckmann's
(1967) analysis of externalization, objectification, and internalization, and Giddens's
(1979) strucmration theory. Ritzer (1992:511-535) advances a paradigm combining
two continuums, the objective-subjective and the micro-macro levels of analysis. An
adequate theory is regarded as one which can provide understanding at any point of
intersection between the two continuums. Subjective and objective aspects of
choices pertaining to the positive or negative precepts of the Golden Rule can be
studied within this context, and within different theoretical traditions.
Another area for synthesis of religious ideas with paradigms and more specific
theories is in the study of personality. The truth of faith entails the assumption
that the spiritual component of personality exists and that knowledge about it is
essential in any attempt to understand human behavior. Both Sorokin (1954a:83-
143; 1961:87-90; Johnston 1995:189-204, 1996) and Peck (1993) have stressed the
importance of considering this c o mp o n e nt of personality. Sorokin (1954a:83-
114) posits four levels of personality, each of which has particular forms of en-
ergy and activities: unconscious, bioconscious, socioconscious, and supraconscious.
The supraconscious is the highest level. It is the spiritual center of personality. It
is the source of creativity in many areas, particularly in the generation of high
levels of ego transcending altruistic love. Empirical evidence of its importance in
this kind and degree of love can be found in four areas: the testimony of eminent
altruists; the content of ethical systems of love; the nature of techniques for
realizing high levels of altruistic love; the lack of a clear relationship between the
unconscious and conscious intellects and either criminality or altruism (Sorokin
1954a:125-143). Peck (1993:232-255) argues that all human beings have a spiri-
tual life just as they have an unconscious. In his view, the traditional neglect of
spirituality by psychiatry has led to five broad areas of failure: misdiagnosis;
mistreatment; poor professional reputation; inadequate theory and research; and
limitations on psychospiritual development of psychiatrists.
Th c o t i e s
Special Fields
Jeffdes 49
ent groups ranging from family to economic to political groups, and within the
context of the unequal distribution of power and authority within various sys-
tems of stratification.
The integral synthesis of religious and philosophical concepts with theory and
empirical evidence in special fields of disciplines can be briefly illustrated by
papers in two fields: marriage and family; ahmism and prosocial behavior. In the
first paper, conflict in the marital relationship is analyzed, building on the com-
mon assumption of conflict theory that conflict is normal and pervasive (Jeffries
2000). Employing both a symbolic interactionist and exchange theoretical per-
spective, choice of virtue as manifested in interaction between spouses is viewed
as a major contributor to constructive conflict leading to effective conflict man-
agement. The particular effect of different virtues is considered. In the second
paper, virtue is synthesized with general theory in the interdisciplinary field of
altruism and prosocial behavior (Jeffries 1998). The paper first demonstrates that
there is considerable empirical evidence indicating that the virtues can reason-
ably be considered as the underlying motivation for altruistic behavior. Symbolic
interactionist theory, situational analysis, and Sorokin's dimensions of love
(1954a:15-35) are then used to examine how particular virtues are relevant moti-
vators of altruistic behavior according to the nature of specific situations.
Empirical Re~earch
In the development of integral social science, analytical concepts at appropri-
ate levels of analysis must be formulated for each relevant religious idea, such as
the virtues, vices, or Ten Commandments. Likewise, operational procedures ap-
propriate for different research techniques such as survey, experimental, and
historical, need to be conceived and validated. As this proceeds, propositions
with concepts derived from those sources can be developed and tested at differ-
ent levels of analysis within the basic frame of reference of culture, society, and
personality. The virtues, vices, or Commandments can serve as independent,
dependent, or intervening variables in the exploration of a wide variety of ques-
tions.
A series of four empirical studies of young adults' love for their parents and
their perceptions of their parents' love for them illustrates the research potential
of the integral approach. Based on religious and classical philosophical writings
and on recent empirical studies, love was conceptualized and operationalized as
two distinct but related dimensions: virtue and attraction. Among other findings,
survey data from these studies s h o we d the following: the higher the love of
either dimension, the higher the young adults' perceived quality of the parental
relationship; perception of perceived love of the parent is most important in
explaining variance in quality, but there is an independent effect of giving love;
attraction is most important in explaining quality, but virtue still has an indepen-
dent effect (Jeffries 1987; 1988; 1990). The research culminated in validation of a
measure of both self-reported giving of love and perception of receiving love
from the other. Factor analysis confirmed the five primary virtues as one dimen-
sion of love and five components of attraction as the other (Jeffries 1993).
In addition to new research, empirical findings can be assembled and orga-
nized from the analysis of previous studies which employed concepts compa-
Sociological Practice
The scientific and reform agendas of integralism extend to the more specific
level of sociological practice. This is expressed in a theoretical and research
program centered around the practical question of how love and morality can be
increased in personality, society, and culture. Sorokin (1954a:114-121, 287-455)
devoted considerable attention to this problem in his analysis of techniques of
altruistic transformation. In a practically oriented work, Oliner and Oliner (1995)
identify eight basic social processes which engender caring and propose various
strategies and conditions for their implementation.
Jeffties 51
cumulation and a core b o d y of k n o w l e d g e . Integralism reaffirms a realist episte-
mology, while at the same time providing the concentration of effort necessary
for it to p r o d u c e observable results. Finally, b y focusing on understanding love
and morality, integralism channels scientific e n d e a v o r into achieving a universal
e n d not linked to specific g r o u p interests and ideologies. This e n d is further
distanced from the conflictual and political arena by giving major attention to
individual choices toward or a w a y from love, and the personal, social, and cul-
tural causes and effects of such choices.
The potential contribution of integralism to sociology and the other social
sciences can be v i e w e d from another perspective. Turner and Turner (1990:179-
197) describe three ideal models of sociology, each of which have a long and
sometimes conflictual history in the discipline: general social science, practical
expertise, and reform discipline. Integralism entails a distinct project for each of
these traditions: a rigorous and inclusive program of theoretical d e v e l o p m e n t and
research on the causes and effects of love and morality; a parallel program focus-
ing on the practical ways in which love and morality can be increased; a program
of transmitting this k n o w l e d g e and understanding to the general public as a basis
for personal, social, and cultural reform. Integralism thus unites these models in
a c o m m o n scientific e n d e a v o r of the greatest importance 9 This singular focus will
consolidate the symbolic, organizational, and material resources of sociology and
the other social sciences. This united scientific e n d e a v o r should attract outside
resources once its promise b e c o m e s evident 9
Prospects for the d e v e l o p m e n t of an integral perspective can be placed in the
context of Sorokin's (1941) analysis of c o n t e m p o r a r y culture and historical trends.
These trends entail the increasing ineffectiveness and disintegration of the pre-
vailing sensate culture in all its compartments, including the system of truth and
k n o w l e d g e which underlies the social sciences. Major shifts in perspective in the
sciences usually occur in the context of significant global events (Alexander and
Colomy 1992). The decline of sensate culture and its system of truth and knowl-
edge forecast b y Sorokin is such an event.
The historian T o y n b e e (1947) maintains that societies effectively o v e r c o m e
challenges through the leadership of creative minorities. By acting u p o n Sorokin's
inspiration and developing an integral system of truth and k n o w l e d g e the social
sciences could provide an effective response to the challenge p o s e d b y the de-
cline of sensate culture and its conception of science. H o w such an a p p r o a c h can
best be developed, and h o w fruitful it will be, can only be determined b y the
dedicated efforts of many individuals over a long period of time.
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