IGCSE Biology Past Paper Project

IGCSE Biology past papers
Contents:
Definition list --------------------------------------------------Page 2-6

Past papers u sed:
Paper 4:
M/J 2016 (41/42/43)
O/N 2016 (41/42)
O/N 2014 (31/32/33)
M/J 2014 (31)
O/N 2007 (31/32/33)
M/J 2003 (31)
...and many more
Previous exams/tests from me and my brother
MCQ:
mixture of many different papers
Extra information
!!! I did not include labelling questions, so DONT forget to study them !!!
1
2
Definitions
1.1-Characteristics of living organisms

movement: the action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change in position or place
respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for metabolism
nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants need CO2, H2 0, light and ions;
animals need organic compounds and ions and usually need H2O
reproduction: the process that makes more of the same kind organism
growth: the permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number, cell size , or both
excretion: the removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (CO2), toxic materials (urea) and
substances in excess of requirements (water and ions)
sensitivity: the ability to sense or detect stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make appropriate
responses
1.2-Concept and use of a classification system

binomial system: an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism consists of the
genus and the species
species: a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
2.2-Levels of organization
tissue: a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function
organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions
organ system: a group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions
3.1-Diffusion
diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration (along their concentration gradient) as a result of their random movement
3.2-Osmosis
osmosis: the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a selectively permeable membrane
3.3-Active transport
active transport: the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
5-Enzymes
catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction (and
therefore can be reused)
enzyme: proteins that function as biological catalysts
6.1-Photosynthesis
photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates (glucose) from raw materials (CO2 and
water) using energy from light (and chlorophyll)
limiting factor: a factor present in the environment in such short supply, that it restricts life processes
7.1-Diet
balanced diet: a diet that contains all the essential nutrients in the correct amounts/proportions to maintain health
7.2-Alimentary canal
ingestion: the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
3
mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
chemical digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules
absorption: the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood
assimilation: the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used, becoming
part of the cells
egestion: the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the anus
OR
the removal of undigested food matter from the anus
diarrhoea: the loss of watery faeces
8.3-Transpiration
transpiration: the loss of water vapor from plant leaves by the evaporation of water at the surface of the
mesophyll cells followed by the diffusion of water vapor through the stomata
8.4-Translocation
translocation: the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem from regions of production (source) to
regions of storage OR to regions where they are used in respiration or growth (sink)
10-Diseases and immunity

pathogen: a disease-causing organism
transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another
active immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
passive immunity: short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual, e.g.
mother to infant
12.2-Aerobic respiration
aerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release
energy
12.3-Anaerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release energy
without using oxygen
13-Excretion in humans
deamination: the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
14.2-Sense organs
sense organs: groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, chemicals, touch and
temperature
14.3-Hormones in humans
hormones: a chemical substance, produced by a(n endocrine gland) and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs
14.4-Homeostasis
homeostasis: the ability to maintain a near constant internal environment
14.5-Tropic responses
gravitropism: a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity
phototropism: a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction from which light is
coming
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tropism: a growth response to a directional stimulus
15.1-Drugs
Drug: any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body
15.2-Medicinal drugs
Antibiotic: a highly potent synthetic chemical used to treat bacterial infections
16.1-Asexual reproduction
asexual reproduction: a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent
16.2-Sexual reproduction
sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and
the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
16.3-Sexual reproduction in plants

pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
self-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
different flower on the same plant
cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of on flower to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species
16.7-Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

sexually transmitted infection: an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact
17.1-Inheritance
inheritance: the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
17.2-Chromosomes, genes and proteins

chromosome: a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
allele: a version of a gene
haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes, e.g. in gametes
diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body cells
17.3-Mitosis
mitosis: the nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical (daughter) cells
17.4-Meiosis
Meiosis: a reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid resulting in
genetically different (daughter) cells
17.5-Monohybrid inheritance
genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present
phenotype: the observable features of an organism
homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene
heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene
dominant: an allele that expressed if it is present
recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
sex-linked characteristics: a characteristic in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome and that
this makes it more common in one sex than in the other
5
18.1-Variation
variation: observable differences between individuals of the same species
gene mutation: a (rare, spontaneous and random) change in the base sequence of DNA
18.2-Adaptive features
adaptive feature: the inherited functional feature of an organism that increases its fitness
fitness: the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found
18.3-Selection
process of adaptation: the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to
their environment over many generations
19.2-Food chains and food webs

food chain: showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a producer
trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, food web pyramid of biomass or pyramid of numbers
food web: a network of interconnected food chains
producer: an organism that makes its own organic nutrients (glucose), usually using energy from sunlight,
through photosynthesis
consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material
19.4-Population size
population: a group of organisms of one (the same) species, living in the same habitat, at the same time (capable
of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring)
community: all the populations of different species in an ecosystem
ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting together, e.g. a
decomposing log, or a lake
20.3-Genetic engineering
genetic engineering: changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or inserting individual
genes
21.4-Conservation
sustainable development: the development providing for needs of an increasing human population without
harming the environment
sustainable resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment so that it doesn't
run out
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1.1-Characteristics of living organisms
movement: the action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change in position or place
respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecule and release energy for metabolism
nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants need CO2, H2 0, light and ions;
animals need organic compounds and ions and usually need H2O
reproduction: the process that makes more of the same kind organism
growth (2): the permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number, cell size , or both
excretion (3): the removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (CO2), toxic materials (urea) and
substances in excess of requirements (water and ions)
sensitivity: the ability to sense or detect stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make appropriate
responses
What characteristic of living organisms is responsible for the production of oxygen in the leaf of a plant
exposed to sunlight?
nutrition
1.2-Concept and use of a classification system
binomial system: an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism consists of the
genus and the species
species: a group of species capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
Complete the sentences. (6)

Crustaceans all belong to the same group as insects, called arthropods. (1)
All crustaceans have at least five pairs of legs (1).
They also have a hard outer covering called an exoskeleton (1)
Seven individuals of one species were found in the same pool. These individuals make up a
population (1)
Seaweed makes its own food so it is a producer (1)
Suggest why most crustaceans are found under rocks or seaweed (2)
to avoid predators (1)
to find food (1)
keep moist (1)
avoid sun/keep cool temperature (1)
camouflage (1)
Describe the type of evidence that scientists used for classifying organisms before they were able to
sequence DNA (2)
study similarities and difference in the morphology/appearance/phenotype/features/
characteristics (1), e.g. presence of wings, etc. (1)
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study similarities and differences in anatomy/internal structures of organisms (1), e.g.
bones/organs/skeleton/teeth (1)
study similarities and differences in their biochemistry (1), e.g. amino acid sequences in
proteins (1)
study similarities and differences in their behaviour (1), e.g. courtship displays,
ecology-niches/habitat, geographical distribution (1)
Suggest how DNA barcoding might be useful in the conservation of animals, such as myriapods (2)
animals can be identified accurately (1)
is cheap/efficient (1)
useful if distinguishing characteristics/dichotomous keys are difficult (1)
identify previously unknown species (1)
helps identify threatened/endangered species (1)
1.3-Features of organisms
State two structural features of nematodes (2)

hydrostatic exoskeleton (1)
unsegmented body (1)
thread-like body/filamentous (1)
relatively large pharynx/sucking mouthparts (1)
body tapers/ is pointed, at both ends(1)
through gut/mouth and anus (1)
State two distinguishing features of all prokaryotes (2)

no (true) nucleus/no nuclear membrane (1)
loop of DNA strand (1) - Allow: naked DNA
smaller/70S ribosomes (1)
replicate/reproduce by binary fission (1)
peptidoglycan/murein cell wall (1)
no (membrane bound) organelles (1); e.g. no mitochondria/chloroplasts
unicellular/single-celled (1)
presence of plasmids (1)
List two distinguishing features of bacteria from other groups of organisms (2)
no (true) nucleus/no nuclear membrane/have a nucleoid (1)
loop of DNA (1)
smaller/70S ribosomes (1)
peptidoglycan/murein cell wall (1)
no (membrane bound) organelles; no mitochondria (1) and no chloroplasts (1)
have pili (1)
presence of plasmids (1)
have a capsule (1)
small (1-2m) (1)
State three ways in which the structure of bacteria differs from the structure of viruses (3)
cell wall (1)
cell membrane (1)
cytoplasm (1)
loop of DNA (1)
(slime) capsule (1)
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flagellum/flagella (1)
plasmids (1)
ribosomes (1)
AVP; e.g. pili (1)
Structure means that any comments to size, shape and complexity arent awarded points, as irrelevant!!!
State four features of a photosynthesizing plant cell that make it different to a bacterial cell (4)
chloroplasts (1)
cellulose cell wall (1)
(large/permanent) vacuole/tonoplast (1)
nucleus/nuclear membrane/nuclear envelope (1)
nucleolus (1)
mitochondria (1)
amyloplasts (1)
endoplasmic reticulum (1)
more than one chromosome/linear chromosome (1)
State two structural features that are common in both a bacterial cell and an animal cell, such as a liver
cell (2)
membrane (1)
cytoplasm (1)
ribosomes (1)
chromosomes (strands of DNA) (1)
glycogen granules (1)
oil droplets (1)
State one reason why yeast is classified as a fungus and not as a bacterium (1)
has a nucleus (1)
cell wall is made of chitin/different composition of cell wall (1)
can reproduce sexually (1)
reproduce asexually by budding, rather than by binary fission as in bacteria (1)
larger in size (1)
have mitochondria (1)
Bacteria have a flagellum. Suggest a function of the flagellum (1)

allows for movement/swimming (1)
State three features that all myriapods have (3)

antennae (1)
elongated bodies (1)
segmented bodies (1)
many legs (1)
(one or two) pairs of legs on each segment (1)
exoskeleton (1)
jointed legs (1)
Name one feature of dicotyledonous leaves that distinguish them from monocotyledonous leaves (1)
branched veins (1)
broad leaves (1)
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1.4-Dichotomous keys
2.1-Cell structure and organization
Describe the functions of the nucleus and the cell membrane (4)
nucleus (any two from):
controls (activities in) the cell (1)
Contains chromosomes/genes/alleles/genetic information/DNA (1)
controls how cells develop/divide/reproduce/grow (1)
cell membrane (2 from):

forms a barrier/separates the cell from its surroundings (1)
allows/controls the movement of substances in/out (1)
keeps contents of cell inside/keeps cytoplasm intact (1)
Complete the table below (5)
function structure
controls the movement of substances into and out of cell membrane (1)
the cell
exerts a pressure to help maintain the shape of the vacuole (1)

cell
produces sugars using light as a source of energy chloroplast (1)
withstands the internal pressure of the cell cell wall (1)
controls all activities of the cell nucleus (1)
State the function of mitochondria (1)

aerobic (1) respiration (1)
to release energy (1)
2.2-Levels of organization
tissue (1): a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function
organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions
organ system: a group of organs with related function, working together to perform body functions
Explain why the eye is described as an organ and not a tissue (2)
is made of many tissues (1)
working together to perform a function (1)
State why the palisade mesophyll is a tissue (1)

a group of similar cells (1) that work together to carry out a shared function (1)
2.3-Size of specimens
3.1-Diffusion
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diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration (along their concentration gradient) as a result of their random movement
State three factors that influence diffusion across a membrane (3)

surface area (1)
temperature (1)
concentration gradient (1)
type & size of molecule (1)
distance across the membrane (1)
pressure (1)
# of channels/protein pumps (1)
energy /# of mitochondria (1)
3.2-Osmosis
osmosis (3): the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a selectively permeable membrane
Two cells, a plant cell and an animal cell, are placed into distilled water. Explain what would happen to
each of the cells. (4)
water moves into the cells by osmosis... (1)
down the water potential gradient/from high water potential to low water p otential ...(1)
through a selectively permeable membrane. (1)
The vacuole of both cells swell/increase in volume/enlarge (1)
animal cell bursts (1)
plant cell becomes turgid (1)/ cell wall prevents bursting (1)
Water moves into the cell by osmosis. Explain how plants benefit from the build up of water in their
cells. (1)
provides support/turgor pressure (1)
Explain why Rhabdostyla needs to remove excess water (3)

water enters the cell by osmosis (1)
down the water potential gradient (1)
through a selectively permeable membrane (1)
to prevent bursting, H2Ois removed (1)
Explain why the rate of water excreted decreases when the concentration of the sea water increases (3)
as the concentration of seawater increases, removal of water decreases (1)
as when the concentration of seawater increases, the water potential gradient decreases (1)
so less water enters (1)
so less excess water (1)
so less need to excrete (1)
Explain/Suggest why single-celled organisms with cell walls dont have a contractile vacuole (3)
cell walls rigid/inelastic (1)
cells have high turgor pressure (1)
resists any increase in volume (1)
cells dont absorb excess water (1)
cells wont burst (1)
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3.3-Active transport
active transport: the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
Describe active transport (3)

against the concentration gradient/from low concentration to high concentration etc. (1)
(through) protein (molecules/gates/pumps etc) (1)
in the cell membrane (1)
using energy (in the form of ATP) from respiration (1)
Explain how root hair cells of pea plants absorb nitrate ions from soils with low nitrogen concentrations
(2)
by active transport (1)
using energy/ATP from respiration (1)
and protein channels/carriers located on the surface membrane (1)
4-Biological molecules
5-Enzymes
catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction (and
therefore can be reused)
enzyme: proteins that function as biological catalysts
Explain how enzymes catalyse chemical reactions (3)

lowers the activation energy (for chemical reactions) (1)
lock and key mechanism (1)
substrate fits into enzyme (1)
as the shape of the substrate is complementary (1) to the enzymes active site (1)
substrate breaks/products form/products leave enzyme (1)
enzyme free for next reaction/remains unchanged (1)
Enzymes, such as proteases, are important in digestion. Describe in detail how enzymes function, using
other digestive enzymes as examples (6)
enzymes are proteins (1), that are substrate specific (1), and increase the rate of reaction/act as
catalyst (1) by lowering the activation energy (1) and remaining unchanged/can be reused (1)
The substrate binds to the active site (1) of an enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex
(1), as the shape of the active site and the substrate are complementary (1)
optimum temperature (1) is required, as:

it allows for the maximum number of successful collisions (1),
too much heat cause enzymes to denature, (1)
and too little heat, causes less successful collisions/low rate of reaction (1)
optimum pH (1) is required, as:
12
(above and below the optimum pH,) the enzymes denature (1)
digestive enzymes perform chemical digestion/hydrolysis/catabolic reactions (1) to break

down large/insoluble, molecules into, small/soluble molecules (1)
amylase converts starch to maltose (1), which are converted to simple sugars/glucose by
maltase (1)
lipase converts lipids/fats, to fatty acids and glycerol (1)
Describe in detail how enzymes function, using pectinase as an example (6)

enzymes are proteins (1), that are substrate specific (1) and increase the rate of reaction (1)
by lowering the activation energy (1), remaining unchanged (1)


substrate = pectin
results in m
ore volume yield (1) and clearer juice (1)
Describe in detail how enzymes function to digest protein in the alimentary canal (6)
enzymes are proteins (1), that are substrate specific (1) and increase the rate of reaction (1)
by lowering the activation energy (1), remaining unchanged (1)


reference to the conditions in the alimentary canal:

low pH/pH of 1-3/HCl, in the stomach (1)
high pH/alkaline/pH 7-9, in the small intestine/duodenum/ileum (1)
ref. to enzymes denaturing (1) e.g. amylase denaturing in stomach, pepsin denaturing
in small intestine
37C (1) allowing for the maximum number of successful collisions (1)
6.1-Photosynthesis
13
photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates (glucose) from raw materials (CO2 and
water) using energy from light (and chlorophyll)
limiting factor: a factor present in the environment in such short supply, that it restricts life processes
State three uses of carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis (3)

cellulose (1)
starch/lipids (1)
nucleic acids including DNA (1)
sucrose (1)
amino acids (1)
storage (1)
fruits (1)
chlorophyll (1)
respiration/protein synthesis/growth/AVP (1)
Describe how CO2 from the atmosphere reaches the site of photosynthesis in a leaf (4)
By diffusion (1)
down the concentration gradient (1)
(from the air to the leaf (1)) through the stomata (1)
through intercellular space/between spongy mesophyll (1)
into palisade mesophyll (1)
diffuses through cell wall/cell membrane/cytoplasm (1)
into chloroplasts (1)
AVP
6.2-Leaf structure
Name the water-conducting tissue in trees (1)
xylem (1)
Describe how the structure of this water-conducting tissue is adapted for its function (2)
thick/lignified cell walls... (1)
for support (1);
lignin (1)
allows c ell walls to be waterproof/no water leaks out (1)
long/hollow/no cytoplasm/no organelles/no end walls (1)

water passes through easily/low resistance to flow (1)
pits (1)
allow for lateral movement (1)
AVP
Great explanation of the adaptations of xylem vessels on the last page.
Name the adaptation of the features of a plant leaf below (3)

palisade mesophyll: tightly packed/stacked upright =>contain many chloroplasts/chlorophyll
(1)
upper epidermis: transparent/thin => allows light to pass through (1)
spongy mesophyll: air spaces/loosely packed =>gas exchange/diffusion of gases (1)
14

6.3-Mineral requirements
Describe and explain the symptoms that plants with a long term magnesium deficiency would show (3)
Symptoms (maximum two marks):
-yellowing leaves/chlorosis/necrosis (1)
-stunted growth (1)
-more sugar in the leaves (1)
Explanation (max. two marks):
-plants with Mg deficiency make less/no chlorophyll) (1)
-therefore less photosynthesis (1)
-and less sugar (glucose) available to plant (due to reduced
photosynthesis and reduced sucrose transport) (1)
The roots of plants take up nitrates from the soil.

What are nitrates used to make
Proteins
Plants need nitrate ions for growth. Explain why (3)

nitrates are a usable source of nitrogen (1),
1) which are needed to make amino acids (1), which make up proteins (1)
2) to make DNA/RNA/nucleotides/bases (1)
protein and DNA needed for growth (1)
7.1-Diet
balanced diet: a diet that contains all the essential nutrients in the correct amounts/proportions to maintain health
Describe a cause of vitamin D deficiency in humans (1)

lack of sunlight/dry skin (1)
lack of fish (oils)/egg yolk/liver (1)
unbalanced diet (1)
kidney/liver/digestive, disease (1)
Describe the effects of vitamin D deficiency in humans (2)

reduced ability to absorb calcium (ions) (1)
muscle cramps (1)
soft/bent, bones/rickets (1)
stunted growth (1)
chronic fatigue (1)
prone to infections (1)
Explain why pregnant women require more iron and vitamin D in their diet. (2)
iron: - for red blood cells/haemoglobin/to transport oxygen/prevent anemia (1)
vitamin D: - absorption of calcium (1)
- growth/formation/strengthening of bones and teeth (1)
- preventing rickets (1)
15
nutrient role in the body
protein maximum 1
for growth/making new cells/repair/replacement of tissues
provides amino acids (for making protein)
lactose provides energy/glucose for respiration
calcium maximum 1
strengthening bones/teeths
needed for vitamin D to function
blood clotting
for muscle contraction
for nerve impulse conduction
What is the main cause of kwashiorkor?

insufficient protein
State two health possible health effects of obesity (2)

diabetes (1)
stroke (1)
heart attack (1)
high blood pressure (1)
blindness (1)
arthritis (1)
back problems (1)
loss of sex drive (1)
varicose veins/increased risk of atherosclerosis (1)
breathing problems (1)
7.2-Alimentary canal
ingestion: the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
chemical digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules
absorption: the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood
assimilation: the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used, becoming
part of the cells
egestion: the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the anus
OR
the removal of undigested food matter through the anus
diarrhoea: the loss of watery faeces
Describe the treatment for cholera (2)

antibiotics (1)
Oral rehydration therapy (1): - drinking a mixture of sugar and salt (1)
-ALLOW receiving intravenously(1)
-to replace the water and the ions lost (1)
-water must be uncontaminated/clean/boiled/sterilized
16
State which organ in the alimentary canal is affected by the cholera toxin (1)
(small) intestine (1)
One effect of cystic fibrosis is that the bile and pancreatic duct becomes blocked with mucus. Suggest
why a person whose bile and pancreatic duct may find it difficult to gain weight despite eating a
balanced diet (3)
reduction in enzymes/pancreatic juice entering the duodenum (1)
reduced bile action..., (1)
so less digestion/emulsification... (1)
especially of fats (1)
so less absorption (of fats) (1)
1) so less fat stored (1)
2) and assimilation to produce large molecules(1)
so less growth (1)
Suggest the dangers to health of severe diarrhoea if not treated for a long time (3)
dehydration (1)
loss of salts/ions/nutrients/vitamins (1)
decrease in blood volume and pressure (1)
increase in blood concentration/decrease in the water potential of the blood (1)
cells shrink/crenate (1) ALLOW loose water by osmosis
slower metabolism (1)
kidney failure (1)
coma (1)
death (1)
less efficient reactions (1)
Describe how food is moved along the small intestine (2)

peristalsis (1)
circular muscles contract (1) above the food to push it forward (1)
circular and longitudinal muscles work antagonistically (1)
7.3-Mechanical digestion
Explain the role of mechanical digestion (3)

mechanical digestion = the breakdown of food into smaller pieces... (1) (NEVER say
particles!!!)
without chemical change... (1)
by teeth/muscles (1)
1) - to increase the surface area(1)

-for enzyme action... (1)
-which leads to increased rate/faster chemical digestion (1);
2)-to mix (1)
3)-to make it easier to swallow (1)
State two ways of maintaining healthy teeth (2)

avoid eating sugary foods/eat less sugar (1)
do not eat between meals (1)
17
brush teeth regularly (1)
use dental floss/interdental brush (1)
use fluoridated water/toothpaste (1)
calcium rich diet (1)
visit dentist regularly (1)
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of adding fluoride to public water supplies (6)
For:
tooth decay in the local population of children decreases
there is no need to buy fluoridated toothpaste
Against:
a form of mass medication => no choice whether you want the treatment or not
fluoride can cause mottling of the teeth
fluoride is a benefit only to growing children => adults dont benefit
if proper care of teeth are taken, fluoridation is unnecessary
may have side effects, such as an increase in the risk of bone cancer
7.4-Chemical digestion
Name the chemical that speeds up digestion (1)

enzymes
Explain why large molecules must be broken down into small molecules in the digestive system (2)
small molecules are soluble (1), can be absorbed/can diffuse through the gut wall into the
bloodstream(1)
to provides simple units for the synthesis of molecules (1)
Outline the roles of bile (4)

emulsification (1)
causing an increased surface area of fat globules (1) so faster break down/digestion, of fats by
lipase (1) to fatty acids and glycerol (1)
neutralises stomach acid/chyme
providing an alkaline medium for pancreatic enzymes/lipases (1) and denaturing stomach
enzymes/pepsin (1)
AVP
Name the products formed from the digestion of proteins by proteases. (1)
amino acids (1)
State the organ in the alimentary canal where pepsin is secreted (1)
stomach (1)
Predict the optimum pH for trypsin (1)

8 (allow 7-9)
Enzymes, such as proteases, are important in digestion. Describe in detail how enzymes function, using
other digestive enzymes as examples (6)
enzymes are proteins (1), that are substrate specific (1), and increase the rate of reaction/act as
catalyst (1) by lowering the activation energy (1) and remaining unchanged/can be reused (1)
18


digestive enzymes perform chemical digestion/hydrolysis/catabolic reactions (1) to break

down large/insoluble, molecules into, small/soluble molecules (1)
amylase converts starch to maltose (1), which are converted to simple sugars/glucose by
maltase (1)
lipase converts lipids/fats, to fatty acids and glycerol (1)
Describe the role of the salivary glands in the digestion of food in the mouth (2)
produce/secrete saliva (1), that contain amylase/ptyalin (1), which break down starch to
maltose (1)
provides water for enzyme action/hydrolysis (1)
lubricates/softens food (making it easier to chew) (1)
provides optimum pH
7.5-Absorption
Describe how a molecule of glucose passes from the lumen of the small intestine into the blood (3)
glucose moves through epithelial cells(1)
into capillaries...(1)
across cell membranes by active transport...(1)
through protein carriers...(1)
against a concentration gradient...(1)
using energy (1)
Explain why lactose is not absorbed by the small intestine (2)

no enzyme/lactase present (1) to break down lactose (into smaller molecules/glucose and
galactose) (1), so is too large (1) to pass through the cell membrane (1)
no carrier proteins for lactose present (1)
Some cells on the surface of the villi secrete mucus for protection. Suggest what the villi need to be
protected against. (2)
enzymes/lipases/proteases (1)
HCl (1)
physical damage (1)
parasites/toxins (1)
Explain why there are many microvilli on the epithelial cells of the villi (2)
to increase the surface area (1) for absorption (1) by diffusion/active transport (1)
19
8.1-Transport in plants
8.2-Water uptake
Describe and explain how root hair cells are adapted to their function (4)
long and thin (1)
thin cell wall (1)
many mitochondria (1)
provides a large surface area (1)...

for absorption (1)...
of water by osmosis (1)...
and of ions/nutrients by active transport (1)...
against the concentration gradient (1)...
through protein pumps in the cell membrane (1)
using energy/ATP (1)
Explain how water enters the roots from the soil (3)
by osmosis (1) down the water potential gradient (1) into the root hair cells (1) across a
partially permeable membrane (1)
8.3-Transpiration
transpiration: the loss of water vapor from plant leaves by the evaporation of water at the surface of the
mesophyll cells followed by the diffusion of water vapor through the stomata
See last page for a more detailed explanation on the mechanism of water ascent in the xylem if you are unsure
about something...
Explain the mechanism of water movement from roots up the trees to the leaves (4)
1) transpiration pull (1)
2) creates tension/negative pressure (1)
3) water potential gradient (1)
4) osmosis into leaf cells (1)
5) continuous column of water (1)
6) cohesion of water molecules (1)
7) adhesion of water to cell wall/xylem (1)
8) water evaporates into air spaces (in mesophyll)/water evaporates at the surface of the
mesophyll cells (1)
9) water vapor diffuses out through the stomata (1)
10) root pressure (1)
formulation attempt 1:
water moves by osmosis into leaf cells (1)
water evaporates at the surface of the mesophyll cells (1)
and (water vapor) diffuses out through the stomata (1)
creates negative pressure/tension (1) which is known as transpiration pull (1) and a
water potential gradient (1) between the roots to the leaf
Together with the root pressure (1), (caused by the root having a lower water potential
than the soil, usually due to high solute concentration, causing a positive pressure that
forces water up the xylem, as water enters the root cells), cohesion between water
20
molecules (1) and adhesion between the water molecules and the walls of the xylem
(1), water moves through the xylem in a continuous column of water (1)
Explain how the loss of water from the leaves helps to move water from the roots to the leaves (4)
(loss of water =>) water column under tension/exerts negative pressure/less pressure in the
leaves (1)
this force is called transpiration pull (1)
water potential gradient from roots to leaves (1)
by cohesive forces between molecules (1) and by adhesive forces between water molecules
and xylem wall (1) water moves through the xylem (1) in a continuous column of water (1)
Explain how water passes from the leaf to the atmosphere (4)
water moves through cell wall/cell membrane (1) by osmosis, into the air spaces (1)
evaporation occurs in the air spaces (1)
water vapour diffuses (1) out through the stomata (1)
in a process called transpiration (1)
Suggest reasons why trees in a forest may have different rates of water conduction (3)
different rates of transpiration (1)
different number of leaves/different surface areas (1)
different rates of evaporation (1)
factors affecting transpiration: - sunlight/shade (1)
- temperature/heat (1)
- humidity (1)
- wind speed (1)
different species of trees: - different diameters of xylem (1)
- different root lengths (1)
- different ages (1)
- different thickness of cuticle/stomatal density/hairs (1)
-AVP
8.4-Translocation
translocation: the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem from regions of production (source) to
regions of storage OR to regions where they are used in respiration or growth (sink)
9.1-Transport in animals
9.2-Heart
Describe one lifestyle improvement people can make to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease (1)
diet low in saturated fats (1)
exercise (1)
quit smoking (1)
reduce stress (1)
Describe what is meant by the term double circulation: (1)

blood passes the heart twice in a complete circuit (1)
made of two loops (the systemic and pulmonary circulation) (1)
Describe the advantages of double circulation (1)

allows for higher blood pressure and flow rate (1)
allows for higher metabolic rate (1)
21
prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (1)
allows for d ifferent blood pressures in each loop (1)
Describe the functions of each of the following parts of the heart: (9)
right atrium; (any three of these)
receives deoxygenated (1) blood from vena cava (1)
acts as reservoir (1)
has a thin muscle wall (1) which contracts/reference to atrial systole, to move blood
to right ventricle (1)
right ventricle; (any three of these)

receives blood from right atrium (1)
reference to builds up blood pressure (1)
has a thick / thicker muscle wall (1) which contracts / reference to ventricular systole
to move blood to lungs (1) via the pulmonary artery (1)
tricuspid valve. (any three of these)

reference to position (1)
prevents backflow of blood / maintains blood flow in one direction (1)
closes during ventricular systole / when pressure starts to build in the right ventricle
(1) so blood can only leave via pulmonary artery (1)
Outline the likely causes of a heart attack and suggest what preventive measures can be taken to
maintain a healthy heart. (6)
fat / cholesterol builds up on coronary artery (1)
atherosclerosis / atheroma (1)
reference to high saturated or animal fat diet / reduce saturated or animal fat (1)
reference to too much cholesterol / reduce cholesterol content of diet (1)
high salt diet / reduce salt content of diet (1)
stress / stress management (1)
high blood pressure (1)
smoking / stop smoking (1)
lack of exercise / take regular exercise (1)
obesity / take control of diet to reduce obesity (1)
HEART RATE AND EXERCISE
An athlete takes part in a race.

Describe and explain what happens to her breathing rate as a result of the race.[5]
breathing rate increases (1)
to increase amount of oxygen / to replace used oxygen (1)
needed for aerobic respiration (1)
reference to muscles (1)
repaying oxygen debt (1)
removal of lactic acid (1)
remove / exhale more carbon dioxide (1)
control of breathing rate by brain (1)
22
The level of adrenaline increases at the start of the race. Describe the effect of this increased
level of adrenaline in the athlete's body. (4)
increased heart rate / pulse rate (1)
to move blood faster (1)
so more oxygen / glucose goes to muscles (1)
non-essential processes slow down (1)
increased air flow into lungs / breathing rate (1)
so aerobic respiration increases (1)
stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose (1)
increases mental awareness (1)
Explain the increase in pulse rate shortly after the start of a race (4)
Adrenaline (released by adrenal glands) stimulates increased heart/pulse rate (1)
activity: - increased muscle contraction (1)
- increased demand for energy (1)
- increased rate of respiration (1)
1) increased demand for O2 and glucose (1)

=> makes more O2 and glucose available for the muscles (1)
2) increased CO2 => decreased pH detected by chemoreceptors (in the linings of the blood
vessels) which send impulses to the (respiratory centre in the medulla of) the brain (1)
=> brain stimulates heart to beat faster (1)
=> increased pulse allows for more CO2 to be removed by the lungs (1)
AVP:-vasodilation in muscles (1) etc.
When a person stops running, his breathing and heart rate remains high. Explain why (3)
takes time for (1)
O2 debt (to be repaid) (1)
more O2 needed (1)
to break down the lactic acid (1)
which builds up in the muscle (1) and in the liver (1)
9.3-Blood and lymphatic vessels
Explain how capillaries are adapted for their function (3)

MUST link function to adaptation to gain full marks!!!!
thin wall/epithelium (1): -more efficient diffusion/gas exchange (1)
small lumen (1): -many capillaries can fit into tissue/proximal to every cell throughout the
body (1)
extensive network (1): -increased surface area for diffusion (1)
porous (1): -allows substances to pass in and out of the body easily (1)
Explain how the structure of an artery is related to its function (4)

MUST link function to adaptation to gain full marks!!!
thick wall (1)
to withstand the high pressure (1)
muscular tissue (1) ALLOW tunica media and tunica externa for wall (1)
for vasodilation and/or vasoconstriction (1)
23
elastic (tissue) (1)
recoils t o maintain (blood) pressure/smoothes out blood flow (1)
small lumen (1)

maintains (blood) pressure (1)
fibrous tissue (1)

maintains shape/prevents bursting (1)
What is the correct function of the lymphatic system?

Protects the body from infection
9.4-Blood
Describe how substances move from the blood in the capillaries to the tissue fluid (3)
oxygen diffuses from the blood to the tissue fluid... (1)
across the wall/membrane of the capillary... (1)
down a concentration gradient/from high to low concentration. (1)
water and solutes (such as hormones, glucose, and amino acids are) filtered (1) and forced out
by pressure (1)
Describe the pathway of CO2 when produced in the muscle cells and transported by the blood (6)
from muscle cell: - produced in mitochondria (1)
- diffuses (1)
-into the cytoplasm (1)
-through the membrane (into tissue fluid) (1)
-through capillary wall (1)
from blood: -in the pulmonary artery (1)

-travels to the lungs (1)
-into the alveoli (1)
-exhaled/excreted/breathed out (1)
Describe how blood is transported from the vena cava to the lungs (3)
(blood) enters the right atrium (1)
right atrium contracts (1)
to right ventricles, through the tricuspid valve (1)
right ventricle contracts (1)
to pulmonary artery, through pulmonary semilunar valve (1)
Describe the effect of strenuous physical activity on the pH of the blood (3)
pH decreases (1)
1) due to the increased aerobic respiration (1)
which causes an increased carbon dioxide ((concentration) in the blood plasma) (1)
which form carbonic acid (in the presence of water) (1)
2) anaerobic respiration (occurring during strenuous exercise) (1)
which produces lactic acid (1)
State the role of platelets in the blood and describe the process they are involved in (4)
24
involved in blood clotting; (1)
causes the c onversion of the soluble fibrinogen (1) to the insoluble fibrin (1)
the fibrin forms a mesh/net (1), which traps blood cells (1) and prevents further blood loss (1)
and entry of pathogens (1)
AVP
10-Diseases and immunity
pathogen: a disease-causing organism

transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another
active immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
passive immunity: short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual, e.g.
mother to infant
State two ways a pathogen can be transmitted (2)

contaminated food/water (1)
contaminated surfaces (1)
direct contact/through blood/through body fluids (1)
from animals (1)
through the air (1)
Defence Example
mechanical barrier skin/hair in the nose (1)
chemical barrier mucus/stomach or hydrochloric acid/gastric juices (1)
Blood cells can also defend the body against pathogens. Outline how they do this. (3)
white blood cells (1)
phagocytosis (1)
producing antibodies (1)
State one way in which modern medicine can help the body defend itself against pathogens (1)
vaccination/antibiotics/antifungals/antivirals/antitoxins/antiseptics etc (1)
Name the cells that produce antibodies (1)

lymphocytes/white blood cells/leukocytes (1)
Describe the function of antibodies (4)

stop pathogens spreading (in the body) (1)
stop pathogen entering body cells (1)
stop pathogen reproducing/dividing/increasing in number (1)
cause pathogen to clump/agglutinate (1) and become immobilized (1) -> making it easier for
phagocytes to ingest them (1)
might kill the pathogen (1)
neutralize toxins/make toxins harmless (1)
Explain why it is important for newborn babies to have antibodies (3)

provides (passive) immunity (1)
25
Protects against infection/illness/disease/pathogens..(1)
that the mother had/has produced antibodies for; (1)
necessary, as the immune system of babies not yet developed (1)
allow any function of antibodies:
stop pathogens spreading (in the body) (1)
stop pathogen entering body cells (1)
stop pathogen reproducing/dividing/increasing in number (1)
cause pathogen to clump/agglutinate (1) and become immobilized (1) ->
making it easier for phagocytes to ingest them (1)
might kill the pathogen (1)
neutralize toxins/make toxins harmless (1)
Describe the role of phagocytes in defence against disease (3)

is a nonspecific immune response (1)
engulf/ingest, bacteria/pathogens (1) into the vacuole (1)
ALLOW: by phagocytosis
use enzymes (1) to digest pathogens (1)
identify antigen for lymphocytes (1)
Describe the roles of white blood cells in tissue rejection (3)

() recognises that the tissue is foreign (1) by its antigen (1)
lymphocytes release antibodies (1)
phagocytes cause destruction (1)
Vaccination
Explain how vaccination can control the spread of diseases. (4)

harmless/attenuated/dead/(toxoid of) pathogen (1) injected (1)
pathogen has a specific/unique antigen (1)
lymphocytes make antibodies (1)
memory cells produced (1); causing/allowing for long-term immunity (1)
This is called active immunity (1)
and allows for a rapid immune response if re-exposed to the same pathogen. (1)
can cause herd immunity (1)
HIV/AIDS
Describe three ways in which HIV is transmitted from infected to uninfected people (3)
from mother to fetus across the placenta (1)
from mother to baby at birth(1)
in breast milk (1);
unprotected/unsafe sex (1)
sharing needles/syringes (1)
in blood products/blood transfusions/transplants/blood to blood contact (1)
AVP
Describe the effects of HIV on the immune system (3)

weakens the immune system (1)
lymphocytes are damaged/destroyed/killed/not functional (1)
so T-lymphocytes stop making antibodies (1)
any two roles of antibodies which cant happen very well:
26
antibodies stop pathogens spreading (in the body)
antibodies cause pathogen to clump/agglutinate (1)
antibodies kill bacteria (1)
antibodies make it easier for phagocytes to ingest them (1)
antibodies neutralize toxins/make toxins harmless (1)
phagocytes ingest pathogens (1)
lymphocytes kill infected cells (1)
11-Gas exchange in humans
Describe the role of mucus and cilia in the trachea (3)

1) mucus traps particles; e.g. dust/bacteria/spores/virus (1)
2) and protects (the tracheal) lining (1)
3) Cilia beat/create wave motion (1)
4) to moves mucus/fluid away (from the lungs) (1)
5) reduces the risk of/stops pathogens entering the lungs (1)
Describe the function of cartilage in the gas exchange system (2)

keeps the airways/trachea/bronchi open(1)
allowing for free flow of air into the lungs (1)
allows flexibility/can breathe out even when bent/swallowing/AVP (1)
prevents airways from collapsing, etc. (AVP) (1)
State what happens to the following structure during breathing in (3)

diaphragm: contracts and flattens (1)
rib cage: rises/moves upwards/outwards (1)
external intercostal muscles: contract (1)
Describe how the increase in breathing rate during physical activity is coordinated (3)
increased CO2 means decreased pH (1)
decreased pH detected by receptors (chemoreceptors) (1)
which send impulses to the (respiratory centre in the medulla of the) brain (1)
The brain responds by sending impulses to the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm (1)
via the motor neurone (1)
causing the effectors/diaphragm/intercostal muscles to contract more frequently (1)
This is an example of negative feedback/homeostasis (1)
and is a reflex/occurs automatically/involuntarily (1)
Interesting information with regards to this topic:

www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2000-11/974235896.Me.r.html
Explain why the oxygen consumption of an athlete didnt return to the resting value immediately after
exercise (4)
oxygen debt (is created)... (1)
due to oxygen not being supplied fast enough (by the lungs/heart) (1)
to the muscles, (1)
resulting in anaerobic conditions... (1)
and therefore producing lactic acid... (1)
which builds up in the muscle/isnt carried away fast enough. (1)
Extra oxygen is required (after exercise) (1)
so that the lactic acid can be oxidised/respired/broken down (1)
27
Explain why there is a steep increase in the oxygen consumption of an athlete at the start of exercise (4)
increased muscle contraction (1)
causing an increased demand for energy/ATP.. (1)
and therefore an increased rate of respiration. (1)
increased rate/depth of breathing (1)
to allow for aerobic respiration(1)
State two effects tar has on the body (1)

causes lung cancer (1)
causes bronchitis (1)
stains teeth and fingers (1)
stops cilia from working (1)
increased mucus production (1)
reduces gaseous exchanges/coats the alveoli/narrows the lumen of the airways (1)
Explain why cigarette smoke can reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the lungs (2)
red blood cell/erythrocytes, carry/transport, O2 (1)
carbon monoxide permanently (1) bonds with the hemoglobin (1) and prevents the O2 from
binding to it (1)
12.1-Respiration
12.2-Aerobic respiration
aerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release
energy
12.3-Anaerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release energy
without using oxygen
13-Excretion in humans
deamination: the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
Explain the role of the kidney in excretion (4)

filters/cleans blood (1)
(by ultrafiltration), which occurs in the glomerulus (1), and selective reabsorption of
substances, (such as glucose, some salts and most of the water) (1)
removes/excretes:
nitrogenous wastes (such as urea) (1)
excess salts/minerals/ions (1)
hormones (1)
excess water (1)
Explain how ammonia is produced during the decomposition of compost containing crop residues and
animal manure (2)
(hydrolysis of) urea from animal waste; (1)
Decomposers break down proteins to amino acids (1)
28
which are then converted to form ammonia (1)
by deamination (1)
Not required, but hydrolysis of urea:
(carbamic acid-unstable)
Which substances are filtered out of the blood in the glomerulus?

glucose, salts, water, urea
Describe the process of filtration in the kidney (3)

occurs due to the blood pressure (1) which gets created by the heart (1), which causes small
molecules to be forced out of the blood (1) of the capillaries (1)
molecules which are filtered out include - maximum 2 marks:
glucose (1)
amino acids (1)
urea (1)
water (1)
salts/ions/minerals (1)
uric acid (1)
ammonia (1)
any named hormone (1)
Name the process resulting in the reabsorption of: (2)

glucose: - active transport (1) OR selective reabsorption (1)
water: - osmosis (1)
14.1-Nervous control
Define the term involuntary action (2)

automatic/no thought required/not a conscious action (1)
(high centres of the) brain not involved (1)
stimulus always leads to same response (1)
Define the term reflex action (3)

automatic response (1) to a stimulus (1)
one from:
reference to very fast (1)
reference to innate / not learned (1)
State 2 ways in which voluntary actions differ from involuntary actions (2)
slower (1)
(high centres of the) brain involved (1)
response not always the same to the stimulus (1)
29
not automatic (1)
can b e learnt (1)
Describe the transmission across a synapse (3)

impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters (into the synaptic cleft/gap) (1)
diffuses across the gap/cleft (1)
binds to receptors (1)
which allows for the passage of the impulse (1)
DONT spend your time learning the details of NA2+ and CA2+, will only irritate the examiner.
Spend this time learning more important stuff !!!
Describe two stimuli that can be detected by sensory neurones in the finger (2)
temperature (1)
pressure (1)
pain/sharpness (1)
texture/touch (1)
14.2-Sense organs
sense organs: groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, chemicals, touch and
temperature
State what happens to rays of light as they enter the cornea and the lens (1)
they refract (1)
Describe the pupil reflex and explain its advantages (5)

light shines on (or alternative wording) retina (1), which generates an electrical impulse (or
alternative wording) (1) that is passed to brain via sensory neurones (1)
(the brain sends impulses) to the iris (1) via the motor neurone and the circular muscles (1)
contract (1) to make pupils smaller (1)
This protects the rods and cones / retina, from damage (1)
reflex i s very fast / does not require thought / does not require decision (1)
reject references to ciliary muscles
Describe the role of rod cells (2)

detect light (1)
detect/sensitive to low light intensities (1)
pass impulse through sensory neurone/optic nerve (1)
AVP; for black and white vision (1)
Distinguish between rods and cones in terms of function and distribution (4)
rods cones
cannot detect color (1) detect color (1)
1 type (1) 3 types/detect red, green and blue (1)
30
low acuity (1) high acuity (1)
distributed all over the retina (except in the blind cones concentrated in the fovea (1)
spot) (1)
sensitive to dim light/low light intensities (1) only stimulated by bright light/high light intensities
(1)
Suggest how damage to three named parts of the eye could result in impaired vision or blindness (3)
rods / cones / retina / damaged by bright light so not receptive (1)
lens cloudy or damaged so light cannot pass through (1)
cornea cloudy or damaged so light cannot pass through (1)
eyeball deformed / retina detached so cannot focus (1)
optic nerve damaged so no impulses transmitted (1)
14.3-Hormones in humans
hormones: a chemical substance, produced by a(n endocrine gland) and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs (3)
State one difference between the hormone system and the nervous system (1)
nervous system is faster (1)
hormone responses are long-lasting (1)
Name the gland that secretes testosterone (1)

testes (1)
State why testosterone can improve sporting performance (1)

is an anabolic steroid (1)
promotes protein synthesis (1)
increases muscle mass/strength/power (1)
improved recovery of muscle damage/promotes protein synthesis (1)
decreased recovery time (1)
increased bone density/mass (1)
increased competitive drive/aggression (1)
Describe the role of progesterone in the menstrual cycle (1)

inhibits FSH and LH (release) (1)
maintains the endometrium/endometrial/uterine lining (1)
Synthetic progesterone is found in oral contraceptives. Name one other hormone found in oral
contraceptives (1)
(o)estrogen (1)
Describe two ways in which adrenalin affects the body (2)

dilation of pupils (1)
increased conversion/hydrolysis of glycogen into glucose in the liver and muscles (1)
which causes increased blood glucose levels (1)
increased rate of breathing (1) and heart rate (1)
31
heightened sensitivity (1)
Name the organ that produces insulin, and state two functions of the hormone in the body (3)
organ: pancreas/islets of Langerhans (1)
function: - glucose to glycogen...(1)
-which is stored in the liver and muscles (1)
-enhanced glucose uptake by cells/increased cell permeability (1)
-to maintain a constant blood composition/concentration/reduction of blood
glucose (1)
14.4-Homeostasis
homeostasis: the ability to maintain a near constant internal environment
BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION
State one reason why the concentration of glucose in the blood increases (1)
eating a meal high in sugar or carbohydrate (1)
dehydration (1)
secretion/effect of adrenaline (1)
secretion/effect of glucagon (1)
State one reason why the concentration of glucose in the blood decreases (1)
starvation/fasting (1)
physical activity (1)
used in respiration (1)
secretion/effect of insulin
Name two places where glycogen is stored (2)

liver (1)
muscle (1)
kidney (1)
testes (1)
Name the organ that produces insulin, and state two functions of the hormone in the body (3)
organ: pancreas/islets of Langerhans (1)
function: - glucose to glycogen...(1)
-which is stored in the liver and muscles (1)
-enhanced glucose uptake by cells/increased cell permeability (1)
-to maintain a constant blood composition/concentration/reduction of blood
glucose (1)
Explain how an increase in glucose concentration is controlled by the body (3)

the pancreas/islets of Langerhans, detect an increase in glucose concentration (1)
respond by secreting/producing insulin (1)
which gets transported in the blood plasma.(1)
This causes the liver (and) muscle cells to convert glucose to glycogen (1)
using enzymes (1)
This is an example of a negative feedback mechanism/homeostasis (1)
32
DIABETES
Suggest which organ in the body is attacked by the immune system to cause Type 1 diabetes (1)
pancreas
Describe the symptoms and treatment of type 1 diabetes. (5)

Symptoms: -(chronic) fatigue (1)
-increased thirst (polydipsia) (1)
-increased urination (polyuria)/glucose in urine/ketosis/fruity breath/flushed
face (1)
-weight loss/nausea/vomiting/abdominal pain/undiminished hunger (1)
-blurred vision/glaucoma
-behavioral changes/confusion/fainting/coma(tose)/dizzy/rapid or deep
breathing (1)
-slow (wound) healing/more prone to infection/poor circulation (1)
-hyperglycemia/high blood glucose levels (1)
Treatment: -insulin (1)

-injected (or using an insulin pump) (1)
-regular blood glucose tests (1)
-regular meals/controlled diet (1)
-AVP: -exercise/restrict carbohydrate intake (1)
For symptoms, almost everything is OK, so just take the simplest ones
TEMPERATURE
Describe and explain what happens to the blood vessels and sweat glands during a run (5)
as body temperature increases (1)
(the brain sends impulses to the) walls of the arterioles, causing them to relax (1)
this is known as vasodilation (1)
This causes increased blood flow to the skin capillaries (carrying heat) (1)
causing heat loss (1)
by radiation; (1)
Increased blood flow to sweat glands (1)
causes increased production of sweat (1)
therefore increased evaporation (of the H2O in the sweat) causing heat loss (1)
At the end of a race the athlete's body temperature has increased. Outline the body processes which
cause her temperature to return to normal after the race. (6)
increase in sweat production (1) and increased secretion of sweat from sweat glands (1) onto
skin (1)
the water in the sweat evaporates (1) removing heat from skin surface / reference to cooling
effect (1)
arterioles dilate/muscles in the arterioles relax (1) ref to vasodilation (1), which causes more
blood flow (1) near the skin (1). As the blood carries heat (1) more heat is lost from skin (1)
panting causes heat loss from lungs (1)
33
hairs lowered to allow more heat loss (1)
Explain the role of the arterioles in the skin when a person is very cold (3)
muscles in the arterioles contract (1)
arterioles constrict/vasoconstriction occurs (1)
less blood flows to the skin capillaries (1)
decrease in loss of heat (from the blood) by radiation/conduction (1)
AVP e.g. blood flows through shunt vessels (1)
14.5-Tropic responses
gravitropism: a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity
phototropism: a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction from which light is
coming
tropism: a growth response to a directional stimulus
GRAVITROPISM
Roots grow downwards into the soil.

Name this response seen in the roots (1)
positive gravitropism/geotropism (1)
Name the hormone that controls gravitropism (1)

auxin
There are situations, either in wild plants or in laboratory experiments, where roots do not grow
downwards.
Suggest and explain one reason (2)
in space (1) because of no gravity (1)
in a clinostat (1) because gravity is constantly changing (1)
when removing the root tip (1) because of auxin source being removed (1)
lateral roots (1) searching for water/nutrients (hey are hydrotropic) (1)
light source below plant/root (1) causing the roots to move away from the light (negatively
phototropic) (1)
anaerobic mud/mangrove swamps/pneumatophores (1) as they need oxygen for respiration (1)
roots attaching plant to solid objects for support e.g. walls or host plants (1) as roots are unable
to grow through (takes line of least resistance (1)
epiphytes/parasitic plants (1), grow towards nutrients/AW (1)
Explain the advantages of positive and negative gravitropism (2)

positive:-better anchorage (1)
-advantage in terms of water & mineral ion absorption (1)
negative:-shoot grows towards where light should be

-therefore more light energy absorbed (1) (causing ed photosynthesis ed glucose)
-which causes increased growth (1);
-flowers more likely to attract insects/pollinators (1)
-and more likely to disperse seeds (1);
-decreased competition AVP (1)
Describe how plants control gravitropism in shoots (4)
34
auxins produced at shoot tip/apex (1)
and diffuse down the shoot (1)
statoliths detect gravity (1) NOT required!!!
auxins collect at the lower side of the stem/shoot (1)
causing increased absorption of water by osmosis (@ the lower side) (1)
This causes increased turgor pressure (stretching of the cell walls) (1)
which results in greater cell elongation at the bottom/lower side (1)
PHOTOTROPISM
Explain how auxins control the growth in unidirectional light (4)

phototropins detect the unidirectional light (1) NOT required!!!
auxins produced at the apex/tip (1)
diffuse down the stem (1)
collect at (/move laterally to) the dark/shaded side of the shoot (1)
greater cell elongation @ the darker side of the shoot (1)
(due to increased absorption of water (by osmosis) (1); causing increased turgor pressure (1);
and therefore increased pressure on adjacent cells (1)) NOT required!!!
causing the shoot to move towards the light (1)
Explain the advantages of positive phototropism (2)

leaves get more light (1)
more light energy absorbed/trapped (1)
more photosynthesis (1)
more glucose (1)
15.1-Drugs
Drug: any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body
15.2-Medicinal drugs
Antibiotic: a highly potent synthetic chemical used to treat bacterial infections
Explain why antibiotics, such as penicillin, affect bacteria but not viruses (2)
Viruses have no metabolism (no ribosomes) (1)
Viruses are no target for antibiotics (1)
Antibiotics denature enzymes ( - viruses dont have enzymes) (1)
Antibiotics stop cell wall growth (1) - viruses don't have any cell wall (1)
Explain why doctors give antibiotics to people who are ill (2)
antibiotics kill/destroy pathogens (1) which can cause disease (1)
prevent growth/reproduction of bacteria/fungi/pathogen (1)
AVP - destroy cell wall (1)
- disrupt protein synthesis (1) - inhibit growth
- inhibit metabolism (1)
Explain why it is important to complete the treatment with antibiotics. (3)
35
all pathogens need to be destroyed (1)...
as a ny remaining pathogens will reproduce/multiply (1)...
causing the disease/disease to continue (1).
may develop antibiotic resistance (1)..

causing the antibiotic to no longer be effective (1)...
so new antibiotics have to be developed (1)
Outline how an antibiotic resistant strain of bacteria can develop (3)

mutation (1) causes some bacteria to have a stronger wall/less permeable wall/enzymes break
down antibiotic (1)
antibiotic kills bacteria except those that are resistant (1)
antibiotic is a selective agent OR occurs due to /is an example of natural selection (1)
resistant bacteria reproduce (1)
15.3-Misused drugs
Explain why nicotine is a drug (2)

it is a chemical substance taken into the body (1) that modifies/changes/alters chemical
reactions in the body (1)
addictive/may cause withdrawal symptoms when stopped (1)
Describe the effects on the gas exchange system of the following components of tobacco smoke: (4)
carbon monoxide:
permanently binds to hemoglobin (1) to form carboxyhemoglobin (1) ...
causing reduced oxygen transport (1)
tar
carcinogenic/causes lung cancer (1)
sticks/blocks/damages alveoli/cilia
more mucus production (1)
more prone to respiratory infections (1), such as pneumonia
reduced diffusion/gas exchange (1)
Explain why it is recommended that pregnant women dont smoke (3)

toxins in smoke can cross the placenta (1)
increased risk of miscarriage/premature birth/low birth weight
reduces oxygen availability to the fetus/fetal brain damage
increased risk of lung infection in fetus
babies more likely to become addicted/have withdrawal symptom
16.1-Asexual reproduction
asexual reproduction: a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent
Bacteria can reproduce rapidly. Name the process of reproduction in bacteria (1)
asexual reproduction/binary fission
16.2-Sexual reproduction
sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and
the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
36
Explain the advantages of sexual reproduction to an animal species (5)
maintain/increase population (1)
allows variation (1) which is caused by meiosis (1) through crossing over/individual
assortment (1) and random fusion of gametes (1)
ability to express recessive traits (1)
allows evolution/speciation (1)
allows for organisms to adapt to new/changes in the environment (1)
16.3-Sexual reproduction in plants
pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
self-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
different flower on the same plant
cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of on flower to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species
Discuss the long term effects of self pollination (4)

limited variation (1)
limited gene pool (1);
offspring become homozygous over time (1)
variation only due to mutation (1)
low chance that it will be expressed (1);
offspring will be well adapted to conditions near parent (1)
however only if environment doesnt change (1);
limited opportunity for evolution if environment changes/cant adapt to changes in the
environment,(1) e.g. diseases (1)
Explain the differences between self and cross pollination (2)

pollination = the transfer of pollen from the anther/stamen to the stigma (1)
selfwithin the same flower or flower on same plant (1)
crossbetween flowers on different plants (of same species) (1)
Define the term pollination (2)

the transfer of pollen grains (1) from the anther to the stigma (1)
Describe the structure of a named insect-pollinated flower and state the functions of its parts (10)
named insect-pollinated flower
sepals, description of position or shape or appearance (1) protects flower while in bud (1)
petals, description of position or shape or appearance (1) attracts insects / acting as landing
stage / guides present to direct insects to nectar (1)
stamen = anther + filament (1)
anther, description of position or shape or appearance (1) produces pollen (1)
filament, description of position or shape or appearance (1) supports anther (1)
carpel = stigma + style + ovary (1)
stigma, description of position or shape or appearance (1) receives pollen (1)
style, description of position or shape or appearance (1) supports stigma for pollination / acts
as a pathway for pollen tube (1)
ovary, descriptions of position or shape or appearance (1) contains ovules / reference to site of
fertilisation / becomes the fruit (1)
nectary position / reference to scent (1) produces nectar (1)
37
flower stem supports flower (1) greater visibility to insects (1)
receptacle acts as base for other flower parts (1)
ovule and position (1) forms seeds (1)
Describe how cross-pollination leads to variation in a species (3)

mixing of genetic material (1) can result in different genotypes (1), so phenotypes / offspring,
appearance can be different (1)
16.4-Sexual reproduction in humans
When does fertilisation occur in Humans?

when sperm and egg nuclei fuse
What feature allows the sperm to dissolve the jelly coat (zona pellucida) of the egg cell?
acrosome
substance direction of movement reason
amino acids to fetus/from mother make proteins / translation /

growth / make cells
carbon dioxide from fetus waste gas from respiration
glucose to fetus/from mother (release) energy/respiration/stored

as glycogen
oxygen to fetus/from mother (gas for) respiration
urea from fetus/to mother excretion/metabolic (or

nitrogenous) waste
1 mark per (correct) row!!!
Some parents decide to bottle-feed their newborn babies with formula milk rather than breast milk.
Describe four advantages of breastfeeding, other than providing antibodies (4)
creates a bond with mother (1)
free/cheap (1)
sterile/no risk of infection (1)
body temperature (1)
no preparation/easily available (1)
provides best/complete/most suitable/balanced, nutrients or food (1)
composition of breast milk changes to match development (1)
easier to digest/reduced risk of colic (1)
reduce risk of allergies (1)
contraceptive effect (1)
AVP;e.g.- no additives (1)
-protects against breast/ovarian cancer (1)
-child less likely to develop diabetes (1)
-helps the mothers body return to normal (1)
38
-weight loss (1)
-restores uterus (1)
Suggest how an embryo is moved along the oviduct (2)

peristalsis (1)
which are waves of contractions (1);
ciliary action (1)
movement of fluid in the oviduct (1)
Explain how artificial insemination is carried out (2)

separate a sperm with an X chromosome (1)
and inject the sperm/semen into the oviduct/uterus (1)
around the time of ovulation (1)
a) Name a hormone that would be injected to stimulate egg cell development in in vitro f ertilisation (1)
FSH
LH
b) State when, during the menstrual cycle, this hormone should be injected (1)
start of the new cycle/days 1-10/during menstruation (1)
Discuss the social implications of IVF (4)

allows infertile couple/single parents/same sexes to have children (1)
religious/legal/moral/ethical, concerns (1) and any relevant example, such as excess embryos
killed-ethically incorrect (1)
may not treat infertility successfully (1) or high chance of miscarriage (1)
expense of infertility treatment (1) therefore restricted availability (1)
may lead to multiple births (1)
genetic screening before implantation is possible (1)
store of eggs/embryos is possible during chemotherapy (1)
stem cell research on embryos possible (1)
Explain how a sperm cell has adapted to its function (3)

flagellum/tail => for movement/swimming (1)
small/streamlined shape => for efficient swimming (1)
mitochondria => for providing energy (1)
acrosome/enzymes => for digestion of follicle cells/to reach the ovum (1)
haploid nucleus => to fuse with the egg cell nucleus(1)
nucleus => to transfer genetic information to the zygote (1)
16.5-Sex hormones in humans

16.6-Methods of birth control in humans
Describe the use of hormones in fertility drugs and chemical methods of birth control (6)
fertility drugs- max 3:
FSH/LH/clomiphene/clomid (1)
causes the ovaries to produce more eggs (1), increasing the chance of fertilisation (1)
is used in in vitro fertilisation (1)
in females:
hCG (1) stimulates follicles to release eggs (1)
progesterone (1) causes the lining of the uterus/endometrium to thicken (1)
39
increased chance of fertilisation (1)
in males:
hCG (1) stimulates testosterone production (1)
testosterone/FSH/LH (1) stimulates sperm production (1)
chemical methods of birth control-max 3:

estrogen/progesterone (1)
contraceptive pill/patches/injection/implant (1)
prevents FSH release (1)
prevents egg cell development (1)
prevents ovulation (1)
inhibit sperm movement through the cervix (1)
prevents implantation (1)
kills sperm in vagina/cervix
prevents sperm reaching oviduct (1)
16.7-Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

sexually transmitted infection: an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact
17.1-Inheritance
inheritance: the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
17.2-Chromosomes, genes and proteins

chromosome: a threadlike structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
allele: a version of a gene
haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes, e.g. in gametes
diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body cells
State where DNA is found and describe its importance in living organism (3)
in the nucleus/plasmids/chloroplasts/mitochondria (1)
found in chromosomes/genes/contains genetic information (1)
can be copied/inherited/responsible for characteristics (1)
controls production of a protein (1)
State the function of DNA in cells (2)

genes (1) code for specific proteins (1)
store genetic information (1)
can be copied to pass on information to new cells
State where DNA is located in an animal cell (2)

in chromosomes (1)
in the nucleus (1)
in the mitochondria (1)
Explain how the cells of offspring have the same number of chromosomes as the cells of their parents
(6)
in sexual reproduction... (1)
gametes(1)
produced by reduction division/meiosis... (1)
40
have half the number of chromosomes/haploid (1).
fertilisation... (1)
involves the fusion of nuclei/gametes ...(1)
which restores the chromosome number/diploid (1).
asexual reproduction (1)
involves mitosis (1)
Describe the structure of a DNA molecule (3)

double helix (1)
strands contain A, T, G, C (1)
A binds with T and C binds with G (1) by hydrogen bonds (1)
AVP
State the function of a gene (1)

codes for a protein
Suggest why DNA sequencing is a useful method for identifying species of bacteria (1)
more accurate (than the traditional classification system) (1)
easier/cheaper/quicker/more efficient (1)
allows large scale identification of many species simultaneously (1)
only trace samples are required (1)
DNA sequences within species very similar (1)
Explain how mRNA is involved in the process of protein synthesis (3)

a gene sequence is copied producing (a strand called the) mRNA (1) by the process of
transcription (1)
the DNA remains in the nucleus (1)
the mRNA moves into the cytoplasm (1)
the mRNA passes through/is read by, ribosomes (1) where translation occurs (1)
the base sequence (of the mRNA) determines sequence of amino acids in proteins (1)
17.3-Mitosis
mitosis: the nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical (daughter) cells
Describe the role of mitosis in organisms (2)
growth (1)
repair/replacement of cells/tissues (1)
asexual reproduction/vegetative propagation/cloning (1)
17.4-Meiosis
meiosis: a reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid resulting in
genetically different (daughter) cells
Define the term meiosis (2)

reduction nuclear division (1)
involved in the production of gametes (1)
uses energy (1)
results in half the number of chromosomes (1)
produces genetically different offspring (1)
41
Explain the differences between mitosis and meiosis. Your explanation should include references to
where the processes occur and why they occur (5)
meiosis: -chromosome number halved/haploid (1)
-which occurs in gonads/testes/ovaries/anthers (1)
-and produces gametes (1)
-such as egg cells/sperm cells/pollen/AWP (1)
17.5-Monohybrid inheritance
genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present
phenotype: the observable features of an organism
homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene
heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene
dominant (1): an allele that expressed if it is present (1)
ALLOW = always seen in the phenotype (1)
= masks (the effect of) the recessive allele (1)
recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
sex-linked characteristics: a characteristic in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome and that
this makes it more common in one sex than in the other
18.1-Variation
variation: observable differences between individuals of the same species
gene mutation: a (rare, spontaneous and random) change in the base sequence of DNA
Suggest why members of different species are not able to breed successfully (2)
difference in genes/DNA (1)
difference in chromosomes (1)
problems at fertilisation (1)
no sexual attraction/are incompatible (1)
geographical separation (1)
Types of variation
Continuous variation is shown with a histogram.

Name the type of graph used to show discontinuous variation. (1)
bar graph (1)
Explain why cat fur color is an example of discontinuous variation. (3)

distinct categories/phenotypes/fur color (1)
no range of cat fur color (1)
controlled by genes (1)
not affected by the environment (1)
Explain how discontinuous variation differs from continuous variation, in its expression and cause (3)
influenced by genes alone (1)
not affected by the environment/doesnt change over (life)time (1)
is discrete/no intermediates/is qualitative (1)
limited number of phenotypes (1)
Causes of variation
42
Name two main causes of variation in organisms (2)
genes/mutation/any common mutagen, such as ionising radiation and chemicals (1)
environment/habitat/any environmental factor such as climate (1)
Variation and natural selection
Name the process involving variation and natural selection that could lead to the development of new
species (1)
Evolution (or speciation)
Suggest how the process of variation and natural selection may have acted to produce the new species
(4)
A change in the environment...(1)
As well as mutations (1), cause variation... (1)
and therefore the better adapted (1) to survive (1) and to reproduce. (1)
The cumulative effect (or if this occurs over many generations) (1)
leads to a change in phenotype (1)
Mutations
A gene mutation occurs when part of the DNA on a single chromosome is changed. State two factors
that may increase the rate of gene mutation (2)
chemicals (1)
radiation (1)
faulty cell division (1)
State the cause of Downs syndrome (1)

(chromosome) mutation (1), or trisomy 21 (1)
an extra chromosome (1)
non-disjunction/failure during meiosis/translocation (1)
Sickle cell anemia and malaria
Explain why the distribution of sickle cell anemia and malaria are similar (5)
malaria, is a severe disease/may be fatal (1)
As people with sickle cell anemia (Hb a llele) are resistant to malaria (1)
they have an selective advantage (in areas where malaria has manifested) (1)
They are resistant because the sickle cells are less prone to infection (1)
When a person is homozygous dominant (HbHb), they are more susceptible to malaria... (1)
so are more likely to die before being able to reproduce and pass on their genes (1)
When a person is a sickle cell carrier (HbHb) , they do not die from sickle cell anemia as well
as malaria (although they might suffer from mild SCA symptoms), (1)
so are likely to reproduce/have children (1)
and pass on the Hb allele. (1)
In an area where malaria is not present, the advantage of the Hb allele is lost, so (due to
natural selection) the frequency of the allele decreases (1)
AVP: e.g. for heterozygous parents, 50% chance of having the resistance to malaria and
surviving (1), 25% chance of being homozygous recessive (HbH
b) (1)
43
Suggest why the transport of oxygen to tissues is reduced in a person with sickle cell anaemia (4)
reduced surface area/volume (1), so less hemoglobin (1) and therefore less oxygen
carriage/absorption in the blood cell (1)
loss of elasticity, so more difficult to move through blood vessels (1)
sticky, so may clump together/ clot (together 1), causing a blockage of blood vessels (1) and
therefore reduces blood flow to the tissue (1)
State the cause of Sickle cell anemia (1)

genetic mutation (1)/change in the Hb molecule (1)
18.2-Adaptive features
adaptive feature: the inherited functional feature of an organism that increases its fitness
fitness: the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found
Large air spaces are an adaptation of water lily leaves. Suggest why (2)
for buoyancy/allow them to float (1)
maximum one for:
to exchange gases with the air/atmosphere (1)
to be closer to the light (1), allowing for more light absorption (1) and therefore more
photosynthesis (1)
What is an adaptive feature if a Hydrophytes?

stomata on the upper surface of the leaves
18.3-Selection
process of adaptation: the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to
their environment over many generations
Natural selection
Selective breeding
Describe how growers selectively breed plants (3)
1) cross/breed (parent) plants with desired feature... (1)
(using a (fine) paintbrush to transfer the pollen) (1)
2) (grow seeds and) choose offspring with (desired) feature(s) (1)
3) cross (offspring) plants showing features with each other/self/original variety (1)
4) keep crossing and selecting for many generations (1)
Details, e.g. bagging flowers, detail of seed collection
Explain the disadvantages of using sexual reproduction to breed flowers

slower/more time consuming (1)
two parents required (1)
reliance on pollinators (1)
(wasteful-many pollen grains remain unused (1))
harvesting seeds can be difficult/limited number of seeds (1)
variation in offspring/desirable characteristics might be lost (1)
Variation and natural selection
44
Name the process involving variation and natural selection that could lead to the development of new
species (1)
Evolution (or speciation)
Suggest how the process of variation and natural selection may have acted to produce the new species
(4)
A change in the environment...(1)
As well as mutations (1), cause variation... (1)
and therefore the better adapted (1) to survive (1) and to reproduce. (1)
The cumulative effect (or if this occurs over many generations) (1)
leads to a change in phenotype (1)
19.1-Energy flow
19.2-Food chains and food webs
food chain: showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a producer
trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramid of biomass or pyramid of numbers
food web: a network of interconnected food chains
producer: an organism that makes its own organic nutrients (glucose), usually using energy from sunlight,
through photosynthesis
consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material
Nematodes feed on dead and decaying material.Explain why this gives nematodes an important role in
ecosystems (3)
prevents accumulation of dead matter/removes organic waste (1)
recycles nutrients (1)
releases carbon as carbon dioxide... (1)
which can be used for photosynthesis (1)
decreases particle size of food for decomposers (1)
19.3-Nutrient cycles
Water cycle

Carbon cycle
Describe the role of soil organisms in the carbon cycle (2)
respire/decompose (1) to release carbon dioxide (1), which is taken in by plants through
photosynthesis (1)
Nitrogen cycle
Describe how nitrogen in proteins in dead leaves is recycled to be absorbed by plants (4)
proteins are broken down into amino acids (1)
by proteases (1)
which are released by decomposers/bacteria/fungi (1);
Amino acids are converted to ammonia/ammonium ions (1)
in a process called deamination (1)
ammonia/ammonium ions are first converted into nitrite ions (1) and then into nitrate ions (1)
by nitrification/oxidation/nitrifying bacteria (1);
the nitrate ions are then absorbed by plants
45
Name the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen to form a nitrogen compound that can be
absorbed by plants (1)
nitrogen fixation (1)
Explain the role of microorganisms in nitrogen fixation (2)

nitrogen-fixing bacteria (1)
are free living bacteria (1)
which are present in the root nodules of (leguminous plants) (1)
and convert nitrogen into ammonium/ammonia/amino acids (1)
19.4-Population size
population: a group of organisms of one (the same) species, living in the same habitat, at the same time (capable
of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring) (2)
community: all the populations of different species in an ecosystem
ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting together, e.g. a
decomposing log, or a lake
Suggest ways in which governments can try to maintain the stocks of wild fish (6)
ban for fishing some species (1)

licences / permits / limits / quotas (1)
fines for unauthorised/illegal fishing (1)
raise awareness; education (1)
regulations on the method of fishing use lines instead of nets OR laws to restrict net size (1)
only adult fish caught/young fish put back (1)
restocking/adding more fish than removed (1)
natural reserves (1)
no fishing zones/seasons (1)
monitor fish stocks (1)
encourage farmed fish / hatcheries / captive breeding (1)
international fishing agreements / treaties (1)
reduce pollution/silting of rivers/eutrophication/environmental factors detrimental to fish (1)
Describe the disadvantages of intensive fish farming for producing human food (3)
feed is expensive (1)
more energy efficient to feed humans on crops or producers or animals that are used to make
fish food (as 90% of energy is lost at each trophic level) (1)
animal welfare concerns (1)
waste feed causes EUTROPHICATION of water supplies (1)
disease spreads easily (1)
disease spread to other organisms in the wild (1)
chemicals used to control disease are also pollutants eg. antibiotics (1)
Explain why a population increases exponentially in the log/exponential phase (4)

birth ratedeath rate (1)
no limiting factors (1)
no/very little competition (1)
plenty of nutrients/space/O2/AVP (1)
no disease (1)
no predators/ low predation rates (1)
46
The population of L. bulgaricus, a bacterium added to milk to make yogurt, stagnates, and then
decreases. Suggest and explain the reason why the population doesnt continue to increase during the
fermentation (2)
no longer reproducing/death rate birth rate/reaches carrying capacity (K) (1)
build up of waste (e.g.CO2, lactic acid) (1)
waste is toxic (1)
limiting factors (1): - no/less nutrients (1)
- no/less space (1)
- no/less oxygen (1)
pH could change and become unsuitable (1)
State three human activities that could cause the number of fish in a lake to drop (3)
pollution/contamination (1) i.e. by pesticides/fertilisers/sewage/oil/petrol/chemicals (1)
fishing (1)
lack of food (1)
habitat destruction (1)
other fish species/predators (such as birds and animals) (1)
global warming/eutrophication/acid rain (1)
disease/parasites (1)
AVP
20.1-Biotechnology and genetic engineering
Explain why bacteria, in particular, are very useful organisms in the process of genetic engineering (2)
fast reproduction rate (1)
identical offspring (1)
small number of genes (1)
copy/use genes from other organisms/viruses (1) to makes proteins (1)
have plasmids (1) which can be used to transfer genes into bacteria (1)
20.2-Biotechnology
State two different types of foods manufactured using microorganisms (2)

yogurt (1)
cheese (1)
tofu (1)
soja sauce (1)
sour milk (1)
sauerkraut (1)
bread (1)
vinegar (1)
alcohol (1)
tapai (1)
Quorn/mycoprotein (1)
tempeh (1)
single celled protein (1)
kimchee (1)
ANTIBIOTIC PRODUCTION
Name the type of microorganism that produces the antibiotic penicillin (1)
47
fungus/mould (1) ALLOW penicillium notatum (1)
As the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum grows in a fermenter, the nuclei in the hyphae divide.
State the type of nuclear division that occurs during the growth of the fungus in the fermenter (1)
Mitosis (1)
Describe how a fermenter can be sterilized (2)

steam (1)
autoclave/high temperature and pressure (1)
UV/gamma rays or X-rays (1)
bleach (1)
AVP- sterilize nutrients/air supply/items entering the fermenter (1)
The next two questions are linked to the diagram of the fermenter below:
a) Complete the table below using the diagram above:
Letter from Fig. 1.1 Name Function
P water jacket maintain/control temperature
S paddle/stirrer/mixer/vane mixes/stirs/maintains a suspension/stops

solids settling/keeps nutrients
moving/maintains uniform mixture
Q nutrient inlet supplies ammonia/glucose/amino

acids/nutrients for growth/nutrients for
respiration/energy
R probes/sensor/data logger monitors temperature/pH
U air supply supplies oxygen for respiration
48
T outlet allows collection of liquid containing
penicillin after fermentation
!!!one mark for each correct row!!!
b) Describe what happens to the liquid containing penicillin after it is collected from the fermenter (1)
the penicillin is separated/extracted/filtered/evaporated/purified/impurities are removed/
downstream processing (1)
Explain why there is a water jacket around the fermenter in antibiotic production and why acids or
alkalis are added to the fermenter (6)
Water jacket (any four from...): -to maintain optimum/constant temperature (1)
(- to prevent overheating) (1)
-as when fungus respires... (1)
-heat released, causing the temperature to rise (1)
-When the temp. gets too high, the fungus would be killed (1)
-causing no more product/antibiotic formation (1)
Acids and alkalis (any two from): -to maintain optimum/constant pH ...(1)
(-to prevent the enzymes from denaturing) (1)
-To provide enzymes w ith optimum pH (1)
-giving maximum enzyme activity (1)
-therefore maximum yield (1)
Downstream processing refers to all the processes that occur to the contents of the fermenter after it is
emptied. This involves making penicillin into a form that can be used as medicine.
Suggest why downstream processing is necessary (3)
Purifying or separating it... (1)
from waste or toxins; (1)
Concentration (1)
Making into pills/owtte (1)
Add color/taste (1)
AVP
YOGURT manufacture
Sometimes food additives are added to yogurt.Some people suggest that it is healthier to eat yogurt
without additives.
Suggest the advantages and disadvantages of putting food additives into yogurt (4)
advantages (max.three from): -longer shelf-life/stop foods going off (1)
-stop/reduce the growth of unwanted bacteria/fungi/microbes (1)
-prevent food poisoning (1)
-improve/give taste/flavor (1)
-give texture (1)
-emulsify/stabilize food components (1)
disadvantages (max.three from): -hyperactivity (in children) (1)
49
-allergies (1)
-vomiting/nausea/headache (1)
-asthma (1)
-possible link to cancer (1)
YEAST and BREADMAKING

Name two industrial processes that rely on the anaerobic respiration of yeast (2)
brewing/wine (1)
alcohol for (bio)fuel (1)
bread making/making dough rise (1)
yeast extracts/probiotics/nutrient supplements, e.g. vegemite (1)
production of CO2 (1)
bioremediation (1)
Why is yeast used in Breadmaking?

anaerobic respiration produces carbon dioxide
Described how a genetically modified yeast cell could be cultured to allow them to multiply (3)
sugar (glucose)/nitrates (1)
solution/broth/water (1)
suitable temperature and/or pH(1)
fermenter/stirring/sterile conditions (1)
PECTINASE use in FRUIT JUICE
Pectinase is an enzyme used in the production of fruit juice.

a) Describe in detail how enzymes function, using pectinase as an example (6)
enzymes are proteins (1), that are substrate specific (1) and increase the rate of
reaction (1) by lowering the activation energy (1), remaining unchanged (1)
The substrate binds to the active site (1) of an enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate
complex (1), as the shape of the active site and the substrate are complementary (1)

as it allows for the maximum number of successful collisions (1),
incorrect pH-enzymes denature (1)
substrate pectin
results in more volume yield (1) and clearer juice (1)
20.3-Genetic engineering
genetic engineering: changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or inserting individual
genes
An advantage of some genetically modified crop plants is that they will not
be affected by herbicides
50
Give two examples in which crop plants have been changed by inserting genes. State one advantage for
each example. (4)
example: herbicide resistance (1)
advantage: increased yield/productivity (1)
example: pesticide resistance (1)

advantage: increased yield/productivity (1)
example: crop plants produce own insecticides (1)

advantage: less insecticide used => increased yield (1)
example: vitamin/nutrient enrichment ( carotene-Golden rice) (1)

advantage:i ncreased nutritional value (1)
example: pathogen resistant/Bt (1)

advantage: increased productivity/less pesticides used (1)
example: flavor/texture/ripening (1)

advantage: shelf life/improved customer satisfaction (1)
example: antigens/vaccines/pharmaceuticals; e.g.insulin (1)

advantage: cheap production of medicines (1)
example: drought/salt/pollution/metal/frost/stress/cold resistant (1)

advantage: increased yield/productivity or extend range where crops can be grown (1)
21.1-Food supply
21.2-Habitat destruction
Explain why replanted forest and plantations (such as oil palm plantations) are LESS useful for the
conservation and the natural forest (3)
monoculture (1) increased susceptibility to disease (1)
loss of biodiversity (1)
loss of habitat (1) extinction of species (1)
removed nutrients/soil infertile (1)
alien/non-indigenous species (1)
immature/lower canopy or vegetation removed (1)
Explain the reasons for deforestation (3)

paper manufacture (1)
extensive farming/agriculture (1)
extraction of minerals and other resources (1)
building houses/factories/leisure (1)
Discuss the effects of deforestation on areas of land (6)

roots die so dont bind to soil (1)
increased soil erosion (1) causes loss of soil (1) and decreased soil fertility (1)
less trees absorb water (1)increased flood risk (1)
increased rate of evaporation/land exposed to drying (1)
desertification (1)
51
loss of habitat (1)disruption of food chains (1) endangerment/extinction of species/loss of
biodiversity (1)
lack of decomposition/nutrient cycle disruption (1)
Describe the effects on the forest ecosystem of cutting down trees (4)
abiotic: -increased CO2 concentration/production (1)
-decreased O2 concentration/production (1)
-greater soil exposure (1)
-increased soil erosion (1)
-therefore reduced soil fertility (1);
-less soil water/faster flow of water from the land (1)
-resulting in increased risks of flooding/landslips (1);
-disruption of the water cycle (1);
-less decomposition (1)
-silting of rivers (1)
biotic: -habitat/ecosystem loss (1)
-1) endangerment /extinction of species (1) disrupted food chains/food webs
(1)less biodiversity (1)
-2) organisms exposed to greater predation (1)
AVP
21.3-Pollution
pollutant source effect on the environment
heavy metals in chemical waste factories/industries/vehicle disrupts functioning of plants,

exhausts/chemical plants/sewage causes brain damage
(sludge) (1)
phosphate fertilisers/detergents/sewage (1) eutrophication of streams, rivers

and lakes
sulfur dioxide (combustion of) damage to trees, e.g.death of

coal/oil/factory/chemical leaves
plants/power stations/vehicle
exhausts (1)
ionizing radiation nuclear fall-out/radioactive mutations/cancers (1)

waste/nuclear industries/nuclear
power plants/uranium/plutonium/
X rays (1)
DDT pesticide sprays accumulates in tissues of animals
Describe the problems caused by non-biodegradable plastics in the environment (3)

1) persistent/dont break down (1)
2) fills up landfill sites/rubbish dumps (1)
3) suffocates/chokes animals (1)
4) kills animals that get trapped in it (1)
52
5) releases toxins/are poisonous (1)
6) A VP: such as: - they fill with water to become breeding grounds for mosquitoes (1)
- blocks light for photosynthesis (1)
-negative effect on tourism/visual pollution (1)
-blocks drains (1)
-blocks water flow into rivers/streams (1)
-reduces soil, drainage/aeration (1)
-interferes with water treatment (1)
-allows spread of alien species in ocean (1)
State the main purpose of chlorine in sewage treatment (1)

kills bacteria (1)
makes water safe for human use (1)
Describe the negative consequences of letting untreated sewage flow into lake ecosystems (6)
Algal bloom (1)
aquatic plants die/can't photosynthesize (due to blocked light) (1)
Increased decay by bacteria (1)
causing increased (aerobic) respiration by bacteria (1)
which decreases oxygen levels/concentration in the water (1)
1) causing decreased pH- (1)----fish die (1)
2) and animal migration and death (1)--- disrupted food chains (1)
More mosquitoes and flies (1)
Water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid (2)
Biomagnification/bioaccumulation of many metals and toxins (1)-- death of animals
Female hormones cause feminization of organisms (1)---decreased sperm count (1)
visual pollution (1)
mutations caused by heavy metal/sewage (1)
Explain what happens in streams, lakes and rivers when eutrophication occurs (5)
growth of algae/algal bloom (1)
causing reduced/no photosynthesis (1), due to the algar blocking the light (1)
and therefore causing algae/fixed water plants, to die (1)
causing less/no oxygen released by plants (1)
Algae/plants, are fed on/decayed/decomposed, by bacteria (1)
causing increased aerobic respiration (by bacteria)(1)
which then multiply/divide (1).
The low levels of oxygen cause death/suffocation and migration of fish/aquatic animals (1)
Most wolves kill sheep by biting in their necks. To prevent wolves killing sheep, some farmers have
decided to use a plastic collar. Suggest and explain why the collars of dead sheep could create
environmental problems. (2)
Plastics may be non-biodegradable (1), so can result in litter/land pollution/waste
accumulation/visual pollution (1)
Air pollution if burned (1)
Scavengers may choke on the plastics (1)
Name two structures, present in the neck of a sheep, that can be damaged by wolves (2)
artery/carotid artery (1)
vein/jugular Vein (1)
53
spinal cord (1)
vertebrae (1)
larynx (1)
esophagus (1)
lymph vessel (1)
21.4-Conservation
Suggest what is meant by the term sustainable resource, using a forest as an example. (3)
doesnt run out/will not become exhausted (1)
can be replanted (1)
renewable (1)
pollarding/coppicing/leaving mature trees (1)
Next two Questions are relating on the image below
54
Explain the role of bacteria in the aerobic digestion tank shown above (5)
1) (the bacteria) secrete enzymes (1)
2) which break down insoluble substances to soluble substances (1);
3) Proteases (e.g. pepsin and trypsin) (1)

4) b reak down proteins to amino acids (1);
5) Amylases/carbohydrases (1)
6) b reak down starch to maltose (1);
7) Lipase (1)
8) b reak down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol (1)
9) products (e.g. glucose/fatty acids/amino acids) respired (1)

10) using oxygen (1)...
11) producing/releasing carbon dioxide (1)
12) (and ammonia) (1)
13) AVP e.g.ammonia nitrified into nitrate ions (1)
55
Explain why chlorine is added to the water (2)
(chlorine) kills bacteria/acts as a disinfectant... (1)
so water is not harmful to the environment/doesnt kill organisms (1)
as some bacteria may be pathogenic/cause disease (1)
Describe three processes used in the treatment of sewerage (3)

filtration (1)
flocculation/coagulation to separate suspended particles from water (1)
digestion by bacteria/fungi/decomposers/microorganisms (1)
with aeration tank/trickle tank (1)
sludge treatment with anaerobic decomposers/anaerobic digestion (1)
water treated with chlorine/ozone/UV (1)
distillation (1)
Describe two measures that can be taken to reduce the effects of acid rain (2)
Add lime(stone)/CaCO3/calcium carbonate, to, lakes/rivers/soils (1)
use less fossil fuels (1)
use low sulfur fuels (1)
creating an international treaty of reducing emissions (1)
use catalytic converters/electric cars
flue gas desulfurization/use wet scrubbers/neutralise waste gases with lime (1)
desulfurisation of coal/oil (1)
Describe two methods of conserving endangered species (2)

conserve/protect habitat (1)
zoos/reserves/national parks (1)
ban hunting/laws to protect (1)
captive breeding program (1)
remove predators/consumers (1)
ecotourism (1)
educate/raise awareness/research (1)
56
Additional information:
Contents:
Notes on classification to sort up the information in my brain :-)
Adaptation of the xylem for its function------------------page
Ribosome structure-------------------------------------------page
Mechanism of water ascent in the xylem------------------page
Paper 6 notes --------------------------------------------------page
57
Adaptations of Xylem for its Function
The main purpose of the xylem is to transport water and minerals up the stem, from the roots
to the leaves. In order for a xylem to carry out its functions successfully and efficiently, it
must have to be adapted.
One of the main adaptations of the xylem is the ring of lignin

that forms a spiral pattern around the xylem tube. Due to the
immense strength of the lignin, it helps to be a supportive
structure for the plant, either woody or non woody.
Furthermore the lignin prevents the walls of the xylem from
collapsing under pressure, which would be caused by the
hydrostatic pressure of the transpiration pull, and the root
pressure made from high pressure water being pushed up the
xylem. Additionally lignin is waterproof, which means it will
prevent any water from leaking out of the xylem (diffusing
in and out), so that the maximum amount of water travels up
the plant to the leaves. Lastly, lignin is very rigid which
helps to keep the walls stiff, so that it can resist the strain of physical forces.
Another adaptation of the xylem is it being made up of dead cells, which will enable it to
carry water through it, as, when it dies, it shrivels up causing the cell inside the cell wall to die
and mean that it is hollow within the cell wall. When the cell dies, this means that the
nucleus,cytoplasm, chloroplasts and mitochondria are all disintegrated to form a clear tunnel
so that the water is not impeded.
A further adaptation of the xylem (tracheid) is the pits that form in the
walls of the xylem, which helps to transfer water from one tracheid to
another, which allows the water to move from side to side even though
there is waterproof lignin. The xylem transfers water so that the xylem
walls don't collapse in when water is being sucked up the stem of the
58
plant. Also there are pits in the xylem so that water can be transferred to neighbouring cells
near the xylem that require water to stay turgid, and those needed to photosynthesis so that it
can produce glucose.
Additionally, xylems have adapted by removing end walls of the cells(perforation plates), so
that the open ends of the cells can join together to form a long, open, hollow tube. This then
allows the water to move up a continuous column, without it having to diffuse by osmosis
from one cell to another. As a result this means water is transported quicker up to the leaves
so that more photosynthesis can occur, as the hollow tube increases the surface area to volume
ratio. The perforation plates help to facilitate water movement in the xylem,meaning water
can pass freely.
Ribosome Structure
The ribosome is a highly complex cellular machine. It is largely made up of specialized RNA
known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins (the exact number
varies slightly between species). The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two
distinct ribosomal pieces of different size, known generally as the large and small subunit of
the ribosome. Ribosomes consist of two subunits that fit together (Figure 2) and work as one
to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis (Figure 1). Because
they are formed from two subunits of non-equal size, they are slightly longer in the axis than
in diameter. Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm in diameter. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
between 25 and 30 nm.The ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are quite
similar.
Figure 2- large subunit (red) and small subunit (blue) fit together
The unit of measurement is the Svedberg unit, a measure of the rate of sedimentation in
centrifugation rather than size. This accounts for why fragment names do not add up: for
example, prokaryotic 70S ribosomes are made of 50S and 30S subunits.
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit.
Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit.
The ribosomes found in chloroplasts and mitochondria of eukaryotes also consist of large and
small subunits bound together with proteins into one 70S particle. These organelles are
59
believed to be descendants of bacteria ( Endosymbiotic theory) and, as such, their ribosomes
are similar to those of bacteria.
The various ribosomes share a core structure, which is quite similar despite the large
differences in size. Much of the RNA is highly organized into various tertiary structural
motifs. The extra RNA in the larger ribosomes is in several long continuous insertions, such
that they form loops out of the core structure without disrupting or changing it. All of the
catalytic activity of the ribosome is carried out by the RNA; the proteins reside on the surface
and seem to stabilize the structure.
!!!!!! The differences between the bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes are exploited by
pharmaceutical chemists to create antibiotics that can destroy a bacterial infection without
harming the cells of the infected person. Due to the differences in their structures, the
bacterial 70S ribosomes are vulnerable to these antibiotics while the eukaryotic 80S
ribosomes are not. Even though mitochondria possess ribosomes similar to the bacterial ones,
mitochondria are not affected by these antibiotics because they are surrounded by a double
membrane that does not easily admit these antibiotics into the organelle.!!!!!!!
60
The Transpiration Pull, Other Mechanisms
Explaining the Ascent of Water in Plants

The transpiration pull is just one of the mechanisms that explain the movement or translocation of water in
plants, particularly water ascent in tall trees. There is no single exacting explanation as yet for the ascent of water
but several theories have been proposed. Of these, the one which has gained wide support is the cohesion-tension
theory which recognizes the crucial role of transpiration pull as a driving force. These theories are briefly
described below.
1. Capillarity Theory. According to this theory, water is translocated because water molecules adhere to the
surfaces of small, or capillary, tubes. This adhesion causes water to somewhat creep upward along the sides of
xylem elements. In glass tubes this upward movement is visible as the curved or crescent-shaped (concave)
meniscus. However, it was shown that capillarity (or capillary rise) alone in tubes of similar diameter as that of a
xylem element raises water less than 1 meter (Moore et al. 2003).
Hopkins (1999) explained that the relationship between the rise of water in a capillary tube and the size of the
tube is inversely proportional. This means that the thinner is the tube, the higher will be the rise of water. Thus in
a large tracheid or small vessel having a diameter of 50 m, water will rise about 0.6 m high. But in a large
vessel in which diameter is about 100 m, water will rise to a height of only 0.08 m. To reach the top of a
100-meter tree, the capillary tube must have a diameter of about 0.15 m. This renders capillarity as insignificant
for the rise of water in tall trees because the smallest tracheids in existence are much bigger.
2. Atmospheric Pressure Theory. This is based on the observation that normal atmospheric pressure is able to
push water in a tube upward up to about 10.4 meters. This is demonstrated by first filling with water a long tube
with one end closed. This tube is then placed with its open end down in a tub of water. The force of gravity will
tend to pull the water in the tube downward, but atmospheric pressure exerted on the water surface in the tub
will push it up. These opposing pressures equilibrate when the height of the water column in the tube is 10.4 m
(Moore et al. 2003).
However, as with capillarity, this cannot explain how water is able to reach the tops of tall trees. The normal
atmospheric pressure, or 1 atm, is equivalent to about 101 kilopascals (kPa) or 0.1 megapascal (MPa). But
Hopkins (1999) explained that 10 to 15 times of this pressure, or 1.0 to 1.5 MPa, is required to push water to the
tops of trees 100 m to 150 m tall. The author further enlightened that to overcome resistance (or friction) along
the xylem tissue due to structural irregularities and the like, a total pressure of 2.0 to 3.0 MPa would be needed.
3. Root Pressure Theory. This explains the exudation of sap from the stumps of decapitated or detopped plants
including those of trees that were newly felled. It also accounts for guttation under conditions that favor mineral
and water absorption but unfavorable to transpiration.
As the term implies, this mechanism of water ascent involves the participation of live roots. In this regard, it is
considered an active process because live cells are involved in the absorption of mineral salts. However, the root
pressure that is created is due to osmotic gradient, considered passive. The accumulation of salts (solutes) in the
apoplast which surrounds the xylem elements decreases the water potential of the xylem and causes water from
the surrounding cells to move into them (Devlin 1975; Hopkins 1999; Moore et al. 2003).
However, there are contrasting views against root pressure being the primary mechanism for the ascent of water
in plants. Devlin (1975) enumerated the following arguments: (1) the magnitude of pressure developed is either
very insignificant to be able to push water to the tops of tall trees or, in most conifers, absent; (2) data
supporting water ascent by root pressure were generated without considering friction which could affect the
61
flow of water in the xylem ducts; (3) exudation of xylem sap generally occurs at lower rates than transpiration;
and (4) under normal conditions, the xylem sap is under tension (pulled) rather than pressure (pushed).
4. Cohesion-Tension or Transpiration-Cohesion Theory. This explains that the upward movement of water is
mainly due to the creation of a negative force or tension attributed to the continuous evaporation of water at the
surfaces of leaves in the process of transpiration. As molecule after molecule of water evaporates through the
stomata, it creates a pulling action on the next molecules of water in the transpiration stream. This pulling force,
otherwise called transpiration pull, is strong enough to overcome the force of gravity which is responsible for the
tendency of water to move downward.
The transpiration pull is similar to the suction force when drinking some fluid from a bottle or glass with a straw.
Water can also be sucked into a pipette with the use of an ordinary rubber aspirator or with a common medicine
dropper.
However the transpiration pull alone will not be sufficient to move water upward. The cohesion or the attraction
of one molecule to another molecule of water through hydrogen bonding ensures that water moves in an
unbroken, continuous column.
62
Paper 6 notes:
sources:
https://www.slideshare.net/Onedayeverythingwillbeokay/cie-igcse-biology-flashcards
63

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Definition list --------------------------------------------------Page 2-6

1.1-Characteristics of living organisms

1.2-Concept and use of a classification system

10-Diseases and immunity

16.3-Sexual reproduction in plants

16.7-Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

17.2-Chromosomes, genes and proteins

19.2-Food chains and food webs

1.2-Concept and use of a classification system

Complete the sentences. (6)

State two structural features of nematodes (2)

State two distinguishing features of all prokaryotes (2)

Bacteria have a flagellum. Suggest a function of the flagellum (1)

State three features that all myriapods have (3)

cell membrane (2 from):

Complete the table below (5)

exerts a pressure to help maintain the shape of the vacuole (1)

produces sugars using light as a source of energy chloroplast (1)

withstands the internal pressure of the cell cell wall (1)

controls all activities of the cell nucleus (1)

State the function of mitochondria (1)

State why the palisade mesophyll is a tissue (1)

State three factors that influence diffusion across a membrane (3)

Explain why Rhabdostyla needs to remove excess water (3)

Describe active transport (3)

Explain how enzymes catalyse chemical reactions (3)

optimum temperature (1) is required, as:

optimum pH (1) is required, as:

digestive enzymes perform chemical digestion/hydrolysis/catabolic reactions (1) to break

Describe in detail how enzymes function, using pectinase as an example (6)

optimum temperature (1) is required, as:

optimum pH (1) is required, as:

optimum temperature (1) is required, as:

optimum pH (1) is required, as:

reference to the conditions in the alimentary canal:

State three uses of carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis (3)

long/hollow/no cytoplasm/no organelles/no end walls (1)

Name the adaptation of the features of a plant leaf below (3)

The roots of plants take up nitrates from the soil.

Plants need nitrate ions for growth. Explain why (3)

Describe a cause of vitamin D deficiency in humans (1)

Describe the effects of vitamin D deficiency in humans (2)

nutrient role in the body

lactose provides energy/glucose for respiration

What is the main cause of kwashiorkor?

State two health possible health effects of obesity (2)

Describe the treatment for cholera (2)

Describe how food is moved along the small intestine (2)

Explain the role of mechanical digestion (3)

1) - to increase the surface area(1)

2)-to mix (1)

3)-to make it easier to swallow (1)

State two ways of maintaining healthy teeth (2)

Name the chemical that speeds up digestion (1)

Outline the roles of bile (4)

Predict the optimum pH for trypsin (1)

optimum temperature (1) is required, as:

optimum pH (1) is required, as:

digestive enzymes perform chemical digestion/hydrolysis/catabolic reactions (1) to break

Explain why lactose is not absorbed by the small intestine (2)

provides a large surface area (1)...

Describe what is meant by the term double circulation: (1)

Describe the advantages of double circulation (1)