Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Effect of coil set on shape defects in roll forming steel strip

Matthias Weiss a, , Buddhika Abeyrathna a , Bernard Rolfe b , Andr Abee c ,
Henry Wolfkamp d
a
Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Pigdons Rd. Vic. 3217, Australia
b
School of Engineering, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Pigdons Rd. VIC. 3216, Australia
c
data M Sheet Metal Solutions GmbH, Am Marschallfeld 17, D-83626 Oberlaindern/Valley, Germany
d
Australian Rollforming Manufacturers Pty Ltd, 1723 Gaine Road, Dandenong South Vic. 3175 Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Coil set is a phenomenon occurring in industrial sheet metal in which the strip retains a residual curvature
Received 18 May 2016 as it comes off the coil. The roll forming of two coils exhibiting coil set is studied; each coil has similar
Received in revised form 18 October 2016 tensile and bending properties. It is shown that there are signicant differences in shape defects in the
Accepted 18 October 2016
industrial roll forming of a particular channel section depending on whether the strip is fed in with
the convex side upwards or downwards. The properties in bending in the longitudinal direction were
Keywords:
determined using a free bending test and found to depend on the direction of bending; when bending
Roll Forming
so that the curvature increased in the direction of the residual curvature, the bending yield stress was
Coil set
Residual Stress
almost 50% lower compared with bending in the direction opposite to the residual curvature, i.e. in
Shape Defects straightening the strip. In the transverse direction, bending properties were independent of the direction
Bending Properties of bending. The defects measured in the roll formed product were twist and are and the magnitude of
both were greatest when the strip was formed with the residual curvature convex upwards in the roll
forming line. The process was simulated using the commercial software package Copra FEA; two sets of
material property data were used both were derived by an inverse method from the bending tests.
One case used bend test data from tests in which the curvature increased in the same direction as the
residual curvature, and the other set for curvature in the opposite direction. The defects predicted by the
numerical analyses reproduced the trends observed in the industrial trials regarding twist and end are
even though the levels predicted were too high. Comparison of the bending test results with other work
suggests that the strip is subjected to plastic deformation (straightening) as it comes off the coil resulting
in an asymmetric longitudinal residual stress distribution through the thickness. Both the experiments
and the results of the simulation strengthen the view that differences in the mechanical behaviour in
bending near the elastic plastic transition indicate the presence of residual stresses that inuence nal
shape in the roll forming process.
2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction components in Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) [4]. Even

Roll forming allows the forming of tight radii for materials that
show limited tensile elongation [1,2] and springback can be signif-
icantly lower compared to that observed in conventional bending
applications [3]. The process is therefore increasingly used in the
automotive industry for the manufacture of structural and crash
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: matthias.weiss@deakin.edu.au (M. Weiss),
buddhika.abeyrathna@deakin.edu.au (B. Abeyrathna), bernard.rolfe@deakin.edu.au
(B. Rolfe), a.abee@datam.de (A. Abee), hwolfkamp@ausrollform.com.au
(H. Wolfkamp).
though material splitting can occur when roll forming AHSS [5]
it is rare and the most common defects are shape related, such as
springback, bow, end are and twist [6]. To full the tight tolerance
requirements of the automotive industry for part shape and process
robustness, commercial CAD and FEA systems are increasingly used
to investigate and optimize roll forming processes and some previ-
ous numerical studies have revealed good correlation of predicted
behaviour with experimental results for longitudinal edge strain
[7], roll load and torque [8,9] as well as shape defects such as end
are, bow [10], springback and twist [11]. In roll forming, the overall
level of strain is low and common shape defects such as edge rip-
ple [12] and oil canning [13] result from extremely small redundant

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.10.005
1526-6125/ 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815
plastic strains in the process. This is why changes in the elastic limit
and the pre-and post-yielding behaviour in the incoming strip can
have a signicant effect on shape defects [14]. Additionally, recent
studies have revealed that residual stresses due to steel processing
inuence roll forming shape defects such as springback, bow and
end are [15]. In processing steel, residual stresses can be intro-
duced by skin pass rolling [16], roller levelling and effects related
to the coiling of the strip [17]. Some previous studies have shown
that residual stresses due to skin pass rolling and roller levelling
alter the level of yield stress in a pure bending tests [18] while
there is only a minor effect on the material response in the conven-
tional tensile test [19]. The major deformation mode in roll forming
is bending and this suggests that material data based on the bend-
ing test may be more appropriate to represent material behaviour
in roll forming if residual stresses are present.
The present work arose because it was found that with certain
coils of stainless steel strip exhibiting coil set, the magnitude of sev-
eral defects differed when the orientation of the coil was reversed,
i.e. when the coil was turned up-side-down so that the residual cur-
vature of the incoming strip was changed from vertically upwards
to downwards. Coil set is a common phenomenon in which the
strip retains a residual curvature on uncoiling and can occur when
the material is bent past its yield point during coiling in a cold
or hot rolling mill [20]. Pure bending tests revealed that the strip
showed asymmetrical bending properties in that the elastic plastic
transition moment for bending in the same direction as the resid-
ual curvature was less than half of that in the opposite direction,
suggesting the presence of residual stress. A previously published
inverse method [21] to derive a stress strain curve from the bend-
ing moment characteristic was used to obtain two different stress
strain curves that were used as input to a nite element simulation
of the roll forming process. The nite element system used a single
solid element for the full thickness so that an initial residual stress
distribution could not be represented and input was limited to a
stress-strain curve. It should be emphasised that the stress strain
curve used here in the numerical analysis does not include residual
stress information, but reproduces the observed moment curvature
behaviour in plane strain bending of strip that does contain residual
stresses. The numerical results achieved this way reproduced the
trends observed experimentally for the effect of coil feed position
on the level of twist and end are but signicantly overestimated
the magnitude of shape defects. The results of this study suggest
that if there is residual stress present in the incoming strip, mate-
rial input that is based on bending test data may lead to an improved
representation of material behaviour in the numerical analysis of
the roll forming process compared with input that is based on the
conventional tensile test.
Fig. 2. Forming sequence of the roll forming process.
9
Fig. 1. Channel section shape formed in the industrial trials. (Dimensions in mm).
2. Product and Industrial Process
The product studied was a roll formed channel having the cross-
section shown in Fig. 1.
The channel section was formed in 11 forming steps; lubrication
was limited to a 12% water soluble oil coolant. The constant radius
method was used in the roll pass design, where the prole radius is
the same at each roll and the bend angle is increased incrementally
through the forming steps. The forming sequence is shown in Fig. 2.
The distance between the roll stations in the roll former was
550 mm and the roll gap was set according to the material thickness
of 3.4 mm. In forming stations, 1-6, both the top and bottom rolls
were driven; in stations, 7-11, only the bottom shaft was driven. In
stations 5-11 the bottom cone rolls were split with the outer seg-
ments being free spinning rolls that were positioned on bearings
to more closely match the line speed of the sheet. This signicantly
reduced the torque required and prevented scufng. The material
was fed from a un-coiler as shown in Fig. 3a and no levelling equip-
ment was used. After the nal forming station (Fig. 3b), sections of
2 m length were cut using the shear cutter shown in Fig. 3c.
Two conditions of feeding the coil were investigated one in
which the lip of the coil and the direction of residual curvature
point upwards (Convex upwards) and the other in which the lip of
the coil is directed downwards (Convex Downwards) as shown in
Fig. 4.
Since it was not possible to change the position of the same coil
during the run, two different coils of the same material were inves-
tigated (coil 1 and coil 2), with coils 1 and 2 being fed in convex
upwards and the convex downwards positions respectively. Sam-
10 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815
Fig. 3. Photographs of the roll forming set up showing a) the roll forming line including the un-coiler, b) the nal forming station and c) the material cut-off.
Fig. 4. The two material feed-conditions investigated in this study.
ple material for the tensile and bending tests, which are further
explained later on, was taken from each of the two coils from the
mid-width of the strip. Three sample sections of 2 m length were
cut close to that region of the coil for both coil feed conditions after
roll forming.
3. Material
The material used in this study was a ferritic chromium-nickel
steel with added Titanium (Thyssen 5CR12 Ti) having a thickness
of 3.4 mm; the nominal compositions of both coils were almost
identical and are given in Table 1.
4. Analysis of Product Defects
4.1. Twist
Twist per unit length, d/dl, (Fig. 5a.) was analysed by scan-
ning the outer surfaces of the formed sections after cut off using an
ExaScan 3D scanner [22] as shown in Fig. 5b.
The resolution of the scanned surface was 0.05 mm giving an
accuracy of 0.04 mm. The scanned surface was aligned with the
ideal surface generated by SolidWorks as shown in Fig. 5b using the
software package Geomagic [23]. By comparing the cross sections
measured at an offset of 20 mm from the part edge at the front and
the back of the scanned component with that of the ideal surface the
rotation angles at the front, F , and at the back, B , were measured
and the overall twist per unit length determined using the relation
d (F B )
= /m (1)
dl 2
4.2. End Flare
End are, s, was determined by measuring the opening of the
section (Fig. 5a) at the front and the back end of the product using
a vernier caliper and applying the relation
s = La Lp (2)
with the actual opening, La , and the prescribed opening, Lp .
 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815 11

Table 1
Chemical composition (wt%) of the two coils of Thyssen 5CR12 Ti steel in weight percentage determined with a SPECTRO analytical instrument.

IADS designation C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Fe

Coil 1 (wt%) 0.0487 0.281 2.00 0.0045 <0.0005 11.5 0.655 85.0
Coil 2 (wt%) 0.0453 0.284 1.99 0.0019 <0.0005 11.66 0.672 84.8

Fig. 5. a) Denition of twist per unit length,d/dl, and of the actual opening, La . b) Comparison of the scanned surface with the ideal CAD surface.

the left of the diagram with a 40 mm free bending length. The pins
on the right-hand ends of the bending arms are attached to a ten-
sile testing machine at the places normally occupied by the tensile
grips. The moment curvature characteristic can be calculated from
the load, F, and the displacement of the cross-head as detailed in
[24]. In these tests, a clip-on curvature gauge was used to obtain a
more accurate measure of curvature in the test-piece. This device
is fully described in [25].
The strips were bent in two directions as shown in Fig. 6b. In
one, the residual curvature was increased and in the other, the cur-
vature was changed in the opposite direction so that the test-piece
was initially straightened and then bent in the other direction. In
the tests, the curvature is increased until the outer bre strain was
about 0.014, i.e. 1.4%. Three to four tests were performed for each
condition on test samples oriented in the longitudinal direction and
transverse to the rolling direction.

Fig. 6. a) Schematic of the bend test set up [25]. b) Direction of bending.

6. Numerical Analysis

5. Material Characterisation 6.1. Inverse Modelling

5.1. Tensile tests
The tensile tests were performed in a 100 kN Instron machine
in accordance with Australian Standard AS 13911991; specimens
were oriented along and transverse to the rolling direction. A non-
contact extensometer with a gauge length of 50 mm was used and
the cross-head speed was 2 mm/min. A total of three to four tests
were performed for each condition.
5.2. Bend tests
Pure bending tests were performed using the apparatus shown
in Fig. 6a. Specimens were clamped between the grips shown on
Inverse analysis in combination with a numerical model of the
pure bending test was applied to generate material input data for
the subsequent numerical analysis of the roll forming process. The
inverse modelling technique is described in detail in [21]. It pro-
vides a tensile true stress strain curve that when used in a simple
numerical bending analysis will give an optimised t to the experi-
  The tting was prescribed over the
mental bending characteristics.
range of curvature of o R1 8m1 for test data generated on
longitudinally oriented samples for the bending with and against
the coil set direction. This stress strain curve does not contain
directly information on residual stress; it is a true stress strain
curve that will predict a moment curvature relation similar to that
observed experimentally.
12 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815

Fig. 7. FEA model of the roll forming process and material cut off.

2.1. Numerical analysis of the roll forming process

A 3-D nite element model was developed for the industrial roll
forming process using Copra FEA [26], which is an implicit solver
(Fig. 7). The strip length was limited to 3 m and the roll forming
from a coil was simulated by xing the movement of the sheet at
both ends in the z-direction and at 6 centre nodes at the back end
of the strip in x direction.
Eight-node, isoparametric, arbitrary hexahedral elements (Ele-
ment Type 7 in the MSC Marc Element library [27]) were used to
mesh the metal strip with a single element through the thickness
to reduce calculation time. The forming rolls were dened as rigid
surfaces and their movement was xed in ve degrees of freedom
allowing only the movement in the z-direction. The same station
distance as used in the industrial trials was chosen and frictionless
contact, = 0, was dened with the touching contact condition.
The elastic material properties applied were a Youngs Modulus
of 210 GPa and a Poissons ratio of = 0.33. To dene the material
behaviour in the plastic range, the von Mises yield condition was
applied. Two sets of material input (Curve A and Curve B) were
utilised. Those were derived from the experimental bend test data
using the inverse routine and are shown in Fig. 10b. During form-
ing, the rolls were moved in the negative z-direction over the sheet
to form it into shape. To simulate the cut off of the 2 m section at
the end of the simulation, the back end of the part was xed at four
nodes in the bottom in the x, y and z direction (this restricted the
movement and the rotation of the part after cut off) and all elements
situated outside the 2 m boundary deleted using the Deactivation
command.
To measure Twist and End Flare, section cuts were taken at the
front and the back end of the part (after cut off) and evaluated in
the CAD package, AutoCad using the same procedure as applied in
the experimental trials and described in Section 4.
7. Results
Both coils showed almost identical tensile properties in the lon-
gitudinal and transverse directions as can be seen in Fig. 8.
The moment curvature diagrams obtained in the pure bending
tests are shown in Fig. 9. For samples oriented longitudinal to the
rolling direction (Fig. 9a) it may be seen that when the curvature is
increased in the direction of the coil set (with coil set), the elastic
Fig. 8. True stress strain curves obtained from tensile tests on each coil in the
longitudinal and transverse directions.
plastic transition is only about one-half of that for bending in the
opposite direction (against coil set and further straightening the
sheet). No effect of the bending direction on the bending behaviour
was observed for transversely oriented samples (Fig. 9b).
The true stress strain curves extracted from the experimental
moment curvature data shown in Fig. 9a using the inverse method
are compared to the experimental tensile curve in Fig. 10b; the t
achieved with the experimental moment curvature data is illus-
trated, for bending against and with coil set, in Fig. 10a. Notice that
the curves in Fig. 10b are shown in an expanded scale at the low
strain range as the difference between them at higher strain is not
great. The curves are given as they were later applied to dene
material behaviour in the numerical model of the roll forming pro-
cess, i.e., without the elastic component.
A clear difference, especially in the yield point and the material
hardening at low plastic strain, can be seen between the tensile
curves generated by the inverse method based on the two sets of
experimental bend test data (Fig. 10b). For tests in which the curva-
ture was increased in the same direction as the residual curvature
after uncoiling, Curve A, the tensile test curve derived by the inverse
method showed a low yield (YP = 163 MPa) and high initial material
hardening. This is in marked contrast to that obtained from bending
against the coil set direction (Curve B); the latter curve is compara-
 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815 13

Fig. 9. Moment curvature characteristics obtained from bend tests in two different directions. a) Samples oriented in the longitudinal direction. b) Samples oriented transverse
to the rolling direction.

Fig. 10. a) Numerical simulation result for the moment curvature diagram based on tensile input generated by the inverse routine compared to the experimental results. b)
Tensile input generated by the inverse analysis for bending with and against coil set compared to the experimental tensile test data.

ble to that obtained in the experimental tensile test with an initial
yield stress of YP = 310 MPa and a low initial strain hardening rate.
The magnitude of twist predicted by the numerical analysis is
shown in Fig. 11 and compared with the experimental values.
It was found that using Curve A (Fig. 10b.) to model the con-
vex upwards coil position and Curve B (Fig. 10b.) for the convex
downwards coil position gave a similar trend to that observed
experimentally, although the magnitudes of the twist predicted
were much greater than experimentally observed.
The same selection of stress strain curves associated with the
two forming conditions shown in Fig. 11 was also used in the
numerical modelling to predict are. For are in the back section,
Fig. 12a, the predicted values are lower than those determined
in the industrial trials, but the reduction in end are observed in
the experiments for the change in coil feed condition from convex
upwards to convex downwards is reproduced. A very good cor-
relation between the numerical predictions and the experimental
values can be observed for end are in the front section (Fig. 12b).
8. Discussion
The industrial trials showed a clear difference in the magnitude
of shape defects twist and are for two coils of the same mate-
rial and tensile properties (Fig. 8) depending on the orientation of
the incoming strip. The overall level of twist as well as end are
in the back of the section after cut off were higher if the coil was
fed convex upwards compared to the convex downwards position
(Figs. 11 and 12a); the opposite trend was observed for end are in
the front section of the roll formed prole (Fig. 12b).
Free bend tests on the uncoiled strip showed marked asymmetry
in the moment curvature characteristics; the elastic plastic transi-
tion moment in strip bent in the same direction as the residual
curvature (with coil set) was only about one-half of that for strip
14 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815
Fig. 11. Measured and simulated twist in the section where Curves A and B (see
Fig. 10b) were used for material inputs for coil feed conditions Convex upwards and
downwards respectively.
bent in the opposite direction (Fig. 9a), i.e. when further straighten-
ing the strip. Similar results have been reported in previous studies
that investigated the bending response of roller levelled and skin
passed metal strip [18]; here the change in bending yield stress
was related to the presentence of a residual stress prole through
the material thickness [19]. In a later study it was observed that
residual stress and the resulting change in bending yield stress can
signicantly inuence shape defects that are common in the roll
forming process such as bow and end are [15]. This suggests that
the effect of the coil feed position on twist and end are observed
in the industrial trials of this study may be the result of residual
stress and previous investigations have conrmed that the coiling
and uncoiling of metal strip can lead to the development of residual
through thickness stress in metal strip [17].
An inverse method was employed to obtain optimised tensile
stress strain curves that tted the observed bending characteristics.
These were used as input to a nite element simulation package.
Fig. 12. Measured and simulated are for a) Back Section b) Front Section. Curves A and B were used for material inputs for coil feed conditions convex upwards and
downwards respectively.
Using this data, shape defects were predicted that followed the
trends observed in the industrial trials. The tensile tests did not
show any difference in the stress strain curves of each coil (Fig. 8)
and therefore numerical analysis based on tensile data would not
have revealed any difference in the conditions for coil feeding. On
the other hand, when two different stress strain curves were used in
the simulation that were based on the tests in bending in two dif-
ferent directions, differences were revealed in shape defects that
followed the trends observed. This suggests that material input
based on the bend test may lead to improved model accuracy in
roll forming simulations if residual stresses are present in the metal
strip. The simulation results achieved in this way only reproduced
the general trends observed in the industrial trials but signicantly
overestimated twist (Fig. 11) and underestimated end are at the
back end of the section (Fig. 12a). A possible explanation for this
is that since the experimental roll forming trials in this study were
performed in an industrial environment the exact tool set up may
not have been reproduced in the numerical model in sufcient
detail. In particular it is possible to correct twist by rotating the
tooling at the exit shown in Fig. 3c. It is likely that during tool setting
of the roll forming line, slight modications were done by the oper-
ators to reduce twist in the section to an acceptable limit and these
are not included in the model input. It also should be pointed out
that the nite element model used to analyse the roll forming pro-
cess in this study employs a single element in the through-thickness
direction and cannot take account of a residual stress prole in the
material. Likewise, the inverse modelling method also assumes no
residual stress in the bending element. The trends shown in the
numerical analyses are therefore purely related to the reduction in
bending yield stress when changing the material input from curve
B to curve A (Fig. 10b); in roll forming shape defects are often the
result of very small magnitudes of permanent longitudinal defor-
mation and have been found to strongly depend on material yield
strength [28].
Nevertheless, a recent study has shown that to accurately cap-
ture the effect of residual stress on nal shape in roll forming with
numerical analysis, material input that includes detailed informa-
tion in regard residual stress and the stress and strain history from
the preceding metal production processes (skin passing, roller lev-
elling or coiling/uncoiling) is required [15]. This suggests that part
of the overestimation of the magnitude of shape defects by the
numerical model of this study may be due to the fact that the stress
strain curve used did not have information on residual stresses, but
 M. Weiss et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 25 (2017) 815
had a reduced elastic plastic transition that simulated bending as
observed in the bending tests.
9. Conclusions
This study investigated the effect of the coil feed position on
nal shape in the roll forming process by performing industrial roll
forming trials. This was followed by the analysis of the material
properties by means of conventional tensile tests and by pure bend-
ing tests performed with and against the coil set direction. Inverse
analysis was applied to generate material input based on the exper-
imental bend test data for the subsequent numerical analysis of the
process. Thereby two sets of material input, one derived from bend-
ing tests performed with coil set and the other from bending trials
against coil set, were applied.
The following conclusions can be made:
If there is coil set, shape defects in roll forming such as twist and
end are change with the coil feed position, i.e., if the coil is turned
up-side-down so that the residual curvature of the incoming strip
is changed from vertically upwards to downwards.
The bending test, which showed a signicantly lower bending
yield stress for samples bent in the coil set direction in compari-
son to those tested in the opposite direction suggest that the effect
of coil feed position on shape defects in roll forming is related to
residual stresses in the material.
If the roll forming process is numerically analysed using true
stress strain material input that is based on bending test data,
the trends observed in the industrial roll forming trials were
reproduced.
For some conditions the magnitudes of shape defects were signif-
icantly overestimated by the numerical model. This may be due
to changes in the industrial set up which were not accounted for
and the assumption of a homogeneous material behaviour in the
numerical analysis.
Despite these deciencies, the current study has shown that the
use of the stress strain data obtained by the inverse method from
bend test data as input to the nite element package gives a better
prediction of possible shape defects than would be obtained by the
direct use of material property data derived from the tensile test.
Including the detailed residual stress information by numerically
analysing the metal processing routines is time consuming and
often not possible due to the unavailability of information on the
strip processing history. The assumption of a homogeneous mate-
rial behaviour in combination with advanced material input based
on experimental bending test data, as performed in this study, may
therefore represent a time and cost effective alternative to account
for residual stress effects in the numerical analysis of roll forming
processes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Emer-
itus Professor J.L. Duncan in writing this paper. The authors further
appreciate the nancial support of the Australian Research Council
(ARC Linkage grant LP120100111), DataM Sheet Metal Solutions
and Australian Rollforming Manufacturers.
15
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