Chapter 6: Perpetuation of Life (Part 1)
Cross-fertilization Cross-
Demonstrate an understanding of:
Plant and animal reproduction
How genes work
How genetic engineering is used to produce
novel products
Reproduction is a biological processes in which an
organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to
itself.
The offspring grows, matures, and in turn reproduce a
new offspring, thus there is a cycle of birth, growth and
death. Reproduction enables the continuity of the
species, generation after generation.
Reproduction enables the continuity of the species,
generation after generation.
Asexual reproduction when offspring is produced by a
single parent with or without the involvement of gamete
formation
*Sexual reproduction when two parents (opposite sex)
participate in the reproductive process involving fusion
of male and female gametes
What are the reproductive parts of plants?
Reproductive parts the morphological features of
plants that are responsible for creating new individual in
sexual processes
Flower-The flower is the reproductive unit of some
plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals,
sepals, one or more carpels (the female reproductive
organs), and stamens (the male reproductive organs).
Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants. Their
reproductive structures are flowers in which the ovules
are enclosed in an ovary.
*Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A
stamen consists of an anther (which produces pollen)
and a filament. The pollen consists of the male
reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules.
*The pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s). Each
carpel includes an ovary (where the ovules are produced;
ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a
style (a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which
receives the pollen during fertilization).
*The ovules are equivalent to the pollen grains of the
male reproductive organ. These are the sex cells
produced in the ovary.
What are the types of reproduction in plants?
1. Self-fertilization/self-pollination
Fertilization is a fusion of male and female
gametes (sex cells) produced by the same individual.
Self-fertilization occurs in bisexual organisms, including
most flowering plants, numerous protozoans, and many
invertebrates.
2.
Fertilization is the fusion of male and female
gametes from different individuals of the same species.
It must occur in dioecious plants (those having male and
female organs on separate individuals) and in all animal
species in which there are separate male and female
individuals. Cross-pollination can only occur between
members of the same species.
3. Asexual reproduction
In this method, a single individual (parent) is
capable of producing offspring.
a. Binary Fission (Division in Half)- It is a kind of asexual
reproduction. Another type of fission is multiple fission,
which is advantageous to the plant life cycle. Multiple
fission, at the cellular level occurs in many protists. The
nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by
mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then
separates, creating multiple daughter cells.
b. Budding - It involves the growth of a small bulb-like
projection called bud. It grows and detaches itself from
the parent cell to grow independently into a new
organism.
c. Fragmentation- involves breaking down of filaments
into fragments that grow into young ones.
d. Artificial Vegetative Propagation.
*Grafting - The stems of two different plants are joined
together so as to produce a new plant containing the
characters of both plants.
*Cutting- It involves planting a young cutting of the stem
with buds into moist soil
*Layering- A branch of the plant which is near to the
ground is pulled towards the ground and a part of this
branch is covered with moist soil leaving the tip of this
branch above the ground.
*Tissue culture- A mass of tissue is selected from the
growing tip of the plant. This is termed as callus.
e. Natural Vegetative Propagation
*Stolons- Stolons or runners are horizontal stems that
grow above the ground, for example, strawberries. Tiny
plantlets form along the stolon, and roots form where
they touch the ground.
*Rhizomes- Rhizomes are root-like stems that grow
horizontally under the ground. New roots and shoots
form at the nodes with shoots growing upwards to form
new plantlets. Lateral buds grow out to form new
rhizomes.
*Tubers- Tubers are swollen portions of an underground
stem that store food so a plant can lie dormant over the
winter, for example, potatoes. Axillary buds, commonly
known as eyes, form over the surface of the tuber and
produce shoots that grow into a new plant the following
year.
*Bulbs- Bulbs form lateral buds from the base of the
mother bulb, which produce new smaller bulbs or bulbels
in subsequent years.
3. Sexual reproduction in Plants
*Coniferous Trees. A group of plants called
gymnosperms developed wind borne pollen like the
cayads, ginkos and needle-bearing trees such as pines and
redwoods. Their pollens are released into the air and
drift to other trees in the forest.The plants also
developed female cones which are essentially the ovaries.
The pollen falls directly to the female cones.
Gymnosperm means naked seeds. These seeds have very
thin covering that probably does not offer them much
protection.
*The Development of flower.
Angiosperms have flowers and bear seeds enclosed in a
protective covering called a fruit. Angiosperms are the
dominant types of plants today.
Angiosperms are further divided into monocots and
dicots. Monocots have one seed leaf. Dicots have two
seed leafs.
To perpetuate the generation of species on land, plants
need to evolve new structures and methods for
reproduction.
The seed is as significant for plants as the amniotic egg
for land animals. Seeds are formed when the
chromosomes of the parents are united in the ovary.
The biological function of a flower is to mediate the
union of male sperm with female ovum from ovary in
order to produce seeds.
After fertilization, ovaries of flower change to fruits
containing seeds.
What are the organs of plants?
The organs of plants are divided into vegetative and
reproductive.
The vegetative organs are the leaves, stem, and roots.
*The leaves take care of food manufacture and
transpiration.
*The stem supports the leaves and parts of the plant.
*The roots absorb water and minerals and anchor the
plant to the soil.
The reproductive organs are responsible for the
perpetuation of the plant. These are the flowers, fruits,
and seeds.
Germination is the process by which a plant grows from a
seed.
Every seed is a tiny plant (embryo) with leaves. Stems, and
root parts waiting to germinate and grow. It is protected
by a coat, which could either be thin or thick and hard
to protect the embryo from tough conditions.
The seed also contains a short-term food supply called
endosperm. This is found in the plants cotyledons.
A plant with one cotyledon is called monocots. If they
have two cotyledons, they are called dicots.
Seeds are plants way of being dispersed from one place
to another.
Animal Reproduction
Animals can be grouped into those which give birth to
living offspring and those which lay eggs that eventually
hatch into offspring.
*Live-bearing or viviparous. The animals which give birth
to live offspring.
*Egg-laying or oviparous. The animals which lay-eggs.
Asexual Reproduction
1. Parthenogenesis
A females egg develops into a new organism
without being fertilized by a sperm cell.
Example: aphids, hammerhead sharks, turkeys
2. Budding
An offspring grows directly out of the body of
the parent.
Example: Hydras, predatory cnidarians
3. Fragmentation
A parent breaks into multiple pieces, each of
which develops into a fully functioning, independent
individual.
Example: sea stars, flatworms
4. Binary fission
It occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in
some invertebrate, multicelled organisms.
After a period of growth, an organism splits into
separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic
organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis.
Sexual Reproduction
During sexual reproduction in animals, a haploid sperm
and unites with a haploid egg cell to form a diploid
zygote.
The zygote divides mitotically and differentiates into an
embryo. The embryo grows and matures. After birth or
hatching, the animal develops into a mature adult
capable of reproduction.
1. Hermaphroditism
It occurs in animals where one individual has
both male and female reproductive parts.
Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or mate with another
of their species.
2. Sequential Hermaphroditism
It occurs when an individual reverses its sex during its
lifetime.
*Protogynous when individuals start out life as
a female and change sex to male;
*Protandrous when individuals start out life as
a male and change to female.
Chapter 6: Perpetuation of Life (Part 2)
What is a gene?
Genes are small sections of DNA within the genome that code for
proteins.They contain the instructions for our individual characteristics
like eye and hair colour.
Gene is a functional unit of heredity. It is capable of storing information
and capable of self-replication and can undergo mutation. Genes, which
are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called
proteins
What are the chemical compositions of DNA?
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is found within the nucleus of
every cell. Each strand is composed of a long chain of monomer
nucleotides. The nucleotide of DNA consists of a deoxyribose sugar
molecule to which is attached a phosphate group and one of four
nitrogenous bases:
Two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and
thymine).
The nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds between the
phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next, forming a
phosphate-sugar backbone from which the nitrogenous bases protrude.
One strand is held to another by hydrogen bonds between the bases; the
sequencing of this bonding is specifici.e., adenine bonds only with
thymine, and cytosine only with guanine.
Nucleotide is the building block of DNA.
In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick determined that the structure
of DNA is a double-helix polymer, a spiral consisting of two DNA strands
wound around each other.
The model shows that paired nucleotide, which always occur as A-T or
G-C, are linked byhydrogen bonds. This is called the complementary base
pairing.
Why is DNA important?
All the characteristics that a person had are affected by the DNA in the
cell. It controls the color of the eyes, hair, complexion, height, etc.
These characteristics are traits that can be inherited.
How traits appear in you depends on the kind of proteins a persons cells
make. DNA stores the blueprints for making proteins. How DNA copies
itself?
Before a cell divides, its DNA is replicated (duplicated.) Because the two
strands of a DNA molecule have complementary base pairs, the
nucleotide sequence of each strand automatically supplies the
information needed to produce its partner.
If the two strands of a DNA molecule are separated, each can be used
as a pattern or template to produce a complementary strand; Each
template and its new complement together then form a new DNA double
helix, identical to the original.
What is mitochondrial DNA?
Although most DNA is packaged in chromosomes within the nucleus,
mitochondria also have a small amount of their own DNA. This genetic
material is known as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA.
Mitochondria are structures within cells that convert the energy from
food into a form that cells can use.
Oxidative phosphorylation- a process where the mitochondria produce
energy. This process uses oxygen and simple sugars to create adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cells main energy source.
What is RNA?
RNA, ribonucleic acid, is a single strand molecule with no helix.
The structure of RNA nucleotides is very similar to that of DNA
nucleotides, with the main difference being that the ribose sugar
backbone in RNA has a hydroxyl (-OH) group that DNA does not.
The four bases of RNA are guanine, cytosine, adenine and uracil (U)
instead of thymine (T).
Central Dogma - RNA plays a central role in the pathway from DNA to
proteins.
During the process known as transcription, a RNA copy of a segment of
DNA, or messenger RNA (mRNA), is made. This strand of RNA can then
be read by a ribosome to form a protein.
Translating the Code of Life: From DNA to RNA to Protein
Proteins control the activities of the cell, and so the life of the entire
organism.
Protein Synthesis Summary
1. The DNA is inside the nucleus. It contains the information for making
proteins. This information has to be copied or transcribed by the RNA
called messenger RNA (mRNA).
2. The copied information called codon, which is made up of three
consecutive nitrogenous bases, is sent to the cytoplasm where it will
enter the ribosomal RNA.
3. Once inside the ribosome, translation begins, meaning, the transfer of
RNA (tRNA) from the cytoplasm starts to bring the anticodon, the three
consecutive nitrogenous pairs, that fits the mRNA codon.
4. A codon is a base triplet of nucleotides in mRNA which calls for an
amino acid. Each anticodon represents one type of amino acid. Amino
acids are the basic units of protein molecules.
5. When all the codons are covered into amino acids, translation stops
and a protein molecule is produced.
Why are proteins important?
Proteins perform all of the work in organisms. Some functions include:
Serving as catalyst for reactions
Performing cell signalling
Transporting molecules across membranes
Creating structures
** Phenotype is what you see - the visible or observable expression of the
results of genes, combined with the environmental influence on an
organisms appearance or behavior.
**Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism and it results in some of
the physical characteristics of that organism.
What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an
organisms characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way
It involves the transfer of genes or parts of DNA from one organism to
another.
Transgenic organism organisms whose genes are altered or modifies for
specific purposes
How is DNA used in Genetic Engineering?
Genetic engineering is achieved through manipulation of the DNA.
Doing this is possible since DNA is like a universal language; all DNA for
all organisms is made up of the same nucleotide building blocks.
Since DNA contains the genes to build certain proteins, by changing the
DNA sequence, engineers are able to provide a new gene for a
cell/organism to create a different protein.
The new instructions may supplement the old instructions such that an
extra trait is exhibited, or they may completely replace the old
instructions such that a trait is changed.
Genetic Engineering Technique
The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organisms
being modified.
1. Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene.
2. Extract the entire DNA from the organism.
3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by
using a restriction enzyme. These enzymes search for specific nucleotide
sequences where they will cut the DNA by breaking the bonds at this
location.
4. Insert the new gene to an existing organisms DNA. This may
be achieved through a number of different processes. Plasmid is a
circular piece containing the genetic material. When new gene is inserted
in it, it opens it ring and new gene is attached to its ends through the
enzyme called as ligase. New gene replicates along with the plasmids
genetic material. For example if plasmid is carrying a gene of insulin, it will
start producing the protein of insulin along with other gene products.
Bacteria are of great significance in the pharmaceutical industry because
they are used to produce insulin and other useful proteins.
What are the uses of Genetic Engineering?
Repairing a genetic defect (as with the early trials of gene
therapy in humans)
Enhancing an effect already natural to that organism (example:
to increase its growth rate)
Increasing resistance to disease or external damage (example:
crops blight, cold or drought)
 Getting a micro-organism to produce human insulin for
diabetics, or a sheep to produce a human blood-clotting in her milk, in
both cases a transgenic method)
Getting a tomato to ripen without going squashy
GMO (Genetically Modified Organism)
These are living organism whose genetic material has been
synthetically manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering.
These relatively new science creates unstable combinations of
plant, animals, bacterial and viral genes that do not occur in nature or
through crossbreeding methods.
What is cloning?
Cloning is a method that scientist use to produce a genetic
copy of another individual.
Clones do not always look identical. Although clones share the same
genetic material, the environment also plays a big role in how an organism
turns out.
Do clones ever occur naturally?
In nature, some plants and single-celled organisms, such as
bacteria, produce genetically identical offspring through a process called
asexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, a new individual is
generated from a copy of a single cell from the parent organism.
Natural clones, also known as identical twins, occur in humans and other
mammals. These twins are produced when a fertilized egg splits, creating
two or more embryos that carry almost identical DNA. Identical twins
have nearly the same genetic makeup as each other, but they are
genetically different from either parent.
Dolly, a sheep, is the first cloned animal.
What are the current uses of Genetically Modified Organisms?
Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop
yields, reduced costs for food or drug production, reduced need for
pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality, resistance
to pests and disease, greater food security, and medical benefits to the
world's growing population.
Advances have also been made in developing crops that mature faster
and tolerate aluminum, boron, salt, drought, frost, and other
environmental stressors, allowing plants to grow in conditions where they
might not otherwise flourish.
Other applications include the production of nonprotein (bioplastic) or
nonindustrial (ornamental plant) products.
A number of animals have also been genetically engineered to increase
yield and decrease susceptibility to disease.
Genetic modification has been widely used for the last two decades in a
variety of industries.
* Agriculture
Plant crops, including both food and fiber harvests, have been
subject to several types of genetic modification. Genes used to increase
yields include those conveying drought, pest and disease-resistance.
According to the GMO Compass website, in 2009 more than
88 percent of U.S.-produced corn, soybean and cotton crops were
genetically modified.
The Philippines was the first in Asia to approve commercial
cultivation of a GM crop for animal feed and food in 2002 when it
allowed GM corn planting. It has also allowed GM crop imports for more
than a decade. Around 70 percent of its corn output is GM.
*Medicine
According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, one of
the first applications of genetic modification was the creation a
bacterial strain capable of producing human insulin. Insulin, the hormone
lacking in people with diabetes, was previously isolated from pig pancreas.
Other examples of GMOs used in medicine include
pharmaceutical agents produced in sheep's milk and vaccines grown in
chicken eggs.
*Bioremediation
Bioremediation describes any process by which living organisms
are used to clean up contaminated soil or water. Bioremediation generally
uses microorganisms, small bacteria and yeasts, which ingest the
contaminants in a given site and render them inert through the cells' own
metabolic processes.
According to the BioBasics website, factors affecting their
survival could include temperature, pH, oxygen levels and nutrients.
Genetic modification makes it possible to engineer bacteria that will be
robust within a given environment, by inserting genes that will ensure
their survival.
What are the benefits of using GMOs?
1. Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms made with
engineered material with the goal of improving the original organism. They
can then be used, in some cases, to produce GMO foods. Seeds are
genetically changed for multiple reasons, which include improving
resistance to insects and generating healthier crops, according to
Healthline.com. This can lower risk of crop failure, and make crops
better resistant to extreme weather.
2. Engineering can also eliminate seeds and produce a longer shelf life,
which allows for the "safe transport to people in countries without
access to nutrition-rich foods."
3. Environmental benefits. Less chemicals, time, machinery, and land are
needed for GMO crops and animals, which can help reduce
environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil erosion.
Enhanced productivity because of GMOs could allow farmers to
dedicate less real estate to crops. Also, farmers are already growing corn,
cotton, and potatoes without spraying the bacterial insecticide Bacillus
thuringiensis because the crops produce their own insecticides,
according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
4. Better nutrition. By modifying some GMO foods in terms of mineral or
vitamin content, companies can supply more necessary nutrients and help
fight worldwide malnutrition, according to The Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations.
5. The use of molecular biology in vaccination development has been
successful and holds promise, according to the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Scientists have engineered plants to
produce vaccines, proteins, and other pharmaceutical goods in a process
called "pharming."
What are the risks of using GMOs?
1. Food allergies in children under 18 spiked from 3.4 percent in 1997-99 to
5.1 percent in 2009-11, according to the National Center for Health
Statistics, though it bears noting that there's no conclusive scientific
link to GMO foods.
2. GMOs can pose significant allergy risks, according to a Brown
University study. Genetic enhancements often combine proteins not
contained in the original organism, which can cause allergic reactions for
humans. For example, if a protein from an organism that caused an
allergic reaction is added to something that previously didn't, it may
prompt a new allergic reaction.
3. Lowered resistance to antibiotics. Some GMOs have built-in antibiotic
qualities that enhance immunity, according to Iowa State University, but
eating them can lessen the effectiveness of actual antibiotics.
4. Genes may migrate. According to The Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations, "Through 'gene escape,' they can
pass on to other members of the same species and perhaps other species.
Genes introduced in GMOs are no exception, and interactions might
occur at gene, cell, plant, and ecosystem level.
Problems could result if, for example, herbicide-resistance genes got into
weeds. So far, research on this is inconclusive, with scientists divided
often bitterly. But there is scientific consensus that once widely
released, recalling transgenes or foreign DNA sequences, whose safety is
still subject to scientific debate, will not be feasible."