Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and
do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.
ISBN 978-92-5-106000-0
FAO 2011
Preface v
Table of contents
Acknowledgements vii
Introduction 1
Spices and herbs 1
Contribution to livelihoods 2
Market potential 3
Purpose of the booklet 5
Challenges 57
Supply chain and market linkages 57
Product quality and safety 57
Farmer groups 58
On-farm processing: Investment and technology 58
Access to quality plant materials 58
Continuity of supply 59
Access to financial services 59
Enterprise sustainability 59
Table of contents
Preface
The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizations
that provide advisory, business and technical support services to resource-
poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income
countries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these support
service providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and how
these might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potential
benefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical
success factors?
v
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support
and website addresses.
If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tell
your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about
possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics
for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide
better services to you.
vi
Acknowledgements
vii
Introduction
1
are expanding and can offer good and improve livelihoods. There is
returns to small-scale farmers. also a good potential for small-scale
Trade is dominated by dried processing on-farm that can provide
products. In recent years fresh value-adding activities and higher
herbs have become popular and are income from the sale of processed
perceived to be of higher quality. spices and herbs.
Spice and herb derived essential oils Spices and herbs are a particularly
and oleoresins are sold in large and viable enterprise for women as
growing markets. they can conveniently be grown in
gardens in and around the homestead,
Contribution to livelihoods
Spice and herb plants do not require
large land areas for profitable
cultivation and can also be gathered
from the wild. In the case of
cultivation, growing can be achieved
without excessive investments as
many spice and herb plants can
be produced with minimal inputs
of cash, labour and land. They are
often an ideal crop to be integrated
into small-scale farming systems
and are suitable for smaller garden
production (see FAO Diversification
Booklet No.2 Livelihoods grow in
gardens).
Spices and herbs as an enterprise
can offer additional opportunities
for employment within the family
and income earned can be used as
a safety net in times of need and/
or used to pay for medical expenses
that the family may require.
Cultivations of suitable spice and FIGURE 1 Varieties of spices on sale at a
market.
herb crops can provide extra cash (Photo: FAO/24691_1163/ G. Napolitano)
to supplement household income
2
as well as providing an opportunity with herbs and spices (see FAO
for women to start a commercial Diversification booklet No. 18 Selling
enterprise and be able to participate street and snack foods). Spices and
in the local economy. The income can herbs can also be used to preserve
be of great support, especially in case food (see FAO Diversification booklet
of widowhood or abandonment, and No. 5 Processing for prosperity).
the enterprise can have the potential
to provide a greater role for women Market potential
in the family and community. Local markets for fresh, dried and
Spices and herbs can be used value added spice and herb products
in household and personal hygiene can be developed in competition
3
This demand comes partly from
upper-income local and expatriate
consumers, but HIV programmes
often recommend eating organic food
and this has led to awareness among
the general population and additional
lower-income demand for organic
food crops.
Indigenous plants are now
finding new uses given a renewed
appreciation for natural products.
Local processing can widen the
variety of spice and herb crops that
may find markets. Central processing
plants for oleoresins have been set up
in various countries-for example in
India and Zimbabwe. Mobile stills
FIGURE 3 Local market sales in Mexico
operated by contractors allow small-
(Photo: FAO/4182/ F. Botts)
scale farmers to grow essential oil
crops without making an investment
in distillation equipment. spices, where conditions are suitable,
The production of spices by small- can often compete successfully with
scale farmers has been big business imports.
in many countries for centuries. The Culinary herbs are less often
methods of finance, production, traditionally produced by small-
processing, quality control and scale farmers than are spices, though
marketing have been widely studied Mediterranean North Africa is an
(for links to research on this see the exception to this. Herb production is
Selected further reading section at often mechanized, and good quality
the end of the booklet). Local demand is easier to achieve using forced
in developing countries is largely for air drying and machine cleaning
spices rather than herbs taste varies than by small-scale sun drying and
regionally but pepper, curry spices hand sorting methods, as used
and paprika are mainstay crops. In satisfactorily for many spices. Many
countries which are not traditional culinary herbs originate in temperate/
exporters, new production of such Mediterranean climates, and perhaps
4
for this reason local markets trade diversification enterprise to enhance
fewer herbs than spices in many the livelihoods of small-scale
developing countries. farmers. The focus is on spice and
herb enterprises being integrated
Purpose of the booklet into small-scale faming systems,
This publication aims to create alongside traditional crops and
awareness about the potential livestock, and/or harvested from
opportunities and advantages wild plants. Opportunities for value
for spices and herbs as a viable addition are also highlighted.
5
Spices and herbs for improved livelihoods
FIGURE 4 A young man watering chilli pepper and onion plants in his home garden
(Photo: FAO/22925/ G Bizzarri)
7
Health, nutrition and medicinal opportunities exist for women in
value spice and herb cultivation, in small
The medicinal attributes of herbs form household garden/kitchen processing
the basis of traditional healthcare. enterprises, in further value addition
Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAPs) and in selling. This enables women,
are widely documented to have a range in their own right, to earn income, to
of health benefits and cultivation can be involve themselves in trade, create
beneficial to households and the wider social networks, improve their status
community (see FAO Diversification in the family and social status in their
booklet No. 17 Health and wealth community and to provide added
from medicinal aromatic plants). For security to their household in case
example, rosemary is used to treat of abandonment by, or sickness or
headaches, poor circulation and as a death of, the husband or other male
natural breath freshener. Bay leaves household members.
can be made into an infusion to relieve
flatulence and bloating and to help
with arthritis. African basil (Ocimum
canum) can be drunk as a refreshing
tea and is used to treat diabetes, as
an expectorant to clear throat and
lungs, and as a mosquito repellent.
Antioxidants are found in many spices
and herbs which can contribute to the
bodys defence against cardiovascular
disease and intestinal cancers.
Examples include ginger, which is
widely used for digestive problems;
and fenugreek and garlic, which may
help lower cholesterol levels.
8
When organizing training it is Health1 has successfully initiated
important to include women as often collective small-scale agriculture
their access is limited as preference is for groups of people with AIDS
usually given to men when inviting to improve their food security and
participants for training sessions. income. The cooperatives operate
labour sharing schemes to give rest
Opportunities for the disabled days and share the burden of work.
Cultivation of plants can be a
therapeutic exercise and enables Peri-urban and urban
mentally and physically challenged agriculture
people to contribute to their Spices and herbs can be cultivated
9
FIGURE 6 Urban agriculture: farmer cutting spearmint
(Photo: FAO/22435/ O. Thuillier)
10
The livelihood activity
11
FIGURE 7 Red chilli peppers for sale at a market
(Photo: FAO/ 24731_0952/ O. Asselin)
12
Spices and herbs for home and market
FIGURE 9 Clove tree in Zanzibar
(Photo by M. Jack)
Cloves Pepper
Cloves are grown by small- Pepper is the most important
scale farmers in many low lying world spice crop. It is grown by
tropical areas including Indonesia, small-scale farmers in a number of
Madagascar and Zanzibar. Apart South American, African, Indian
from the use of the bud as a spice, sub-continental and Pacific Ocean
the leaf, stem and bud are distilled countries, and does best with high
for essential oils, and the bud has rainfall or supplementary irrigation,
medicinal uses- for example for the and at lower elevations in the
relief of toothache. tropics. It is labour intensive, and
13
FIGURE 10 Mature organic pepper (Piper nigrum) in Zimbabwe
(Photo by M. Jack)
14
labour intensive hand cutting a lemongrass crop is mildly susceptible
necessity) and the stems are used to fungal disease a rust- but is
fresh and dried in Asian cookery. The relatively easy to grow.
FIGURE 12 Chopping lemongrass by hand into sizes specified for the export leaf tea market
(Photo by M. Jack )
15
Sesame be found for use in baking breads
Sesame pods shatter easily when and buns, and cottage industry tahini
ready for harvest, making the is made in the same way as peanut
reaping of this dehiscent crop very butter, using a hand or mechanized
labour intensive. Local markets can grinder.
16
Vanilla and Fair Trade is included in this
Pollination is very labour intensive, booklet, as these certifications are
and the crop needs to be cured after increasingly worthwhile for small-
reaping. Plants can grow among scale farmers, operating on contract
trees near homesteads, making this a farming schemes with medium and
high value crop in low lying tropical large processors, in many countries
environments. around the world.
Fenugreek
This is the only widely traded Cultivation
leguminous spice, and is useful in Spices and herbs can often be
17
and rotation should be organized the use of zero or minimum tillage,
appropriately to minimise plant also assist in raising yields and
diseases. Approaches using low cost reducing erosion.
fertility inputs to substitute energy Organic methods are often
intensive fertilizer with locally suitable for spices and herbs since
available agro-mineral fertilizers they are not heavy users of plant
such as phosphate rock, and the use nutrients compared to starch
of legume rotations or inter-planting, crops, and pests and diseases are
are effective. Legume use increases not usually major problems. If
both soil organic matter and permitted organic fertility inputs are
biological activity and reduces soil used correctly, yield differentials
erosion and consequent loss of agro- between conventional and organic
nutrients. Placing fertilizers close to spice and herb cultivation are often
seeds rather than broadcasting, and small.
FIGURE 15 Farmers hoeing soil around chilli pepper plants that will then be mulched with
plastic sheets
(Photo: FAO/23185/ C. Shanghua)
18
Spices and herbs for home and market
FIGURE 16 Harvesting organic pepper on a small-scale farm in India
(Photo: FAO/23423/ J. Boethling)
19
dry baskets, sacks or crates. Over- prevent deterioration. Drying can be
stacking, which will cause crushing, done by spreading the crop in the sun
will need to be avoided and containers (direct solar), or in drying rooms, or
should allow air circulation. All tunnels, sometimes using solar or solar
equipment should be dried and assisted drying systems (indirect solar).
cleaned between loads. Direct sun-drying tends to reduce the
green colour of herbs and so limits
Threshing/cleaning export potential, but sun-dried quality is
often acceptable in local markets.
This can be done by hand winnowing Enclosed fuel assisted electrically
with sieves or by using mechanical powered driers can produce higher
separation (see below). quality with lower contamination but
cost more to install and run. A central
Washing drying and cleaning plant is sometimes
used to handle crop from small-scale
Washing may be needed for products farmers from surrounding areas, on the
where dirt and dust are to be removed model often used for tea production.
i.e. pepper spikes or ginger rhizomes. The aim is to dry the product as
The water used must be potable and quickly as possible but not so quickly
changed regularly. that the flavour is spoilt- as a rule of
thumb, when forced air is used, air
Curing temperature should not be over 35 C.
For high quality- appearance, taste and
In the case of vanilla beans, sun microbiological status- most culinary
wilting promotes the required herbs are best dried using a heat source-
enzymatic development of flavour generated from fuel or solar energy, or
compounds. With turmeric, boiling at least dried under shade.
or steaming the rhizome with lime There are numerous solar dryers
or sodium bicarbonate is sometimes available as kits or via do-it-
used to eliminate the raw odour and yourself plans. Most use a sloping
gives a more uniform colour. air tunnel with black surfaces, with
clear covers to limit heat losses
Drying from the tunnel. The heated air in
the tunnel rises and is led over or
This is a critical process whereby through the plant material, which is
moisture levels are reduced to laid out in racks. With simple driers
20
it is difficult to ensure the airflow may develop mould. Solar drying can
and temperature are optimal- at high be a useful source of additional heat
temperatures, volatile oils are lost, in a conventional fuel-fed forced hot
and if drying takes too long the crop air system.
21
FIGURE 19 A woman sorting chillies by colour and size ( grading) at a market before
selling them
(Photo: FAO/ 24712_2503/C.Thomas)
Cleaning Packaging
22
Spices and herbs for home and market
FIGURE 20 Packaging ground spices
(Photo: FAO/22718/ G. Diana)
23
FIGURE 21 Large scale clove distillation plant at ZTSC, Zanzibar. The state owned trading
company has lost its former prominence in the global clove spice and oil market, which was
based on a government monopoly on Tanzanian cloves, with small-scale farmers selling
their cloves at prices set by ZTSC.
(Photo by M. Jack)
24
Spices and herbs for home and market
FIGURE 22 Removing geranium material from a small still following steam distillation of
essential oil
(Photo by M. Jack)
25
Product quality and safety Practice for Spice and Dried Aromatic
Plants 1995 (Codex Alimentarius
Good practice in cultivation, Commission) CAC/RCP42 gives
harvest, and particularly post-harvest detailed advice on production and
operations, is critical in ensuring a harvesting, the design of facilities,
good quality and a safe end-product. personal hygiene of operatives,
hygiene methods for processing and
The main quality problems include: end-product specifications.
26
ensuring that contamination of the can be improvised using farm stills.
product is minimised: Irradiation of spices and herbs
is a proven solution but there is
Physical: All work areas should consumer resistance to the process.
be clean and free of possible Steam treatment is effective and
contaminants. Before personnel leads to little quality deterioration
enter the processing areas, hands and if purpose built equipment is used.
fingernails should be scrubbed using High pressure treatment with carbon
antibacterial soap, hair covered, dioxide is a promising method of
jewellery removed and clean overalls reduction of bacterial and fungal
worn. counts.
27
damaged product should be removed use of pesticides. Where these are
before drying. used compliance with local and
Crop moisture levels in storage target market regulations on their
should be monitored. Simple oven use needs to be properly managed.
drying of a weighed sample is often In cultivation care must be taken
used to determine the amount of not to contaminate product with
moisture removed and therefore the pesticides used on neighbouring
initial moisture content. With some crops, and storage separation
spice crops moisture levels can be should be carefully maintained.
judged by experience- for example
paprika pods when dried for milling Allergens: In processing,
should break rather than bend, and inadvertent contamination by
coriander is at a safe moisture level other crops should be prevented
if a hand can be pushed to the bottom particularly by potential allergens
of a sack of the seed. such as nuts, sesame, soya or
There is no practical way of grain with gluten content such as
completely removing mycotoxins wheat or barley. The market for
from dried spices once they are allergen free produce is growing,
contaminated, but various methods but demands complete separation
can reduce contamination. These of crops as all stages of growth and
methods include treatment with production. Such rigid separation
ammonia, ozone, and various is normally applied to starch crops
essential oils, in combination with such as quinoa (which is gluten
heat. Treatment with solvents free).
such as hexane or supercritical
carbon dioxide in the production Heavy metals: Checks need to be
of oleoresins leaves some made to ensure that toxic metals
contamination in the crop residue are not naturally present in, or
rather than the extract. Mycotoxins allowed to contaminate, soil, water,
are not volatile and so will not steam composts or fertilizers. Arsenic
distil from a crop into its essential has been widely used as a dip for
oil. cattle against parasites, and if land
previously used for cattle handling
Pesticides: Most spice and herb is to be cultivated, residue checks
crops can be grown with little or no would be a sensible precaution.
28
Artificial colours: Care must be taken and the plant material with potential
to avoid inadvertent adulteration such customers need to be verified.
as with artificial colours. After some Locally traded spice seed can often
chilli shipments were found to be be grown successfully- e.g. chillies,
contaminated with Sudan Red colour, paprika, coriander, but germination
food safety agencies instituted border tests are advisable, and capsicum
tests for this contaminant. Inadvertent seed may be infected with viruses-
contamination can come from, for heat treatment of seed can remove
instance: viruses. Contractors will generally
provide seed. Buyers, especially
marking inks in plant protection in export markets are often a good
29
checks on what irrigation facilities is not yet well supported by research
might be feasible need to be carried and extension recommendations, in
out. Drip irrigation is the most water- comparison with conventional field
efficient but is capital intensive. Hand and vegetable crops. Consequently,
and treadle pumps are effective if as much experimentation as possible
water is available from rivers or wells should be done with various
where the water table is high. promising treatments, and control
areas always kept for comparison
Packaging materials: Assessments of purposes. Records of trial results
what packaging system will be most should be incorporated into the
appropriate in preserving the product normal yield records required for
correctly and the quantities required, organic certification to avoid the
order batch sizes and lead times for results being lost.
delivery need to be ascertained.
Organic standards and certification
Storage facilities: What facility will Organic standards are much better
be required to adequately store all the understood by consumers now that
equipment, packaging and the crop organic standards have been long
itself to ensure cleanliness and avoid established, but misconceptions and
pest contamination? controversy are still common. The
three main sets of internationally
Transportation: What mode of recognised standards- EU, Japan,
transport will be required from farm and United States of America - are
to store and onward to market, and broadly similar and many certification
how will the crop be protected from agencies are licensed to inspect and
contamination during transport? certify to all three. A comprehensive
guide to organic certification is
Speciality spices and herbs: outside the scope of this booklet,
Organic and Fair Trade but reference and downloadable
information can be found in the
Organic Selected further reading section.
Briefly: for crops, organic
Introduction standards specify periods required for
Organic farming in general, and transition to organic status; permitted
spice and herb farming in particular, fertilizer and pesticide inputs (if an
30
input is not listed, it is not permitted) Organic fertility management
and restrictions on their use. Ground Fertility management is arguably the
agro-mineral rocks, legume rotations most difficult element of successful
and inter-plants, and composts high yield organic farming. Because
are used for fertility management. deficiencies cannot be remedied
Insect pests can be controlled by quickly by the use of soluble chemical
naturally derived insecticides such fertilizers, long term planning is even
as pyrethrum and derris, by predators more necessary than in conventional
and parasitic organisms (for example farming. Fertility under organic
Bacillus thuringensis). Control rules is easier to maintain on heavier
of fungal diseases is permitted by soils, as nutrients are often leached
31
FIGURE 23 Large scale production of compost in Bhutan for use in organic farming
(Photo: FAO/18658/G. Blaak)
32
herb crops are given in the Selected in the growing season of 20 mm per
further reading section. Where land week net on herb crops in general is
is in conversion or the spice will a reasonable compromise between
take several years to first harvest yield and water use/cost.
(e.g. vanilla or pepper), non-organic
seed or planting material may Crop establishment
be acceptable to the certification Transplanted crops generally take
agency. Potential customers and more easily when planted out in
other growers may help with seed cooler weather with cloud cover,
supply, and specialist organic and if they can be planted with the
consultants should have sources of rains, the initial heavy demand on
33
weeding of beds where broadleaf the land is free of perennial weeds
weeds have been germinated (stale using either cultivation or herbicides
seedbed technique) can be used or both. Mechanical cultivation and
before drilling the crop. hand weeding should be continued
through the conversion period
Weed control with zero tolerance for seeding or
Weed control (along with N perennial weeds. If fallow land goes
management) is the main problem directly into organic status, perennial
for organic farming, and especially weed roots should be desiccated by
so for spice and herb production- ploughing and fallowing in a dry
where crops generally do not period- hand weeding of perennial
canopy heavily and so do not weeds once they are established is
shade out weeds. Farmers should difficult and expensive.
aim for zero tolerance of weeds at
all times. The sayings one years Pest and disease control
seeds means seven years weeds General
and a stitch in time saves nine Under competent organic
need to be emphasised continually management, pests are, perhaps
to cultivators. Weeds should be surprisingly, often much less of
removed the same day to avoid a problem than under traditional
seeding or re-growth a particular conventional farming where crops
problem with grass weeds. are sprayed routinely with pesticides-
Hand weeding should be where predator populations may be
carefully supervised to avoid reduced. When compost and legume
damage to crops and a resultant residues are used rather than fertiliser
requirement for subsequent infilling. nitrates, crops may be more pest and
Flowering and perennial weeds disease resistant. Once established,
should be removed from the land herbs are not generally subject
on the day of cultivation. Perennial to major insect pest problems,
weeds should be lifted with forks, particularly if habitats for predators
rather than hoed. are maintained, and the temptation
If land has been farmed to spray against outbreaks of pests
conventionally prior to conversion is resisted. Organic permitted sprays
to organic, weed control before are non-specific, and so tend to
and during conversion should be reduce predator populations which
meticulous, and care taken to ensure have to build after pest numbers
34
have been re-established. Predators against caterpillars- though moth/
will generally keep problem pests caterpillar problems are rare with
such as spider mite and whitefly herbs.
under control if they are allowed to.
These two can be serious pests when Compost
spices are grown conventionally The beneficial effects of compost on
and sprayed routinely, but after plant nutrition and disease resistance
conversion to organic they are are well known- and there is never
generally observed to have become enough compost. Material that
virtually absent. can be brought in for composting-
Plant diseases are a problem on distillation residues, pack house
35
figures to achievement of higher soil Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotium rolfsii,
organic matter content. and Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, and
Gliocladium virens. Root zone
Beneficial insects and bug banks protection from fungal pathogens
Establish rows a metre or so wide is taken from seedbed soil with
at convenient intervals- at land transplants. The root structure of
boundaries or on contour ridges- treated plants is generally better
of suitable predator host plants, developed, and yields higher.
preferably perennials for ease of Seedbeds should be treated with
management. Fennel, pigeon pea, TH following manufacturers
citronella are all useful. Avoid recommendations, and direct
killing predators by accepting sown seeds can benefit from TH-
some crop damage and resisting including rotation legumes such as
the impulse to spray outbreaks- sunnhemp.
when possible. There is usually
enough for everyone, and in the Harvesting
long term spraying is likely to be For distillation and drying, reaping
counterproductive. on a larger scale is done with a side
bar mower or forage harvester. For
Beneficial Fungi fresh produce and smaller scale dry
In much the same way as broad and distillation production, sharp
spectrum insecticides like pyrethrum sickles or knives are used. Field
and rotenone damage control hygiene - hand and implement
through killing predators, the main washing, avoidance of contact of
fungicides allowed in organic crop with soil, and storage protected
systems- sulphur and copper salts- from contamination by rodent and
can kill beneficial fungi. avian droppings, etc. must be
Trichoderma harzianum TH (and properly managed
other T varieties) are widely used in
seedbeds to control soil borne fungal Organic wild harvesting
diseases (e.g. in tobacco seedbeds). It is important that any enterprise
Selected strains are effective against utilising plant material from the wild
a wide range of plant pathogenic ensures there is no over-harvesting
fungi including Pythium spp., of wild plant populations or
Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp., environmental damage. Cultivation
36
may be a better option to avoid the trademark shown in Figure 24.
damage to bio-diversity. Wild Their standards for a range of spices
harvesting is a major source for both and herbs have been published since
organic and conventional spices and 2005.
herbs. Fair trade producer standards
Organic certification has been cover both organic and conventional
obtained for wild collection of production. For some crops
plants including, for example, production both by smallholder
material for herbaceous essential groups and by employers of labour
oils (buchu in South Africa), MAPs can be certified. Minimum prices
(Devils Claw in Namibia), herbal and premiums over market price
Fair Trade
Fair trade has been a very successful
multi-billion dollar development
and marketing concept- best known
for coffee, cocoa, bananas and tea.
There is a variety of different Fair
trade and ethical trade standards
(for example from Ecocert or IMO ) FIGURE 24 Fairtrade logo
but the best recognised certification
agency in most markets is probably
the Fairtrade Foundation which uses
37
CASE STUDY 1 Organic hibiscus production, Senegal
Agriculture in Senegals dry tropical savannah relies on fragile soils and sporadic
seasonal rains. Unlike other crops such as millet or peanut that require heavy doses of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, hibiscus is a low input crop and is hardy, requiring
little water.
Hibiscus flowers are a vibrant red colour with floral berry-like aroma and a pleasantly
tart taste used in teas and cool drinks. Fresh hibiscus can be used to make wine, jelly,
syrup, chutneys, beverages, puddings and cakes. When dried it is used in teas, jellies,
ice cream and even to flavour butter.
Hibiscus production has been a part of the Senegalese economy for many years.
However, drying methods were unhygienic and there were few quality controls in
place. The crop was seen as secondary and low margin.
Since 2004 ASNAPP (Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products) has
been working in conjunction with other local and international development agencies
to improve standards and expand the export market. Yields have been improved via
improved cultivation methods incorporating the use of organic compost.
Prices have improved by 40 percent and there are now over 5 000 resource limited
farmers in cooperative groups, many of whom are marginalized women, growing
hibiscus in various areas of Senegal producing over 700 tonnes. Contracts have been
secured with soft drinks companies in South Africa, France and California.
ASNAPP have now also acquired organic certification for the growers and intends
to gain Fair trade certification as well as continuing to develop and nurture the vital
market linkages to sustain the enterprise.
38
Developing the livelihood activity:
Successful and sustainable strategies
For a spice and herb enterprise to opportunities to develop small-scale
have a good chance of success, and enterprises.
to survive as a business, strategies Developed country markets are
that support its commercialization now well established and further
process are needed. This process growth will be generated by the
involves appraising the market, wider use of culinary spices and
identifying suitable marketing herbs in markets where once
39
Market Channels should be carried out.
Research whether there is Value addition opportunities
demand for direct or indirect Understand if the product proposed
sales to local consumers, local or be differentiated on better quality
national or by value addition, via, for
processors, or any export buyers. example, on-farm processing.
Traders/Wholesalers Infrastructure
Verify which traders and Determine where the local
wholesalers are active in the area markets or delivery points are
and their reputation. physically located. What distances
Competition are involved, what transportation
Ascertain what competition there will be required and is the road
is. infrastructure adequate? Assess
Farmer groups/Cooperatives the quality and efficiency of the
Find out if there are any producer local public markets for sale of
partnerships already operating? produce.
How effective and are they looking Profitability
to expand their membership? Assess the potential returns for
If no groups presently exist, an any targeted market opportunity.
assessment of whether creating Gauge the price sensitivity of the
one would be of benefit or not product.
FIGURE 25 A womens group discusses selling prices prior to marketing their produce
(Photo: FAO/ FO 7174)
40
Test planting of spice and herb Using a Farmer Field School (FFS)
crops approach for potential growers is a
Initial trial planting is important to viable manner of training. In the FFS
gauge the suitability of a crop for approach small-scale farmers learn
local conditions and the levels of input and obtain knowledge by doing.
required for cultivation, harvesting, They are involved directly in the field
storage, processing and marketing on a and actively participate in all aspects
larger scale. Mistakes made at the trial of growing spices and hebrs. Small-
stage reduce the chance of expensive scale farmers are involved in tasks,
crop failure so often made by farmers observations, analysis and decision-
going straight into full production. making on what they are actually
41
Different varieties of plants can be exporters. To develop an enterprise a
assessed to check which is best suited short well organized supply chain is
for the purpose in terms of yield, generally more effective. Membership
disease resistance, drought tolerance, of a farmer group or cooperative
pest management and perishability may enable access to more market
of end product. Keeping detailed opportunities with economies of scale
records of cultivation trials, including and more support.
labour time and costs of inputs,
enables a gross margin analysis to be Retail
calculated using market prices, and Herbs and spices are retailed by
profit projections can then be made. informal traders in open markets and
Product samples harvested from the kiosk both in bulk and in value added
trial area can be test marketed to form. The lack of motorized transport
potential customers. means locational convenience is
still of priority importance to the
Marketing channels majority of consumers. Niche tourist
Small-scale farmers can sell directly to and expatriate markets may exist in
final consumers, retailers, traders, and some regions for spices and herbs in
Producers / Farmer
Wholesaler
INDUSTRIAL
RETAIL CATERING (Food, Beverages,
(Fresh / Dried / Blends (Fresh / Dried / Medicinal,
/ Essential Oils) Blends / Oils) Hygiene / cosmetic)
FIGURE 27 A herb and spice supply chain as commonly found in many countries
42
Spices and herbs for home and market
FIGURE 28 A market stall retailer selling traditional oils, creams, ointments and medicines
(Photo: FAO/CFU000634)
Catering Industrial
Food service outlets (institutions, This market is large and encompasses
hospitals, restaurants, etc.) offer the food and beverage manufacture,
potential for larger bulk sales of fresh personal hygiene products,
and dried products. It is unlikely cosmetics, medicinal and household
that small-scale farmers will have fragrance products. Customers may
the ability to access these markets range in size from small household
directly but this may be achieved processors, local agribusinesses
43
to large national producers and marketing flexibility, but also more
multinational processors. However chances of earning income from the
as in catering markets small-scale diverse products.
farmers will have difficulty in
access if they are alone and joining Fresh herbs
a farmers marketing association may Fresh cut herbs are popular at the
be a viable option for accessing such upper end of the retail and catering
markets. However, these markets markets in many developing
may have stringent quality controls, countries. Fresh herbs require less
and small-scale farmers will require post-harvest processing and can
support and training which can be washed by customers to reduce
be either provided by the buying microbial contamination. Exporting
company, under contract farming of fresh herbs demands a high
agreements, or may need to be standard of cold-chain management.
provided by extension services. Popular fresh herbs include basil,
chives, cilantro/coriander, dill, mint,
Exports parsley, rosemary, and lemongrass.
A product intended for export is Fresh herbs and spices are also
usually produced in a more formal processed into paste/pesto- basil,
and shorter supply chain organized coriander, garlic and ginger, for
by marketing companies with links example- where less flavour and
in export markets. The farmer will aroma is lost than during drying, and
grow the crop under contract and is the product should be commercially
generally assured a minimum return sterile.
and is given technical support and
training in cultivation of the required Oils and oleoresins
product. Steam distilled essential oils from
aromatic herbaceous and spice crops
Spice and herb products are used in a multitude of products
Product types can be fresh, dried - in foods, healthcare, personal
whole or ground, oleoresins and hygiene, household fragrances and
steam distilled oils. This variety perfumes. Essential oil production
allows the small-scale farmer to can be achieved with reasonable
potentially have a diverse portfolio levels of investment and simple
of products that derive from the technologies that are easy to use
same crop and so not only have more and install in rural settings with
44
appropriate technical training and trends carefully and build client
support. The use of mobile stills contacts and ensure they receive
by a contractor is a useful way of consistent supplies.
processing small-scale farmers Local and regional markets offer
crops. many opportunities for value adding.
Oleoresins are produced by Local cosmetic companies in many
solvent extraction of flavour developing countries market anti-
compounds, which are macerated mosquito preparations based on
in a solvent (for example hexane citronella (Cymbopogon nardus) and
or for organic oleoresins, liquid in Papua New Guinea, for example,
carbon dioxide), and the solvent pharmacies sell Waria Waria oil
The Ikirezi Natural Plant Products Company is a community driven enterprise which
has been successful in developing an essential oil industry in Rwanda. The focus is to
produce high quality products and to assist farmers in shifting from purely subsistence
agriculture by adding profitable cash crops. Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) has
been found to provide higher financial returns than more commonly farmed crops such
as tea and coffee and can be grown and harvested without degrading the soil.
The essential oil project has increased income in rural areas and drastically improved
the lives of many in Rwanda creating access to better education and healthcare. As a
community orientated business Ikirezi encompasses vulnerable groups left following
the war including widows and orphans. This has been achieved through cooperation
with farmers as well as public stakeholders and development organizations.
45
CASE STUDY 2 Ikerezi Rwanda (Cont.)
Known for its rose scent, essential oil of geranium is commonly used in cosmetics,
fragrances, and aromatherapy products. The product is organic and ECOCERT
certified. Following a Chemonics consultancy study, funded by ASNAPP and USAID,
trials for possible diversification crops started in 2003, and geranium production was
initiated in 2006. Geranium is cultivated by over five hundred small-scale farmers
grouped into three cooperatives and the essential oil is extracted and sold to local,
national and international markets.
Key lessons identified which are useful in developing rural-based and community
driven projects:
1. Give ownership to the community groups and link each farmer revenue to own
production.
3. Ensure a high quality product. ASNAPP, Ikirezi and the partners in Rwanda
identified some weaknesses in the local geranium germplasm and arranged for
the importation of quality planting material via C L Teubes Pty Ltd in South Africa.
The right planting material ensures that Ikirezi produces top quality products for
subsequent oil extraction. Ikirezi trained its farmers in the rudiments of geranium
production using organic principles. The company acquired and installed three
distillation units where oil of international standards is extracted by well-trained
technicians. Obtaining Organic certification with ECOCERT for the oil opened up
a niche and quality-based marketplace accessible only to a select few geranium
oil producers worldwide.
5. Continue market research and appraisal - the company investigated other potential
plants for oil extraction and has recently added lemongrass and eucalyptus oils to
its range, and trials of patchouli have started. Price fluctuations in the geranium
essential oil market are common and the addition of other oil crops will allow
Ikirezi flexibility in its production mix to sustain profitability.
Source: Adapted from ASNAPP (Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products)
www.asnapp.org and Ikirezi - www.ikirezi.com
46
Product diversification options: Condiments - basil pesto,
Adding value mustards
Cosmetics
Opportunities for further Herbal teas
processing and value adding include: Personal hygiene products
such as scented soaps or mint
Food flavours, powdered blends, mouthwash
pastes such as garlic puree or as Medicinal
oils Aromatherapy oils
Value Adding
Tulimara (Speciality Foods of Africa Ltd) branded goods have been sold, for a number
of years, in food retail outlets in Zimbabwe. Value added products include herbal teas
from an indigenous herb, Makoni, jams, canned nyimo beans, and fruit bars. Produce
is sourced in conjunction with an environmental Southern African NGO, Safire from
small-scale farmers.
47
Marketing strategies Organization
48
and financial assistance for grower environments for agribusinesses to
cooperatives and agribusinesses. prosper.
Financial help may also include Case study 4 demonstrates how
assistance for investment in crop the sustainability of supply of a
driers, storage facilities and other wild harvested plant, bay leaf, and
processing equipment. By working its marketing has been improved by
with many institutions in the better organization and cooperation
country they aim to foster enabling between parties.
Previously the Forestry Department granted permits to traders for collection of the bay
on a five year rotation. The traders hired local people to harvest and whole branches
were being stripped to gain as much product as possible. No grading was done and the
product had to be delivered to the collection/auction site 300 km away.
The groups allow only one collector per household and they are permitted to collect
only one head-load per day which they have been trained to dry, grade and pack
before bringing it to the newly set up local storage depot to receive payment in two
stages. An initial minimum payment is made, and the balance when the leaves are
sold at the local auction. Organic certification has been gained for the leaves, which
contributes to a higher sale price. The groups are also now involved in further grading
and packaging post auction. The Forestry Department is also considering using this as
a model for other products.
49
Contract farming to repay loans or refund input costs
A well run contract farming operation can be avoided. There are many
can, by providing inputs and examples of contracting companies
extension advice, improve small- that have collapsed. Small-scale
scale farming standards overall, farmers who are generally not in
and facilitate yields comparable to a position to absorb losses, may
those achieved by well funded large- then find themselves unpaid or with
scale commercial farmers. The main un-saleable crops. The contract
difficulty with contract farming is side farming business is vulnerable to
marketing of crops outside contract market fluctuations, and contracting
terms, generally when higher prices operations need to be well capitalised
are offered, or where an obligation and run with diligence and prudence.
50
Promoting spices and herbs: Support
services
Public policy Regulations to ensure food
Governmental support should focus quality and safety. Licensing of
on the creation of a facilitative traders to avoid unscrupulous
environment for small-scale exploitative practices.
producers and agribusinesses to National trade promotion to
prosper, and where possible should assist in the development of
include: export markets.
51
Harvesting and post-harvest and solutions and to learn new
handling such as the correct aspects. To meet demand for trainers,
assessment of crop maturity and experienced agronomists can select
minimising wastage and quality and train local trainers to develop the
grading. required skills.
Irrigation.
Protection of the environment Business skills development
overharvesting wild products, Initially, any small-scale farmer
and reduction of soil erosion and producing a cash crop should, as a
pollution of waterways. minimum, be aware of how to keep
Health and safety training to records of production and costs, and
minimise accidents arising from have a good idea of the market for
the use of chemicals, powered such crops. All training delivered
equipment, etc. should be tailored to the skill levels
of the recipients. To develop beyond
Where structured supply chains subsistence and informal local trade
are established for export markets, into a small business, further skills
buyers generally invest in technical will be required to increase the
support for their contracted growers likelihood of a successful, profitable
to assure the end product is of the outcome. These will include the
required quality. However, for following:
enterprises targeting local domestic
markets entrepreneurs may require Bookkeeping
more NGO or governmental support More formal supply chains require
for appropriate training. farmers to be able to issue invoices,
Training is best delivered through delivery notes and keep other records.
Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) Farmer groups can often achieve
delivered on site to groups. This this more easily than individual
approach provides a practical hands smallholders but it will be important
on participative learning process. for all to understand the basic
Training should last a season of administration requirements.
the crop giving full opportunity
to observe and participate in the Market research
cultivation, harvest and post-harvest Monitoring of trends, understanding
processes. The growers would ideally consumers, finding out quantities
meet weekly to discuss problems needed as well as quality factors
52
associated with spices and herbs instances; notably in Sri Lanka,
are all important matters that are where in fresh produce supply chains
needed by small-scale farmers and there is a system providing e-bulletins
others involved in the supply chain. to give market prices and links with
Training in collecting data, carrying extension support services. Bulletins
out rapid surveys, estimating demand could also include input availability
and supply and so forth are needed. and prices, early warnings on pest
outbreaks, etc. This information is
Marketing methods also very effectively broadcast by
Small-scale farmers and others local radio, simple notice boards at
in the supply chain will benefit collection points and storage depots.
53
environment for the development of and developments, provide technical
private financial services that have a information and advice to assist all
particular focus on rural areas as well participants.
as the agricultural sector.
Private company producer
Organizational options partnerships
Individually, small-scale farmers will These are generally formed with
not have the time and resources to a company with links to an export
gain the training, technical support or domestic market sourcing under
and marketing information they need contract. The company provides
to develop their business to best extra support for small-scale growers
effect. The following organizational in the provision of input credit,
options show how a collaborative field training, covering certification
approach can give better support costs, and the provision of sales and
services for their enterprises. marketing expertise.
54
Current markets and production possible pests or diseases,
Understanding how the current post-harvest handling, input
spice and herb industry requirements and sources, and to
functions within the country, advise on the appropriate quality
including an appreciation of the standards for products and
demand for particular products, possible accreditations.
production and marketing
costs, storage and processing Capacity building
facilities presently available, Capacity to facilitate the
quality standards and sources provision of regular training
of input supplies. in spice and herb production
55
Collaboration buyers, traders, governments,
Foster market linkages and the entrepreneurs, research
effective collaboration of all institutions, NGOs, extension
parties- small-scale farmers, training providers, etc.
56
Challenges
57
Farmer groups On-farm processing: Investment
A lack of accountable leadership, and technology
and inadequate knowledge and Where the enterprise is small, adequate
capabilities of members, can be a kitchen-style processing may be
major limitation to a groups success. possible without the requirement for
Groups need to be well organized with credit. The opportunity to invest in
good administration, transparency appropriate technology and facilities
in financial records and cooperative will improve production efficiencies
relations between its members. The and help build the enterprise but
institution should be viewed by often access to finance, equipment
members as a means to improve their and processing expertise is difficult
business and not a social network. and will represent a constraint.
Lack of representation for women in
the group, despite women being major Access to quality plant materials
contributors to farming enterprises, is Often small-scale farmers cannot get
often a problem. good seed adapted to their conditions.
Where the group lacks members Poor seed can affect productivity and
with sufficient aptitude for monitoring encourage the spread of disease. Fake
projects, negotiating purchases and seed sold by unscrupulous traders is
being proactive in gaining support a major problem in many areas of
for their needs at local and national Africa. Small-scale farmers often
government levels, the groups buy seed from informal uncertified
success will be seriously hampered. sources. The commercial formal seed
A lack of marketing skills and ability system may market a range of hybrid
prevents access to potential markets varieties not necessarily best suited
and customers may be lost where there to local conditions, at the expense of
is inability to efficiently deliver the traditional varieties.
required volumes and quality required. Hybrid seed is much more
Good effective training and careful expensive, and while often higher
selection of members to fulfil roles yielding, is more dependent on high
in the group are critical. The quality inputs and may be more susceptible
of a farmer group often depends on to pests and diseases. Climate change
the relevance of its objectives to the causing shifts in agro-conditions
members and the ability of the group adds further challenges for farmers
to deliver visible improvements to and it is important to consider the
overall household livelihoods. best approach when sourcing seed
58
for a crop. There are many cases Enterprise sustainability
where community seed growing The main challenges which could
with the right support has been very affect the long term success of a
successful. venture are:
59
Selected further reading
61
FAO. 2005b. Appraisal of Diversification Opportunities: The Zambian
Paprika Case Study, AGSF Working Document No.1, Rome.
FAO. 2004. Site-specific grasses and herbs. Seed production and use for
restoration of mountain environments, Rome.
FAO. 1995c. Production, handling and processing of nutmeg and mace and
their culinary uses, Santiago.
FAO. 1995. Code of Hygiene Practice for Spice and Dried Aromatic Plants
CAC/RCP 42, Rome.
62
FAO. 1985. Small-scale sausage production, FAO Animal production
and health paper No. 52, Rome.
FAO & WHO. 2008. Microbiological hazards in fresh leafy vegetables and
herbs, Rome.
Jack, M. 2006. Marketing Manual and Web Directory for Organic Spices,
Culinary Herbs and Essential Oils, 2nd edition, International Trade
Peter, K. V. 2008. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Volumes 1,2 &3; Kerala
Agricultural University.
Weiss, E.A. 1997. Essential Oil Crops, Spice Crops, CAB International.
63
Sources of further information
and support
The links and references below refer to only a small selection of the large
number of organizations working in areas relating to agricultural development
in general and spices and herbs in particular:
Development institutions
65
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)
Information Network on Post-harvest Operations (INPhO) - web resource
www.inpho.org
Practical Action
Technical briefs
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/categories.php
Commodity Online
Global commodities and India agricultural price information
www.commodityonline.com
Foodnet
Marketing and Post-harvest research in Eastern and Central Africa.
www.foodnet.cgiar.org
Fresh Plaza
News on fresh produce markets worldwide
www.freshplaza.com
66
For periodic reports on prices http://www.intracen.org/market-news. Free via CBI
to sub-Saharan organisations/enterprises. Organic and non organic prices for
spices, herbs, essential oils and other commodities.
New Agriculturist
Online update on the latest news and developments in tropical agriculture
globally.
www.new-ag.info
Spice Trade
Online Business to Business site providing information on Indian spice and
Spore
Information magazine for agricultural and rural development in African,
Caribbean and Pacific countries; Published by the Technical Centre for
Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)
www.spore.cta.int
Codex Alimentarius
FAO/WHO Global reference point for consumers, food producers and
processors, national food control agencies and the international food trade on
matters of food safety.
www.codexalimentarius.net/standard_list.asp
67
European Spice Association (ESA)
ESA represents national associations within the European seasoning and spice
trade. Useful source of quality control guidelines.
www.esa-spices.org
68
Results of an EU funded study on Quality Low Input Food (QLIF) designed
to improve food production and hygiene using lower cost inputs.
http://www.qlif.org
EU organic regulations.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:189:0001:0023:EN
:PDF
69
American Spice Trade Association. Spices publications for sale including
cleanliness specifications and A Concise Guide to Spices, Herbs, Seeds, &
Extracts.
http://www.astaspice.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3607
70
Notes
7KH DLP RI WKLV GLYHUVLFDWLRQ ERRNOHW LV WR UDLVH DZDUHQHVV
DPRQJ SHRSOH DQG RUJDQL]DWLRQV WKDW SURYLGH DGYLVRU\
EXVLQHVVDQGWHFKQLFDOVXSSRUWVHUYLFHVWRUHVRXUFHSRRUVPDOO
VFDOHIDUPHUVDQGORFDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQORZDQGPLGGOHLQFRPH
FRXQWULHV DERXW WKH SRWHQWLDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK
GLYHUVLFDWLRQLQWRVSLFHVDQGKHUEV,WORRNVDWSUDFWLFDOZD\VLQ
ZKLFKVPDOOVFDOHIDUPHUVFDQLPSURYHWKHIHUWLOLW\RIWKHLUVRLOV
DQG KHOS SURWHFW WKHP IURP HURVLRQ 7KH ERRNOHW SURYLGHV DQ
LQVLJKWLQWRWKHFRPSOHPHQWDU\FRQWULEXWLRQWKDWWKHVHFURSVFDQ
PDNHWROLYHOLKRRGVWKURXJKORFDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOWUDGHDQG
SURYLGHV DGYLFH DV WR KRZ WKH ULJKW VXSSRUW DQG VHUYLFHV FDQ
KHOSSURPRWHVSLFHDQGKHUESURGXFWLRQDVERWKDVXVWDLQDEOH
DQGVXFFHVVIXOGLYHUVLFDWLRQRSWLRQ
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 7 0 7 3 4
I2476E/1/11.11