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Conduction:
Transfer of heat through a fixed material occurs by conduction. The rate of heat
flow in a given direction at steady state conditions can be expressed by:
t
q kA m
x
Convection:
Transfer of heat by physical mixing of the hot and the cold portions of a fluid
occurs by convection. For steady state conditions the rate of heat flow can be
expressed by:
q = hAt
Radiation:
When radiant heat energy is transferred from source to receiver the method of
heat transfer is designated as radiation. The rate of radiant heat exchange
between two bodies under steady state conditions can be given by:
T 4 T 4
q 0.171A 1 2 FAEE
100 100
Many of the important cases of heat transfer involve the flow from one fluid
through a solid wall to another fluid. This heat flow must pass through several
resistances in series. The net rate of heat transfer can be related to the total
temperature difference driving force by employing an overall heat transfer
coefficient U, for steady state conditions:
q = UAtoam
Where: A = Inside or outside area of heat transfer ft 2
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient expressed per in/outside
area of heat transfer Btu/(h)(ft2 inside area)(oF)
toa = Total temperature driving force oF
The overall heat transfer coefficient (including a dirt or fowling resistance) can be
related to the individual coefficients or resistances as follows:
1 A A Ax w
Ud h' A' f h" f kA m w
Fouling factors:
After heat transfer equipment has been in service for some time, dirt or scale
may form on the heat transfer surfaces, causing additional resistance to the flow
of heat.
hd for miscellaneous
Substances subject to heat transfer process services,
Btu/(h)(ft2)(F)
Organic vapors, liquid gasoline, Refined petroleum
2000
fractions (liquid),
Organic liquids; refrigerating Liquids, brine, oil-bearing
1000
steam
Distillate bottoms (above 25API), gas oil or liquid
500
naphtha below 500F
scrubbing oil, refrigerant vapors, air (dust) Gas oil above
330
500F, vegetable 0il
Liquid naphtha above 500F quenching oils 250
Topped crude (below 25AP1),fuel oil 200
Cracked residuum, coke-oven gas, illuminating gas 100
t oa1 t oa2
t oam t oalogmean
ln t oa1 t oa2
Corrected Logarithmic Mean Temperature:
Exact values for convection heat transfer coefficients for a certain situation can
be obtained experimentally under specified operating conditions. Approximate
values however can be used for use in design based on general experimental
data. The accuracy of such correlations is high in turbulent flow cases but
inaccuracy is high in laminar or viscous flow conditions.
The inside film coefficient can be obtained under turbulent conditions from the
following equation (Re>10000):
0.8 1 3 0.14
hiD DG c p
0.023
k k w
0.014c pG0.8
hi
D0.2
The following equation can be used with accuracy when Reynolds number in
shell sides is between 2000 to 32000.
0.6 1 3
hoDo ao DoGs c p
kf Fs f k f