Soil Characterization,

Classification and Survey

 Soil Characterization,
Classification and Survey

Ivara Ejemot Esu

HEBN Publishers Plc

HEBN Publishers Plc
Head Office: 1 Ighodaro Road, Jericho, P.M.B. 5205, Ibadan, Nigeria
Phone : 02 8726701
E-mail : info@hebnpublishers.com
hebnpublishers@yahoo.com
Website : http://www.hebnpublishers.com

Area Offices and Branches

Abeokuta Abuja Akure Bauchi Benin City Calabar Enugu
lbadan Ikeja Ilorin Jos Kano Katsina Maiduguri Makurdi
Minna Owerri Port Harcourt Sokoto Uyo Yola Zaria

Ivara Ejemot Esu 2010

First Published 2010

ISBN 978 978 081 373 4

All Rights Reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior permission of HEBN Publishers PIc.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it should not by way
of trade or otherwise be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise
circulated without the publishers prior consent in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published and
without a similar condition including this condition being imposed
on the subsequent purchaser.
 Dedication

To my beloved late father; a man of high integrity,

resourcefulness and uncommon vision

Pa Jonathan Ejemot Esu

(1905 1976)

v
 Preface
Soil Characterization, Classification and Survey is a revised version
of Fundamentals of Pedology which was published by Stirling-Horden
Publishers (Nig) Ltd, Ibadan in 1999. The change in title of the book is
for greater clarity among its target audience as to its content.
The book covers required lecture notes in courses such as Principles
of Soil Science, Introductory Pedology, Soil Taxonomy and Conservation,
Soil Characterization and Classification and Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning offered in Faculties of Agriculture, Forestry and Environmental
Sciences in most Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education
in Nigeria and many African countries.
The book is based on my personal experiences of teaching most of
these courses to undergraduates and graduate students at the Kaduna
Polytechnic and the National Water Resources Institute, Kaduna (1975
1984), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (1984 1994), University of
Uyo (2007-2008), University of Calabar (1994 date); all in northern
and southern Nigeria and at the University of Ghana, Legon (2006-2007).
For those who were familiar with the earlier edition Fundamentals of
Pedology, this revised edition has effected the corrections and has
expanded the contents of most of the chapters in light of the ever
changing concepts in Pedology. A completely new chapter has also been
included to deal with Laboratory Data Used in Pedological Studies and
their interpretation. The chapter is meant to assist final year and
postgraduate students with the interpretation of the data often generated
from soil analysis and indeed the current and appropriate methods to be
used in soil characterization in the laboratory.
The chapter on Principles of Soil Classification has also been
tremendously expanded to include diagnostic criteria used in soil
classification. A pictorial description of each of the twelve soil orders
of Soil Taxonomy has been included as Appendix 1. Most recent revisions
in the criteria used in FAO/UNESCO Soil Classification system, namely,
the World Reference Base for Classification (WRB) is also dealt with
extensively, among others. A detailed glossary of most of the terms
used in the book has been included in Appendix 2 as well for a much

vi
easier referencing.
The book will be must useful to students of Agriculture, Geography,
Environmental Protection Management and Agricultural Education in
Colleges of Education, Polytechnics and Universities in Nigeria and other
African countries.

Ivara Ejemot Esu, OFR

B.Sc (Ife) M.Sc (Minnesota) Ph.D (ABU)
Professor of Soil Science
University of Calabar, Nigeria.

vii
 Contents Page
Dedication .................................................................................................................. v
Preface ...................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures. ......................................................................................... xiv
List of Plates...................................................................................xv.
List of Tables...................................................................................xvi
1. Introduction ................................................................................ 1
Pedology as a Discipline of Soil Science................................................. 1
What is Soil? .................................................................................................. 1
Why Study Soil? ........................................................................................... 2
Careers in Soil Science ............................................................................... 3
Revision Questions ...................................................................................... 5
References ..................................................................................................... 5

2. Soil Description Terms .............................................................. 6

Introduction .................................................................................................. 6
Soil Profile .................................................................................................... 6
Soil Horizon ................................................................................................. 9
Soil Solum .................................................................................................. 13
The Pedon ................................................................................................. 13
Polypedon/Soil Individual/Soil Body .................................................. 13
Sequum/Bisequal/Buried Soil ................................................................ 14
Topsoil and Subsoil .................................................................................. 14
Mineral and Organic Soils ....................................................................... 14
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 15
References .................................................................................................. 15
3. Components of Soil ................................................................. 17
Introduction ............................................................................................... 17
Mineral Matter........................................................................................... 18
Organic Matter .......................................................................................... 19
Soil Water ................................................................................................... 20
Soil Air ........................................................................................................ 21
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 22
References .................................................................................................. 22
4. Soil Forming Rocks and Minerals ........................................... 23
Introduction ............................................................................................... 23
Soil Forming Rocks ................................................................................. 23
Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................... 23
Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................... 24
viii
 Metamorphic Rocks................................................................................. 25
Rock Forming Minerals ........................................................................... 26
Silicate Minerals ......................................................................................... 26
Iron Oxide Group ................................................................................... 28
Carbonate Group ..................................................................................... 28
Phosphate Group ..................................................................................... 28
Sulphate Group ........................................................................................ 29
Other Minerals .......................................................................................... 29
Weathering of Rocks and Minerals ....................................................... 29
Why Study Weathering? ........................................................................... 30
Physical Processes of Weathering .......................................................... 30
Chemical Processes of Weathering........................................................ 32
Factors Governing the Stability of Minerals to Weathering .............. 35
Weathering products of Common Soil Minerals in Rocks ............. 38
Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................... 38
Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................... 38
Metamorphic Rocks................................................................................. 38
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 39
References .................................................................................................. 40
5. Factors of Soil Formation ........................................................ 41
Introduction ............................................................................................... 41
Parent Material .......................................................................................... 42
Types of Parent Material ......................................................................... 43
Climate ....................................................................................................... 45
Variables of Climate ................................................................................ 45
Organisms .................................................................................................. 46
Role of Plants ........................................................................................... 47
Role of Animals ....................................................................................... 47
Role of Microorganisms ......................................................................... 48
Relief ........................................................................................................... 48
Altitude ....................................................................................................... 48
Shape of Landscapes ............................................................................... 48
Aspect of Slope ........................................................................................ 51
Time ............................................................................................................ 51
Concept of Time Zero....................................................................... 52
Relative Stages of Soil Development ................................................... 52
Relative Rate of Soil Development ....................................................... 53
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 53
References .................................................................................................. 54
ix
6. Soil Forming Processes ............................................................ 56
Introduction ............................................................................................... 56
Eluviation Illuviation ............................................................................ 57
Leaching amd Enrichment ...................................................................... 61
Decalcification and Calcification ............................................................ 61
Dealkalization and Alkalization ............................................................. 62
Allitization and Deallitization ................................................................. 63
Salinization and Desalinization ................................................................ 64
Podzolisation ............................................................................................. 64
Lateritization .............................................................................................. 65
Gleization ................................................................................................... 66
Ferrolysis..................................................................................................... 68
Pedoturbation ........................................................................................... 70
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 70
References .................................................................................................. 71

7. Soil Morphological Properties ................................................. 73

Introduction ............................................................................................... 73
General Site Information ........................................................................ 74
Description of Individual Soil Horizons.............................................. 75
Horizon Designation ................................................................................ 75
Soil Colour ................................................................................................ 80
Determination of soil colour ................................................................. 80
Mottling ...................................................................................................... 82
Soil Texture ................................................................................................ 83
Definition of Soil Textural classes ......................................................... 84
Soil Structure ............................................................................................. 87
Soil Consistence ........................................................................................ 91
Cutans ......................................................................................................... 92
Soil Pores .................................................................................................... 92
Roots .......................................................................................................... 92
Included Materials .................................................................................... 93
Horizon Boundary Characteristics ......................................................... 94
Example of Soil Profile Description .................................................... 94
Revision Questions ................................................................................... 98
References .................................................................................................. 98

8. Laboratory Data Used in Pedological Studies ......................100

Introduction ............................................................................................. 100
Pedon Characterization Data................................................................ 100
Physical Properties .................................................................................. 100
Chemical Properties ............................................................................... 102
x
 Mineralogical Properties ....................................................................... 104
Thin Sections for Soil Micromorphology .......................................... 104
Handling and Preparation of Samples in the Laboratory ............... 104
Pedological Inferences from Laboratory Data ................................. 105
Particle Size Analysis ............................................................................... 105
Bulk Density ............................................................................................ 105
Coefficient of Linear Extensibility (COLE) ...................................... 106
Soil Moisture Parameters ...................................................................... 106
Soil pH ..................................................................................................... 107
Organic Carbon/Total Nitrogen ......................................................... 109
Electrical Conductivity (EC) ................................................................. 110
Extractable (Free) Iron .......................................................................... 110
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) ....................................................... 111
Percentage Base Saturation (PBS) ........................................................ 113
Extractable P and Phosphate Retention ............................................. 113
Mineralogical Properties ........................................................................ 113
Soil Micromorphology.......................................................................... 114
Revision Questions ................................................................................. 115
References ................................................................................................ 115

9. Principles of Soil Classification .............................................. 118

General Concepts of Classification ..................................................... 118
Definition of Soil Classification ........................................................... 119
Purposes of Soil Classification ............................................................. 119
Steps Involved in Soil Classification ................................................... 120
Kinds of Soil Classification .................................................................. 120
USDA Soil Taxonomy System ............................................................. 121
Diagnostic Surface Horizons or Epipedons ...................................... 123
Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons or Endopedons ............................ 124
Diagnostic Characteristics for Organic Soils ...................................... 128
Other Diagnostic Soil Characteristics or Diagnostic Features ....... 129
Soil Moisture Regimes ........................................................................... 131
Soil Temperature Regimes .................................................................... 132
Categories of the USDA Soil Taxonomy .......................................... 133
Soil Order ................................................................................................ 133
Suborder .................................................................................................. 136
Great Group ........................................................................................... 137
Subgroup ................................................................................................. 141
Family ....................................................................................................... 141
Series ......................................................................................................... 143

xi
 FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System/
World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)............................. 143
Soil References Groups ......................................................................... 144
Correlation between the USDA and WRB Systems of
Classification ............................................................................................ 153
Revision Questions ................................................................................. 155
References ................................................................................................ 155
10. Principles of Soil Survey .........................................................157
Concept of Soil Survey ......................................................................... 157
Types of Soil Survey .............................................................................. 158
Schematic Soil Surveys .......................................................................... 158
Exploratory Soil Surveys ...................................................................... 158
Reconnaissance Soil Surveys ................................................................. 159
Semi-Detailed Soil Surveys ................................................................... 159
Detailed Soil Surveys ............................................................................. 160
Very Detailed Soil Surveys .................................................................... 160
Map Scales and Mapping Units ........................................................... 160
Basic Soil Survey Procedures................................................................ 162
Rigid Grid Procedure ............................................................................ 162
Free Survey .............................................................................................. 163
Soil Survey Methods Involving Remote Sensing Data .................... 164
Phasing of Soil Survey Operations ..................................................... 165
Office Work ............................................................................................ 165
Field Reconnaissance Visit ..................................................................... 166
Field Work ............................................................................................... 166
Laboratory Analysis of Soil Samples .................................................. 168
Cartographic Production of the Soil Map ........................................ 168
The Soil Survey Report ......................................................................... 169
Revision Questions ................................................................................. 170
References ................................................................................................ 170

11. Principles of Land Classification ...........................................172

Concept of Land Classification ........................................................... 172
Land Capability Classification System................................................. 173
Land Capability Classes ......................................................................... 173
Land Capability Subclasses ................................................................... 174
Land Capability Units ............................................................................ 176
Land Suitability Classification Systems ................................................ 176
Concept of Land Suitability Classification ......................................... 176
Land Suitability Classification Involving Rainfed Agriculture ......... 177
Land Suitability Classification Involving Irrigated Agriculture ........ 182
References.............................................................................................. 199
xii
Appendices
Appendix 1: Pictorial Representation of Modal Profiles of the Twelve
Soil Orders of Soil Taxonomy. .............................................. 201
Appendix 2: Glossary of Pedological Terms ............................................. 206
Index:..........................................................................................................................255

xiii
 List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Processes which promote the development of horizons in soils ................ 11
Figure 2.2: A pedon of a soil body within a landscape .......................................... 12
Figure 3.1: Volume composition of a silt loam surface soil in optimum condition for
plant growth ...................................................................................... 18
Figure 4.1: Stability to weathering of some common soil-forming minerals (After Goldich,
1938 and Jackson et al, 1984) ..........................................................37
Figure 5.1: Sedentary, colluvial and alluvial parent materials if soils along
a typical taposequence Western Nigeria (Adopted from Symth and
Mantgomary,1962) ............................................................................ 50
Figure 6.1: Decalcification and Calcification Processes along a Hill slope .......................... 62
Figure 7.1: Hypothetical mineral soil profile showing the major horizons that may be
present ........................................................................................................... 77
Figure 7.2: Soil colour names for several combinations of value and chroma and hue
10YR. ........................................................................................................... 81
Figure 7.3: Standard USDA Soil Textural Triangle ...................................................... 86
Figure 7.4: Soil Description Sheet Used in the Field.............................................. 95
Figure 7.5: Long - hand Profile Description of Kukum Daji series (KD)........... 97
Figure 9.1: Multiple category and Hierarchical system of the USDA soil
Taxonomy .......................................................................................... 122
Figure 10.1: Base map showing baseline, traverses, auger - points and soil boundry
lines in a rigid procedure of soil survey .............................................. 163
Figure 10.2: Soil map of Alhaji Jibrilus farm at Kuyello, Northern Nigeria.
(The map has been produced from the rigid grid Base map in
Figure 10.1) ..................................................................................... 169
Figure 11.1: Land capability classification map derived from the soil map in
Figure 10.2 ...................................................................................... 175

xiv
 List of Plates
Plate 1: A vertical cross-section made on a landscape to expose soil along a road-cut
(soil profile) in Imo State, Nigeria .............................................................. 7
Plate 2: A deep soil profile on coastal plain sands with the parent material
exposed only at great depth at Owerri, Nigeria .......................................... 7
Plate 3: A deep soil profile with the underlying bedrock several materes below the soil
surface at Aboada, River State, Nigeria .......................................... 8
Plate 4: A shallow soil profile in a road-cut exposing an underlying granitic bedrock at
about 50cm depth along Ogoja-Odajie Mbube road in Cross River State,
Nigeria...............................................................................................................8
Plate 5: A freshly dug profile pit with marked horizons for description ................. 74

xv
 List of Tables

Table 4.1: A simplified classification of common igneous rocks according

to the size of mineral grains in the rock and reaction ............................... 24
Table 4.2:Selected common primary and secondary minerals in soils ......................... 27
Table 5.1:Agents, mode of deposition and name of deposit of transported parent
materials ................................................................................................. 43
Table 6.1: Some processes of soil formation that are complexes of subprocesses and reactions
(Adapted from Buol et al 1973)..........................................................................58
Table 7.1: Size limits of soil separates in the USDA and ISSS schemes ................ 84
Table 7.2:Classification of soil textural classes (USDA system) .............................. 87
Table 7.3:Diagrammatic Definition and location of various types of soil structure .. 89
Table 7.4:Types and classes of soil structure ............................................................ 90
Table 9.1:Names of the soil orders in the USDA soil taxonomy with their
derivation, formative elemnts, pronounciation, and major
characteristics ........................................................................................ 133
Table 9.2:Soil orders and their suborders in soil taxonomy .................................... 138
Table 9.3:Formative elements in names of suborders in soil taxonomy .................... 139
Table 9.4:Formative elements for names of great groups and their
connotation ............................................................................................ 140
Table 9.5:Some commonly used particle-size, mineralogy, cation exchange
activity, and temperature classes used to differentiate soil families
(Source: Brady and Weil, 1999) ........................................................... 142
Table 9.6:The Ten Sets of the Reference Soil Groups of the WRB ....................... 144
Table 9.7:Diagnostic horizons, properties and materials used in the identification
of reference soil groups of the WRB (Source: ISSS-ISRIC-FAO,
1998) .................................................................................................... 145
Table 9.8:Key to the reference soil groups of the World Reference Base (WRB)
[Source: ISSS-ISRIC-FAO, 1998] ..................................................... 147
Table 9.9:Approximate correlation between the soil orders of the USDA soil
taxonomy and the reference soil groups ................................................... 154
Table10.1:Cheaklist of field material/equipment required for soil survey ............... 167
xvi
Table11.1:Structure of the FAO land suitability classification (Adapted from
FAO Soils Bull. 52, 1984 ................................................................. 178
Table11.2:Definitions of land suitability orders and classes(Adapted from
FAO Soils Bull, 52, 1984) ................................................................. 179
Table11.3:Suggested letter suffixes for indicating land suitability subclasses
(Adapted from FAO Soils Bull, 52, 1984). .......................................... 181
Table 11.4: Example of modified USBR land suitability Classes ......................... 184
Table 11.5 Modified USBR land classification specification used in Laos and
Thailand (Source: FAO, 1979) ........................................................... 185
Table 11.6:Example of modified USBR land suitability class specifications for
gravity irrigation used by a local consultancy group with only
physical parameters involved (Source: Esu, 1988) ................................ 190
Table 11.7: Soil index rating for major soil units in the Kaduna area of Nigeria
(Source: Esu, 1982) .......................................................................... 195
Table 11.8:Physico-chemical properties of Hadeija floodplain soils .......................... 197

xvii