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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
~l V.
4
Sedimentary Textures
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses primarily on the physically produced textures of siliciclastic sed
imentary rocks. Some of the special textural features that are important to understand
ing the classification and genesis of limestones and other nonsiliciclastic sedimentary
rocks are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. In this chapter we examine the characteristic
textural properties of grain size and shape, particle surface texture, and grain fabric,
and we discuss the genetic significance of these properties. Although the study of sedi
mentary textures may not be the most exciting aspect of sedimentology, it is nonethe
less an important field of study. A thorough understanding of the nature and signifi
cance of sedimentary textures is fundamental to interpretation of ancient depositional
environments and transport conditions, although much uncertainty still attends the
genetic interpretation of textural data. Some long-standing ideas about the genetic sig
nificance of sediment textural data are now being challenged, while new ideas and
techniques for studying and interpreting sediment texture continue to emerge. No text
book on sedimentology would be complete without some discussion of sediment tex
ture and its genetic significance.
79
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80 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
2. methods for summarizing large amounts of grain-size data and presenting them in
graphical or statistical form so that they can be more easily analyzed
3. the genetic significance of these data
We will now examine each of these concerns.
Grain-Size Scales
Particles in sediments and sedimentary rocks range in size from a few microns to a few
meters. Because of this wide range of particle sizes, logarithmic or geometric scales are
more useful for expressing size than are linear scales. In a geometric scale there is a
succession of numbers such that a fixed ratio exists between successive elements of the
series. The grain-size scale used almost universally by sedimentologists is the Udden-
Wentworth scale. This scale, first proposed by Udden in 1898 and modified and
extended by Wentworth in 1922, is a geometric scale in which each value in the scale
is either twice as large as the preceding value or one-half as large, depending upon the
sense of direction (Table 4.1). The scale extends from <l/256 mm (0.0039 mm) to >256
mm and is divided into four major size categories (clay, silt, sand, and gravel), which
can be further subdivided as illustrated in Table 4.1.
A useful modification of the Udden-Wentworth scale is the logarithmic phi scale,
which allows grain-size data to be expressed in units of equal value for the purpose of
graphical plotting and statistical calculations. This scale, proposed by Krumbein in
1934, is based on the following relationship:
<|> = -log2 d (4.1)
where is phi size and d is the grain diameter in millimeters. Some equivalent phi
and millimeter sizes are shown in Table 4.1. Other phi sizes can be derived from equa
tion 4.1. Note that the phi scale yields both positive and negative numbers. The real
size of particles, expressed in millimeters, decreases with increasing positive phi val
ues and increases with decreasing negative values. Because sand-size and smaller
grains are the most abundant grains in sedimentary rocks, Krumbein chose the nega
tive logarithm of the grain size in millimeters so that grains of this size will have posi
tive phi values, avoiding the bother of constantly working with negative numbers. This
usage is also consistent with the common practice of plotting coarse sizes to the left
and fine sizes to the right in graphs.
TABLE 4.1 Grain-size scale for sediments, showing Wentworth size classes, equivalent phi (t units, and sieve
numbers of U.S. Standard Sieves corresponding to various millimeter and sizes
U.S. Standard Phi ft)
sieve mesh Millimeters units Wentworth size class
4096 -12
1024 -10 Boulder
256 256 -8
64 64 -6 Cobble
16 -4 Pebble
o 5 4 4 -2
6 3.36 -1.75
7 2.83 -1.5 Granule
8 2.38 -1.25
10 2.00 2 -1.0
12 1.68 -0.75
14 1.41 -0.5 Very coarse sand
16 1.19 -0.25
18 1.00 1 0.0
20 0.84 0.25
25 0.71 0.5 Coarse sand
30 0.59 0.75
35 0.50 Vi 1.0
40 0.42 1.25
n 45 0.35 1.5 Medium sand
CD 50 0.30 1.75
60 0.25 V4 2.0
70 0.210 2.25
80 0.177 2.5 Fine sand
100 0.149 2.75
120 0.125 Vef 3.0
140 0.105 3.25
170 0.088 3.5 Very fine sand
200 0.074 3.75
230 0.0625 Mb 4.0
270 0.053 4.25
325 0.044 4.5 Coarse silt
H 0.037 4.75
.-I 0.031 %2 5.0
53 0.0156 6.0
%4 Medium silt
0.0078 Vi28 7.0 Fine silt
Q
ID 0.0039 V$56 8.0 Very fine silt
s 0.0020 9.0
0.00098 10.0 Clay
0.00049 11.0
u
0.00024 12.0
0.00012 13.0
0.00006 14.0
The grain size of fine silt and clay particles can be determined by sedimentation
methods based on Stokes's Law (equations 3.16 and 3.17). As explained in Chapter 3,
Stokes's Law cannot be applied to sand-size and larger particles. If the settling velocity
of small particles can be measured at a particular temperature, the diameter of the par
ticles can be calculated by a simple mathematical rearrangement of equation 3.17 to
yield
D=
W
(4.2)
Vc
where D is the diameter of the particles in centimeters, V is settling velocity of the par
ticles, and C is a constant that depends upon the density of the particles and the den
sity and viscosity of the fluid (usually water). The standard sedimentation method for
measuring the sizes of these small particles is pipette analysis. To do a pipette analy
sis, fine sediment is stirred into suspension in a measured volume of water in a settling
tube. Uniform-size aliquots of this suspension are withdrawn with a pipette at speci
fied times and at specified depths, evaporated to dryness in an oven, and weighed. The
data obtained can then be used in a modified version of equation 4.2 to calculate grain
size:
Vc
D= (4.3)
VxTt
where x is the depth in centimeters to which particles have settled in a given time (the
withdrawal depth), t is elapsed time in seconds, and x/t = V (settling velocity). Tables
of withdrawal times and depths for specific particle sizes are available in many books
and articles dealing with sedimentation analysis (e.g., Galehouse, 1971). Note that
Stokes's Law is based on the assumption that the settling particles are spheres. Because
most natural particles are not spheres, use of Stokes's Law yields grain sizes that are
commonly finer than the actual particle sizes.
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 83
1986). Electro-resistance size analyzers, such as the Coulter counter or the Electrozone
particle counter, measure grains size on the basis of the principle that a particle pass
ing through an electrical field maintained in an electrolyte will displace its own vol
ume of the electrolyte and thus cause a change in the field. These changes are scaled
and counted as voltage pulses, with the magnitude of each pulse being proportional to
particle volume (Swift, Schubel, and Sheldon, 1972; Muerdter, Deuphin, and Steele,
1981). Semiautomated image analysis techniques involve use of TV cameras to capture
and digitize grain images from which, with the aid of appropriate computer software,
grain-size diameters can be calculated (Kennedy and Mazzullo, 1991). For a compari
son of some of these analytical techniques, see Singer et al. (1988). Additional informa
tion is available in Principles, Methods, and Applications of Particle Size Analysis, a
monograph edited by Syvitski (1991).
The grain size of particles in consolidated sedimentary rocks that cannot be dis
aggregated must be measured by techniques other than sieving or sedimentation analy
sis. The size and sorting of sand- and silt-size particles can be estimated by using a
reflected-light binocular microscope and a standard size-comparison set, which con
sists of grains of specific sizes mounted on a card. More accurate size determination
can be made by measuring grains in thin sections of rock by using a transmitted-light
petrographic microscope fitted with an ocular micrometer or by the image analysis
technique mentioned above. Both microscopic and image analysis techniques tend to
yield grain sizes that are smaller than the maximum diameter of the grains because the
plane of a thin section does not cut exactly through the centers of most grains. Grain
sizes measured by these methods are commonly corrected mathematically in some
way to make them agree more closely with sieve data (Burger and Skala, 1976; Piazzola
and Cavaroc, 1991). Fine silt- and clay-size grains in consolidated rocks may be stud
ied using an electron microscope, although the electron microscope is not commonly
used for grain-size measurements.
100 100
CD 0
0 ) W
If
cu ^ t:r\
.11 CD CO
.> -Q
ro S
I'm 3 3
E
O o
FIGURE 4.2 Common visual methods of displaying grain-size data. A. Grain-size data table. B.
Histogram and frequency curve plotted from data in A. C. Cumulative curve with an arithmetic
ordinate scale. D. Cumulative curve with a probability ordinate scale.
sieve interval used. Also, they cannot be used to obtain mathematical values for sta
tistical calculations.
A frequency curve (Fig. 4.2B) is essentially a histogram in which a smooth curve
takes the place of a discontinuous bar graph. Connecting the midpoints of each size
class in a histogram with a smooth curve gives the approximate shape of the frequency
curve. A frequency curve constructed in this manner does not, however, accurately fix
the position of the highest point on the curve; this point is important for determining
the modal size, to be described. A grain-size histogram plotted from data obtained by
sieving at exceedingly small sieve intervals would yield the approximate shape of a
frequency curve, but such small sieve intervals are not practical. Accurate frequency
curves can by derived from cumulative curves by special graphical methods described
in detail by Folk (1974).
A grain-size cumulative curve is generated by plotting grain size against cumula
tive weight percent frequency. The cumulative curve is the most useful of the grain-
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86 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
size plots. Although it does not give as good a pictorial representation of the grain-size
distribution as a histogram or frequency curve, its shape is virtually independent of
the sieve interval used. Also, data that can be derived from the cumulative curve allow
calculation of several important grain-size statistical parameters. A cumulative curve
can be plotted on an arithmetic ordinate scale (Fig. 4.2C) or on a log probability scale
in which the arithmetic ordinate is replaced by a log probability ordinate (Fig. 4.2D).
When phi-size data are plotted on an arithmetic ordinate, the cumulative curve typi
cally has the S-shape shown in Figure 4.2C. The slope of the central part of this curve
reflects the sorting of the sample. A very steep slope indicates good sorting, and a very
gentle slope poor sorting. If the cumulative curve is plotted on log probability paper,
the shape of the curve will tend toward a straight line if the population of grains has a
normal distribution (actually log-normal, as illustrated in Fig. 4.2D). In a normal distri
bution, the values show an even distribution, or spread, about the average value. In
conventional statistics, a normally distributed population of values yields a perfect
bell-shaped curve when plotted as a frequency curve. Deviations from normality of a
grain-size distribution can thus be easily detected on log probability plots by deviation
of the cumulative curve from a straight line. Most natural populations of grains in sili
ciclastic sediments or sedimentary rocks do not have a normal (or log-normal) distribu
tion; the nearly normal distribution shown in Figure 4.2 is not typical of natural sedi
ments. Some investigators believe that the shape of the log probability curve reflects
conditions of the sediment transport process and thus can be used as a tool in environ
mental interpretation. We shall return to this point subsequently.
Graphical plots permit quick, visual inspection of the grain-size characteristics of
a given sample; however, comparison of graphical plots becomes cumbersome and
inconvenient when large numbers of samples are involved. Also, average grain-size and
grain-sorting characteristics cannot be determined very accurately by visual inspection
of grain-size curves. To overcome these disadvantages, mathematical methods that per
mit statistical treatment of grain-size data can be used to derive parameters that describe
grain-size distributions in mathematical language. These statistical measures allow both
the average size and the average sorting characteristics of grain populations to be
expressed mathematically. Mathematical values of size and sorting can be used to pre
pare a variety of graphs and charts that facilitate evaluation of grain-size data.
Average Grain Size. Three mathematical measures of average grain size are in com
mon use. The mode is the most frequently occurring particle size in a population of
grains. The diameter of the modal size corresponds to the diameter of grains repre
sented by the steepest point (inflection point) on a cumulative curve or the highest
point on a frequency curve. Siliciclastic sediments and sedimentary rocks tend to have
a single modal size, but some sediments are bimodal, with one mode in the coarse end
of the size distribution and one in the fine end. Some are even polymodal. The median
size is the midpoint of the grain-size distribution. Half of the grains by weight are
larger than the median size, and half are smaller. The median size corresponds to the
50th percentile diameter on the cumulative curve (Fig. 4.3). The mean size is the arith
metic average of all the particle sizes in a sample. The true arithmetic mean of most
sediment samples cannot be determined because we cannot count the total number of
grains in a sample or measure each small grain. An approximation of the arithmetic
mean can be arrived at by picking selected percentile values from the cumulative
curve and averaging these values. As shown in Figure 4.3 and Table 4.3, the 16th, 50th,
and 84th percentile values are commonly used for this calculation. The mode, median,
and mean may or may not be the same, as subsequently discussed under the topic of
skewness (e.g., Fig. 4.6).
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 87
TABLE 4.3 Formulas for calculating grain-size statistical parameters by graphical methods
Inclusive graphic
standard deviation _ 4>84-<t16 , <t>95-<)>5
C/" 4 ' 6.6 (2)
Inclusive graphic skewness r.^- (<t>84 + <I>1B - 2<t>50) (<J>95 + <t>5 - 2<|)g0) (3)
2(<t>84 - <t>ie) 2(<(>g5 - <()5)
Source: Folk, R. L., and W. C. Ward, 1957, Brazos River bar: A study in the significance of grain-size param
eters: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 27, p. 3-26.
Sorting. The sorting of a grain population is a measure of the range of grain sizes pre
sent and the magnitude of the spread or scatter of these sizes around the mean size.
Sorting can be estimated in the field or laboratory by use of a hand-lens or microscope
and reference to a visual estimation chart (Fig. 4.4). More accurate determination of
sorting requires mathematical treatment of grain-size data. The mathematical expres
sion of sorting is standard deviation. In conventional statistics, one standard deviation
encompasses the central 68 percent of the area under the frequency curve (Fig. 4.5).
That is, 68 percent of the grain-size values lie within plus or minus one standard devia
tion of the mean size. A formula for calculating standard deviation by graphical-
statistical methods is shown in Table 4.3. Note that the standard deviation calculated by
this formula is expressed in phi (({>) values and is called phi standard deviation. The
symbol <j> must always be attached to the standard deviation value. Verbal terms for sort
ing corresponding to various values of standard deviation are as follows (after Folk,
1974):
Standard Deviation
<0.35(J> very well sorted
0.35 to 0.50<|> well sorted
0.50 to 0.71(j> moderately well sorted
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88 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
FIGURE 4.4 Grain-sorting images for sediments with different degrees of sorting. (From Anstey,
R. L., and T. L. Chase, 1974, Environments through time: Burgess, Minneapolis, Minn. Fig. 1.2,
p. 2, reprinted by permission of Burgess Publishing Co.)
Coarse Fine
B Positively skewed
C Negatively skewed
Mode
Median
Mean/'
yr 1
^^ Excess 1
.x^ coarse l
^y^ particles ,
Coarse Fine
PARTICLE SIZE (c|>)
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90 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
tion. Populations that have a tail of excess fine particles (Fig. 4.6B) are said to be posi
tively skewed or fine skewed, that is, skewed toward positive phi values. Populations
with a tail of excess coarse particles (Fig. 4.6C) are negatively skewed or coarse
skewed. Graphic skewness can be calculated by equation 3 in Table 4.3. Verbal skew
ness is related to calculated values of skewness as follows (Folk, 1974):
Skewness
>+0.30 strongly fine skewed
+0.30 to +0.10 fine skewed
+0.10 to -0.10 near symmetrical
-0.10 to -0.30 coarse skewed
<-0.30 strongly coarse skewed
Grain-size frequency curves can show various degrees of sharpness or peaked-
ness. The degree of peakedness is called kurtosis. A formula for calculating kurtosis is
shown in Table 4.3. Although kurtosis is commonly calculated along with other grain-
size parameters, the geological significance of kurtosis is unknown, and it appears to
have little value in interpretive grain-size studies.
Grain-size statistical parameters can be calculated directly without reference to
graphical plots by the mathematical method of moments (Krumbein and Pettijohn,
1938). The method had not been used extensively until comparatively recently
because of the laborious calculations involved and because it had not been definitely
proven that moment statistics are of greater value than graphical statistics in applica
tion to geologic problems. With the advent of modern computers, lengthy calculations
no longer pose a problem, and moment statistics are now in common use. The compu
tations in moment statistics involve multiplying a weight (weight frequency in per
cent) by a distance (from the midpoint of each size grade to the arbitrary origin of the
abscissa). Formulas for computing moment statistics are given in Table 4.4, and a sam
ple computation form using Vzty size classes is given in Table 4.5. Millimeter values
can also be used in computing moment statistics; that is, the size data need not be
transformed to phi units. The formulas shown in Table 4.4 can easily be programmed
into a computer or programmable calculator to calculate moment statistics from sieve
data.
Standard deviation
(2nd moment) V 100 (2)
Skewness
, I fl m - x J 3
(3rd moment) bk*~ lOOo,3 (3)
Kurtosis
(4th moment) j . l f100o*4
**- {m-x6)4 (4)
0-0.5 0.25 0.9 0.2 -2.13 4.54 4.09 -9.67 - 8.70 20.60 18.54
0.5-1.0 0.75 2.9 2.2 -1.63 2.66 7.71 -4.34 -12.59 7.07 20.50
1.0-1.5 1.25 12.2 15.3 -1.13 1.28 15.62 -1.45 -17.69 1.63 19.89
1.5-2.0 1.75 13.7 24.0 -0.63 0.40 5.48 -0.25 - 3.43 0.16 2.19
2.0-2.5 2.25 23.7 53.3 -0.13 0.02 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.5-3.0 2.75 26.8 73.7 0.37 0.13 3.48 0.05 1.34 0.02 0.54
3.0-3.5 3.25 12.2 39.7 0.87 0.76 9.27 0.66 8.05 0.57 6.95
3.5-4.0 3.75 5.6 21.0 1.37 1.88 10.53 2.57 14.39 3.52 19.71
>4.0 4.25 2.0 8.5 1.87 3.50 7.00 6.55 13.10 12.25 24.50
Source: McBride, E. F., Mathematical treatment of size distribution data, in R. E. Carver (ed.), Procedures in sedimentary petrology.
1971 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Table 2, p. 119, reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
graphical approach to interpreting grain-size data that makes use of what he calls C-M
and L-M diagrams, in which grain diameter of the coarsest grains in the deposit (C) is
plotted against either the median grain diameter (M) or the percentile finer than 0.031
mm (L). Passega maintains that most samples from a given environment will fall
within a specific environmental field in these diagrams. Visher (1969), Sagoe and
Visher (1977), and Glaister and Nelson (1974) have all suggested that depositional
environments can be interpreted on the basis of the shapes of grain-size cumulative
curves plotted on log probability paper. Cumulative curves plotted in this way com
monly display two or three straight-line segments rather than a single straight-line
(Fig. 4.8). Each segment of the curve is interpreted to represent different subpopula-
tions of grains that were transported simultaneously but by different transport modes,
that is, by suspension, saltation, and bedload transport. Sediments from different envi
ronments (dune, fluvial, beach, tidal, nearshore, turbidite) can putatively be differenti
ated on the basis of the general shapes of the curves, the slopes of the curve segments,
and the positions of the truncation points (breaks in slope) between the straight-line
segments (e.g., Visher 1969). Although success using these various techniques has been
reported by some investigators, all of the techniques have been criticized for yielding
incorrect results in an unacceptably high percentages of cases (e.g., Tucker and Vacher,
1980; Sedimentation Seminar, 1981; Vandenberghe, 1975; Reed, LeFever, and Moir,
1975).
More sophisticated multivariate statistical techniques, such as factor analysis
and discriminant function analysis (e.g., Chambers and Upchurch, 1979; Taira and
Scholle, 1979; Stokes et al., 1989) and the so-called log-hyperbolic distribution (Barn-
dorff-Nielsen, 1977; Bagnold and Barndorff-Nielsen (1980); Barndorff-Nielson et al.,
1982), have also been used. These techniques have not yet been widely applied, how
ever, and some of the assumptions used in these statistical methods have come under
criticism (e.g., Forrest and Clark, 1989). Also, some investigators (e.g., Fieller et al.,
1984; Wyroll and Smith, 1985) report no better results with log-hyperbolic distribu
tions than with results based on the normal probability function. Thus, it appears that
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 93
J 90-
after several decades of intensive research into the techniques and significance of
grain-size analysis, during which the techniques for interpreting grain-size data have
come to demand increasingly more sophisticated statistical applications, there is little
consensus as to their reliability. Such is science!
Reasons why grain-size techniques for identifying depositional environments of
sediments fail to work consistently are probably related to variability in depositional
conditions within major environmental settings. The energy conditions and sediment
supply within river systems, for example, can differ considerably from one river to
another and even within different parts of the same river system. Thus, in some cases,
the grain-size characteristics of sediments may show as much variability within differ
ent parts of the same environmental setting as between different environments. Grain-
size distributions reflect processes, not environments, and sediment transport
processes are not unique to a particular environment. In any case, grain-size data
should be considered as only one of the available tools for environmental interpreta
tion and should never be used alone for this purpose.
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94 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Particle Form
Sphericity and Form Indices. Form reflects variations in the proportions of particles.
Therefore, most parameters for estimating form require that the relative lengths of the
three major axes (long, intermediate, short) of a particle be known. Numerous mathe
matical measures for expressing form have been proposed, but sphericity is probably
the most widely used. The concept of sphericity was introduced by Wadell (1932),
who defined sphericity mathematically as the ratio of the diameter of a sphere with the
same volume as a particle to the diameter of the smallest circle that would just enclose
or circumscribe the outline of the particle. Wadell determined the volumes of large
particles by immersing the particle in water and measuring the volume change of the
water. Krumbein (1941) modified Wadell's sphericity concept slightly to express
sphericity y by the relationship
volume of the particle . .
* volume of the circumscribing sphere
The volume of a sphere is given by [11/6)0*, where D is the diameter of the sphere. The
approximate volume of natural particles can be calculated by assuming that the parti
cles are triaxial ellipsoids having three diameters Di, Dh and Ds, where L, I, and S refer
to the lengths of the long, intermediate, and short axes of the ellipsoid. By substituting
appropriate values for volume into equation 4.4, we can express sphericity by
V/
- \>Dps
=
Pw
3-2~ = 3^- (4.5)
(0
CO
UI
zQ
z
o
Increasing flatness
FORM
FORM
V.
SURFACE TEXTURE
FIGURE 4.9 Simplified graphical representation of particle form, roundness, and surface tex
ture. Part A demonstrates the independence of these parameters, and B shows their hierarchical
relationship; the irregular solid line is the particle outline. (After Barrett, P. J., 1980, The shape of
rock particles, a critical review: Sedimentology, v. 27. Figs. 1 and 2, p. 293, reprinted by permis
sion of Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.)
95
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96 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
cept sphericity formula suggests the opposite. Particles falling through water tend to
settle with maximum projection areas (the plane of the long and intermediate axes)
perpendicular to the direction of motion, and small particles resting on the bottom ori
ent themselves perpendicular to current flow direction. Sneed and Folk thus proposed
a different sphericity measure called maximum projection sphericity [yP), which they
claim better expresses particle behavior. Maximum projection sphericity is defined
mathematically as the ratio between the maximum projection area of a sphere with the
same volume as the particle and the maximum projection area of the particle:
Vp .SL (4.6)
DiPi
Maximum projection sphericity has gained favor for expressing the shape of particles
deposited by water. Conceptually, it is not necessarily more valid than intercept
sphericity when applied to other modes of particle transport and deposition, (e.g.,
transport by ice and sediment gravity flows).
Regardless of the sphericity measure used, experience has shown that particles
having the same mathematical sphericity can differ considerably in their overall shape.
Some additional measure or index is needed to more specifically define the form of
particles. Two additional form indices that permit a more graphic representation of
form are in wide use. Zingg (1935) proposed the use of two shape indices, D,/DL and
DsIDb to define four shape fields on a bivariate plot: oblate (disc), equant (spheres),
bladed, and prolate (rollers) (Fig. 4.10A). Lines of equal intercept sphericity can be
drawn on the Zingg shape fields (Fig. 4.10B), illustrating that particles of quite differ
ent form can have the same mathematical sphericity.
FIGURE 4.10 A. Classification of shapes of pebbles after Zingg (1935). B. Relationship between
mathematical sphericity and Zingg shape fields. The curves represent lines of equal sphericity.
(A, from Blatt, H., G. V. Middleton, and R. Murray, Origin of sedimentary rocks, 2nd ed. 1980,
Fig. 3.20, p. 80. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. B, from Sedi- '
mentary rocks, 3rd ed., by Francis J. Pettijohn. Fig. 3.19. Copyright 1949,1957 by Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc. Copyright 1975 by Francis J. Pettijohn. Reprinted by permission of Harper
Collins Publishers, Inc.)
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 97
Elongated
Sneed and Folk (1958) used two somewhat different shape indices to construct a
triangular form diagram (Fig. 4.11), in which DS/DL is plotted against DL - Dj/DL - Ds to
create ten form fields (compact, C; platy, P; bladed, B; elongate, E; etc.). Lines of maxi
mum projection sphericity drawn across the field (Fig. 4.11) again illustrate the dispar
ity between mathematical sphericity and actual form.
Significance of Form. The form of sand-size and smaller mineral grains in sedimen
tary deposits is a function mainly of the original shapes of the minerals. Because of its
superior hardness and durability, as well as its high average abundance in siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks, quartz is commonly the only mineral examined in shape studies.
Numerous studies have shown that the form of small quartz grains is not significantly
modified during transport, although very slight changes may occur in the early stages
of transport. The form of pebbles and larger fragments is also a function of the shape
inherited from source rocks, although, owing to abrasion and breakage, pebbles are
modified during transport to a greater extent than are sand-size grains.
The form of particles has a very pronounced effect on their settling velocity; in
general, the more nonspherical the particle, the lower the settling velocity. Particle
form thus affects relative transportability of particles traveling in suspension. That is,
nonspherical particles tend to stay in suspension longer than spherical particles. Form
also affects the transportability of larger particles that move by traction along the bed.
In general, spheres and rollers are transported more readily than are blades and discs
having the same mass. Thus, owing to preferential transport of spheres and rollers,
downstream changes in pebble form may occur in rivers. Such changes can be difficult
or impossible to differentiate from changes caused by pebble abrasion. A long-standing
and as yet unresolved controversy has to do with the flattened, disc shapes of many
pebbles found on beaches. The prevalence of disc-shaped beach pebbles has been
attributed alternatively to selective transport which leaves flattened pebbles behind on
the beach as a lag deposit (Kuenen, 1964) and to flattening of pebbles on the beach by
abrasion in the surf (Dobkins and Folk, 1970).
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98 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
It has not yet been demonstrated that the form of particles, as expressed by
sphericity values or the Zingg/Folk shape measures, can be used alone as a reliable
tool for interpreting depositional environments. Although empirical studies show
some relative differences in sphericity or form indices of grains from different environ
ments, these differences have not proven to be sufficiently distinctive to permit envi
ronmental discrimination. Furthermore, it is very difficult to accurately measure the
three-dimensional form of sand-size grains, particularly in consolidated sediments. In
a thin section, for example, we can see only two dimensions of a particle, and neither
dimension may represent the true length of the particle axis. More accurate means of
expressing particle form are clearly needed, as subsequently discussed under "Fourier
Shape Analysis."
Roundness
Definition and Measurement. Wadell (1932) defined mathematical roundness as the
arithmetic mean of the roundness of the individual corners of a grain in the plane of
measurement. Roundness of individual corners is given by the ratio of the radius of
curvature of the corners to the radius of the maximum-size circle that can be inscribed
within the outline of the grain in the plane of measurement. The degree of Wadell
roundness [Rw) is thus expressed as
Rw X[r/R)
N RN (4.7)
where r is the radius of curvature of individual comers, R is the radius of the maxi
mum inscribed circle, and N is the number of corners. The relationship of r to R is
illustrated in Figure 4.12.
Owing to the numerous radius measurements that must be made, it is very time-
consuming to determine the Wadell roundness of large numbers of grains. Simpler
roundness measures have been proposed that require only that the radius of the
sharpest comer be divided by the radius of the inscribed circle (Wentworth, 1919;
Dobkins and Folk, 1970); however, Wadell's roundness measure is still used by most
Measuring mark in
proper position for
measuring radii of
curvature of corners
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 99
workers. Even if the simpler roundness formula is used, measuring the radii of large
numbers of small grains is a very laborious process, requiring use of either a circular
protractor or an electronic particle size analyzer to measure enlarged images of grains
(Boggs, 1967a). Consequently, visual comparison scales or charts consisting of sets of
grain images of known roundness are often used to make rapid visual estimates of
grain roundness. The visual charts of Krumbein (1941) and Powers (1953) are the most
widely used of these comparison scales. The Powers visual and verbal roundness scale
is shown in Figure 4.13, and the mathematical limits of each Powers verbal roundness
class are given in Table 4.6. The interval between roundness classes is approximately
equal to V2; that is, the interval of each class is 1.41 times greater than the preceding
class. Folk (1955) developed a logarithmic transformation of this scale, called the rho
(p) scale, also shown in Table 4.6. Operator error in estimating grain roundness from
visual charts is very high, and reproducibility of results even by the same operator is
very low. Visual estimation methods yield only a rough approximation of the true
roundness distribution in a population of grains and should not be used for serious
research studies.
HIGH
SPHERICITY
LOW
SPHERICITY
k ^ fl ^ P f ^
SUB-
ANGULAR ROUNDED ROUNDED
FIGURE 4.13 Powers's grain images for estimating the roundness of sedimentary particles.
(After Powers, M. C, 1953, A new roundness scale for sedimentary particles: Jour. Sed. Petrology,
v. 23, Fig. 1, p. 118, reprinted by permission of Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineral
ogists, Tulsa, Okla.)
Source: Powers. M. C. 1953. A new roundness scale for sedimentary particles: Jour. Sed.
Petrology, v. 23. p. 117-119. Folk, R. L.. 1955. Student operator error in determination of
roundness, sphericity, and grain size: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 25, p. 297-301.
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100 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
during transport than are weakly durable grains such as feldspars and pyroxenes. Peb
ble- to cobble-size grains commonly are more easily rounded than sand-size grains.
Resistant mineral grains smaller than 0.05 to 0.1 mm do not appear to become rounded
by any transport process. Because of these factors, it is always necessary to work with
particles of the same size and composition when doing roundness studies.
Experimental studies in flumes and wind tunnels of the effects of abrasion on
transport of sand-size quartz grains show that transport by wind is 100 to 1000 times
more effective in rounding these grains than transport by water (Kuenen, 1959, 1960).
In fact, almost no rounding occurs in as much as 100 km of transport by water. Most
roundness studies of small quartz grains in rivers have corroborated these experimen
tal results. For example, Russell and Taylor (1937) observed no increase in rounding of
quartz grains over a distance of 1100 mi (1775 km) in the Mississippi River between
Cairo, Illinois, and the Gulf of Mexico. The effectiveness of surf action on beaches in
rounding sand-size quartz grains is not well understood. In general, surf processes
appear to be less effective in rounding grains than wind transport but more effective
than river transport.
Once acquired, the roundness of quartz grains is not easily lost and may be pre
served through several sedimentation cycles. The presence of well-rounded quartz
grains in an ancient sandstone may well indicate an episode of wind transport in its
history, but it may be difficult or impossible to determine if rounding took place dur
ing the last episode of transport or during some previous cycle.
The roundness of transported pebbles is strongly related to pebble composition
and size (Boggs, 1969). Soft pebbles such as shale and limestone become rounded
much more readily than quartzite or chert pebbles, and large pebbles and cobbles are
commonly better rounded than smaller pebbles. Although stream transport is rela
tively ineffective in rounding small quartz grains, pebble-size grains can become well
rounded by stream transport. Depending upon composition and size, pebbles can
become well rounded (roundness about 0.6) by stream transport in distances ranging
from 11 km (7 mi) for limestones to 300 km (186 mi) for quartz (Pettijohn, 1975).
The presence of well-rounded pebbles in ancient sedimentary rocks is generally
indicative of fluvial transport. The degree of rounding cannot, however, be depended
upon to give reliable estimates of the distance of transport. The greatest amount of
rounding takes place in the early stages of transport, generally within the first few kilo
meters. Also, the roundness of pebbles is not an unequivocal indicator of fluvial envi
ronments because pebbles can also become rounded in beach environments and possi
bly on lakeshores. Furthermore, rounded fluvial pebbles may eventually be transported
into nearshore marine environments where they may be reentrained by turbidity cur
rents and resedimented in deeper parts of the ocean.
Surface Texture
The surface of pebbles and mineral grains may be polished, frosted (dull, matte texture
like frosted glass), or marked by a variety of small-scale, low-relief features such as
pits, scratches, fractures, and ridges. These surface textures originate in diverse ways,
including mechanical abrasion during sediment transport; tectonic polishing during
deformation; and chemical corrosion, etching, and precipitation of authigenic growths
on grain surfaces during diagenesis and weathering. Gross surface textural features
such as polishing and frosting can be observed with an ordinary binocular or petro-
graphic microscope; however, detailed study of surface texture requires high magnifi
cations. Krinsley (1962) pioneered use of the electron microscope for studying grain
surface texture at high magnifications.
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 101
Most investigators who study the surface texture of sediment grains carry out
their studies on quartz grains because the physical hardness and chemical stability of
quartz grains allow these particles to retain surface markings for geologically long peri
ods of time. Through study of thousands of quartz grains, investigators have now been
able to fingerprint the markings on grains from various modern depositional environ
ments. More than 25 different surface textural features have been identified, including
conchoidal fractures, straight and curved scratches and striations, upturned plates,
meander ridges, chemically etched V's, mechanically formed V's, and dish-shaped con
cavities (Bull, 1986). Examples of these markings are shown in Figure 4.14, illustrating
the kinds of markings that can be seen at high magnification. Many other excellent
electron micrographs of quartz surfaces may be found in Krinsley and Doornkamp's
(1973) Atlas of Quartz Sand Surface Textures.
Surface texture appears to be more susceptible to change during sediment trans
port and deposition than do sphericity and roundness. Removal of old surface textural
features and generation of new features are more likely to occur than marked changes
in sphericity and roundness, and surface texture is more likely to record the last cycle
of sediment transport or the last depositional environment. Therefore, geologists are
interested in surface textural features as possible indicators of ancient transport condi
tions and depositional environment. The usefulness of surface texture in environmen
tal analysis is limited, however, because similar types of surface markings can be pro
duced in different environments. Also, the markings produced on grains in one
10^
FIGURE 4.14 Electron micrograph of surface markings on a quartz grain, St. Peters Sandstone
(Ordovician), U.S. midcontinent region. A. Quartz grain magnified 260x. B. Section of the grain
surface magnified 2400X. (Photographs by M. B. Shaffer.)
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102 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
environment may be retained on the grains when they are transported into another
environment. Although less abrasion is required to remove surface markings from
grains than is required to change roundness or sphericity, markings inherited from a
previous environment may remain on grains for a long time before they are removed or
replaced by different markings produced in the new environment. For example, grains
on an arctic marine shelf may still retain surface microrelief features acquired during
glacial transport of the grains to the shelf.
With care and the use of statistical methods, it has proven possible on the basis
of surface textures to distinguish quartz grains from at least three major modern envi
ronmental settings: littoral (beach and nearshore), eolian (desert), and glacial. Quartz
grains from littoral environments are characterized especially by V-shaped percussion
marks and conchoidal breakage patterns. Grains deposited in eolian environments
show surface smoothness and rounding, irregular upturned plates, and silica solution
and precipitation features. Grains from glacial deposits have conchoidal fracture pat
terns and parallel to semiparallel striations. Techniques for studying the surface tex
ture of quartz grains in modern environments have also been extended to study of
ancient sedimentary deposits. Interpretation of paleoenvironments on the basis of sur
face texture is complicated by the fact that surface microtextures can be changed dur
ing diagenesis by addition of cementing overgrowths or by chemical etching and solu
tion. Krinsley and Trusty (1986) and Marshall (1987) provide additional details and
discuss applications of the study of quartz grain surface textures by using the scanning
electron microscope (SEM).
270c
1
1 11 11 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 i 1
1 1 1 1 1 CO in '
1 CO in r^ en
0: 1 rr rr rr rr rr f 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 90 180 270 360 (2ji)
Grain perimeter
source and the transport paths of abyssal silts in the ocean. Because the technique is
relatively new, having been introduced in the 1970s, additional work is needed to con
firm and extend these early results.
4.4 FABRIC
The fabric of sedimentary rocks is a function of grain orientation and packing and is
thus a property of grain aggregates. Orientation and grain packing in turn control such
physical properties of sedimentary rocks as bulk density, porosity, and permeability.
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104 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(b)
(0
(d)
Grain Orientation
Particles in sedimentary rocks that have a platy (blade or disc) shape or an elongated
(rod or roller) shape commonly show some degree of preferred orientation (Fig. 4.17).
Platy particles tend to be aligned in planes that are roughly parallel to the bedding sur
faces of the deposits. Elongated particles show a further tendency to be oriented with
their long axes pointing roughly in the same direction. The preferred orientation of
these particles is caused by transport and depositional processes and is related particu
larly to flow velocities and other hydraulic conditions at the depositional site. Most
orientation studies have shown that sand-size particles deposited by fluid flows tend
to become aligned parallel to the current direction (Fig. 4.17A; Parkash and Middleton,
1970), although a secondary mode of grains oriented normal to current flow may be
present. If the grains have a streamline or teardrop shape, the blunt end of the grains
commonly points upstream because this is the most stable orientation within a cur
rent. Sand grains can also show well-developed imbrication with long axes generally
dipping upcurrent at angles less than about 20. Imbrication refers to the overlapping
arrangement of particles like that of shingles on a roof (Fig. 4.17C). Particles of sandy
sediment deposited by turbidity currents and grain-flow or sandy debris-flow
processes also tend to be aligned parallel to flow directions and display upstream
imbrication at angles exceeding 20 (Hiscott and Middleton, 1980); however, in some
gravity-flow deposits, orientation and imbrication directions can be variable or poly-
modal. Particles deposited under quiet water conditions may also show various orien
tations and a lack of imbrication (Fig. 4.17D) Fabric inconsistencies or bimodality
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 105
appear to be related mainly to very rapid deposition from suspension or from sandy
debris flow.
Pebbles in many gravel deposits and ancient conglomerates also display pre
ferred orientation and imbrication. River-deposited pebbles are commonly oriented
with their long axes normal to flow direction (Fig. 4.17B) and may display upstream
imbrication of up to 10 to 15 (Fig. 4.18). Orientation can also be parallel to flow or
even bimodal. Increasing flow intensity appears to favor orientation with long axes
parallel to current flow rather than normal to flow (Johansson, 1976). Pebbles
deposited by turbidity currents or other gravity-flow processes also take up orienta
tions with their long axes mainly parallel to flow direction, although orientation in
some deposits can be random. Pebbles in glacial tills show preferred orientation paral
lel to flow, with a minor mode oriented normal to flow.
Cubic packing
(47.6% porosity)
^_ Rhombohedral
"*"" packing
(26.0% porosity)
FIGURE 4.19 Progressive decrease in porosity of spheres owing to increasingly tight packing.
(After Graton, L. C, and H. J. Fraser, 1935, Systematic packing of spheres with particular relation
to porosity and permeability: Jour. Geology, v. 43. Fig. 3, p. 796, reprinted by permission of Uni
versity of Chicago Press.)
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SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES 107
as "floating grains." Contact types are related to both particle shape and packing. Tan
gential contacts occur only in loosely packed sediments or sedimentary rocks, whereas
concavoconvex contacts and sutured contacts occur in rocks that have undergone con
siderable compaction during burial. The relative abundance of these various types of
contacts can be used as a rough measure of the degree of compaction and packing, and
thus the depth of burial of sandstones. Several other methods for expressing the pack
ing of sediment have been proposed; see Boggs (1992, p. 68-69) for details.
The sand-size grains in sandstones are commonly in continuous grain-to-grain
contact when considered in three dimensions, and thus they form a grain-supported
fabric. Conglomerates deposited by fluid flows also generally have a grain-supported
fabric. On the other hand, conglomerates in glacial deposits, mud-flow deposits, and
debris-flow deposits commonly have a matrix-supported fabric. In this type of fabric,
the pebbles are not in grain-to-grain contact but "float" in a matrix of sand or mud.
Matrix-supported conglomerates indicate deposition under conditions where fine sedi
ment is abundant and deposition occurs by mass-transport processes or by processes
that cause little reworking at the depositional site.
FURTHER READINGS
Carver, R. E. (ed.), 1971, Procedures in sedimentary Lewis, D. W., 1984, Practical sedimentology, p. 58-108:
petrology: John Wiley & Sons, New York, 653 p. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa.,
Folk, R. L., 1974, Petrology of sedimentary rocks: 229 p.
Hemphill, Austin, Tex., 182 p. Marshall, J. R. (ed.), 1987, Clastic particles: Scanning
Griffith, J. C, 1967, Scientific methods in analysis of electon microscopy and shape analysis of sedimen
sediments: McGraw-Hill, New York, 508 p. tary and volcanic clasts: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, 346 p.
Krinsley, D., and J. Doornkamp, 1973, Atlas of quartz
sand surface textures: Cambridge University Press, Syvitski, J. P. M., 1991, Principles, methods, and appli
cations of particle size analysis: Cambridge Univer
Cambridge, 91 p.
sity Press, Cambridge, 368 p.