MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

We learnt-that electricity and magnetism are not independent phenomena. Infact, electric charges in
motion form the basis of magnetism.
In this chapter, we trace the origin of the science of magnetism, and its subsequent growth. A Greek
Philosopher, Thales of Miletus had observed as long back as 600 B.C, that a naturally occuring ore of iron
attracted small pieces of iron towards it. This ore was found in the district of Magnesia in Asia Minor in
Greece. Hence the ore was named magnetite. The phenomenon of attraction of small bits of iron, steel,
cobalt, nickel etc. towards the ore was called magnetism. The iron ore showing this effect was called a
natural magnet. The structural formula of this natural ore was Fe3O4.

The Chinese discovered that a piece of magnetite, when suspended freely, always points out roughly
in the north south direction. Thus a natural magnet has attractive and directive properties. A magnetic
compass based on directive property of magnets was used by navigators to find their way in steering the ships.

That is why magnetite was also called 'lode stone' in the sense of leading stone.
The natural magnets have often irregular shape and they are weak. It is found that a piece of iron or
steel can acquire magnetic properties, on rubbing with a magnet. Such magnets made out of iron and steel
are called artificial magnets. Artificial magnets can have desired shape and desired strength. A bar
magnet, a horse shoe magnet, magnetic needle, compass needle etc. all are artificial magnets.
Today, Magnets and magnetic materials are used in VCRs, audio cassettes, audio head sets, ATM and
credit cards. They are also used in the inks for paper money. Breakfast cereals that are iron fortified also contain
small bits of magnetic materials. Further, the modern electronics industry (including music and information
sectors) would not even exist without the use of magnetic materials.

3(c).2. Basic Properties of Magnets

Following are some of the basic properties of magnets :
1. A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel towards it. When a magnet is put
in a heap of iron filings, they cling to the magnet as shown in Fig3( c ).1. The attraction appears to be
maximum at the two ends of the magnet. These ends are called poles of the magnet.
2. When a magnet is suspended freely with the help of an inextensible thread, it comes to rest along the north
south direction. If it is turned from this direction and left, it again returns to this direction. The pole
which points towards geographic north is called north pole (N) and the pole which points towards
geographic south is called south pole (S),3(c)2

FIGURE3 ( c ) 2

It should be clearly understood that poles exist always in pairs ; two poles of a magnet are always of
equal strength. Further, poles N and S are situated a little inwards from the geometrical ends A and B
of the magnet. The magnetic length (NS) of magnet is roughly 6/7 of its geometric length (AB).
We represent NS by 2 l(and not l).

The straight line passing through north and south poles of a magnet is called axial line of the
magnet. A line passing through centre of the magnet in a direction perpendicular to the length
of the magnet is called equatorial line of the magnet.
The straight line joining north and south poles of a freely suspended magnet represents magnetic
N S direction. A vertical plane passing through N S line of a freely suspended magnet is called
magnetic meridian.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other

To show this, we suspend a bar magnet with the help of a thread. When we bring N pole of
another magnet near the N pole of suspended magnet we observe repulsion, Fig.3( c ) 3
Similarly, south pole of one magnet repels south pole of the other, Fig.3 ( c ).4 However, when S pole of
one is brought near N pole of suspended magnet, there is attraction, Fig. 3 ( c ) 5.
 4. The force of attraction or repulsion F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2
separated by a distance r is directly proportional to the product of pole strengths and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centre i.e.

m1m2 mm
2
K 12 2
F r or F = r

Where K is magnetic force constant.

0
K
In S.I. units, 4

= 10-7 Wb A-1m-1

Where 0 is absolute magnetic permeability of free space (air / vacuum)

0 m1m2
F
4 r 2 ( 1)

This is called Coulomb's law of magnetic force. However, in c.g.s. system, the value of K=1.
S.I. Unit of magnetic pole strength
Suppose mi = m2 = in m (say)
r = 1 m and F = 10-7 N

(m)(m)
From eqn. (1), 10-7 = 10-7
12
or m2 = 1 or m = 1 ampere-metre (Am)
Therefore, strength of a magnetic pole is said to be one ampere-metre, if it repels an equal and

FIGURE 3(c).3 FIGURE 3(c) .4 FIGURE 3(c).5

similar pole with a force of 10-7 N, when placed in vaccum (or air) at a distance of one metre from it.

5. The magnetic poles always exist in pairs-i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist. In an attempt to
separate the magnetic poles, if we break a magnet, we find new poles formed at the broken ends. If the
two pieces are broken again, we find the broken ends contain new poles again, Fig. 3(c).6. Thus
each piece, howsoever small, is a complete magnet in itself. Even if a magnet is broken into
molecules, each molecule shall be a complete magnet. Note that pole strength (m) of each
piece broken lengthwise, remains unchanged, although dipole moment M=m x 21 goes on
decreasing, with decreasing length.

FIGURE 3(c) 6

6. Inductive Property. When a piece of a magnetic material like soft iron, cobalt, nickel etc. is
placed near a bar magnet, it acquires magnetism. The magnetim so acquired is called induced
magnetism and this property of magnet is called inductive property:
7. Repulsion is the sure test of magnetism. Suppose we have two identical pieces, one is iron
and other is a magnet. To distinguish which is which, we take another bar magnet. This bar magnet
would attract the iron piece and also one end of this bar magnet would attract the opposite pole of the
given magnet. However, one end of this bar magnet would repel only like pole of the given magnet.
Hence when repulsion occurs between the testing bar magnet and one of the two given pieces,
that piece must be a magnet. That is why we say that repulsion is sure test of magnetism.

3(c ).3 Atomic / Molecular Theory of Magnetism

The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified later by Ewing.
According to this theory :
(i) Every molecule of a magnetic substance (whether magnetised or not) is a complete magnet in
itself, having a north pole and a south pole of equal strength.

(ii) In an unmagnetised substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that
they form closed chains as shown in Fig. 3(c).7. The north pole of one molecular magnet cancels
the effect of south pole of the other so that the resultant magnetism of the unmagnetised specimen is
zero.

(Un magnetised)
FIGURE 3(c) .7
 (iii) On magnetising the substance, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of all
molecular magnets point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in the opposite
direction, Fig. 3(c).8.

FIGURE3(c) 8

The extent of magnetisation of the specimen is the extent of realignment of the. molecular magnets.

(iv)When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with magnetism.
(v) At all the stages, the strengths of the two poles developed will always be equal.

(vi)On heating the magnetised specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy. Some of the
molecules may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism of the specimen would reduce
on heating.
3(c) 4.Uniform and Non Uniform Magnetic Field

Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying
current, in which the magnetic effect (i.e. force of attraction and repulsion on a magnet) can be
experienced .

The magnetic field strength at a point is the force experienced by an isolated hypothetical unit north
pole placed at that point. It is a vector quantity whose direction is the direction in which unit north pole
would move, if free to do so.

The S.I. unit of magnetic field strength is tesla.

1 tesla (T) = 1 newton ampere-1 metre-1
(NA -1m-1)
= 1 weber metre-2 (Wb m -2)
The C.G.S. unit of magnetic field strength is1 gauss (G) = 10-4 tesla (T).

Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform,if the magnetic field vector B has the same
magnitude and the same direction at all the points in the region. The only example of nearly uniform
 magnetic field over a wide area is that due to earth's gnetism i.e. magnetic field due to earth can be taken
as fairly uniform over the surface of earth.
A uniform magnetic field acting in the plane the paper is represented by equidistant parallel lines, Fig.
3(c).9.

FIGURE 3(c) 9

The number of magnetic lines of force per unit area normal to the area at a point, represents the magnitude
of the magnetic field at that point.Obviously, crowded lines will represent a strong field and distant
lines will represent a weak field.

Fig. 3(c).10 represents non-uniform magnetic fields.

FIGURE3(c) 10

A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards is represented
by dots spaced equally, as shown in Fig. 3(c).11(a).
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards is represented by
crosses spaced equally, as shown in Fig. 3(c ).11(b).

FIGURE 3(c) .11(a) FIGURE 3(c) 11 .(b)

 Note : Different text books have used various names for the magnetic field B .These are magnetic
induction, magnetic induction field, magnetic flux density etc. For the sake of simplicity and
uniformity, we shall use the name magnetic field strength for B realising that it means the same as
magnetic flux density.

5. Magnetic Lines of Force.

The concept of magnetic lines of force or simply the field lines was developed to visualize the effect of
the magnetic field. The magnetic field lines represent the magnetic field in the same way as the electric field
lines represent an electric field.
We define magnetic field line as the path along which an isolated north pole would move, if it is free
to do so. Tangent to magnetic field line at any point would represent the directon of magnetic field

strength B at that point.

As an isolated magnetic pole does not exist, a small magnetic needle, called compass needle is used to
plot the field lines of a magnetic field.
The magnetic lines of force do not exist in reality. They are only hypothetical lines which enable us to
understand certain phenomena in magnetism.
If we imagine a number of small compass needles around a magnet, each compass needle
experiences a torque due to the field of the magnet. The torque acting on a compass needle aligns it in the
direction of the magnetic field. The path along which the compass needles are aligned is known as
magnetic line of force. It should be clearly understood that tangent PA to a field line at any point

P gives us the direction of magnetic field strength B at that point, Fig, 3(.c)..12.

FIGURE 3(c) 12

6. Properties of Magnetic Lines

Following are some of the important properties of magnetic lines of force :
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed continuous curves, we may imagine them to be extending
through the body of the magnet.
2. Outside the body of the magnet, the direction of magnetic lines of force, is from north pole to
south pole.
3. The tangent to magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of magnetic field strength at
that point.
4. No two-magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
5. Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and they dilate laterally.
6. Crowding of magnetic lines of force represents stronger magnetic field and vice-versa.
IMPORTANT NOTE
It should be clearly understood that there is one fundamental difference between electricity and
magnetism. Whereas in electricity, an isolated charge can exist, in magnetism, an isolated magnetic pole
does not exist. The simplest magnetic structure t hat can exi st i s onl y a m agneti c di pol e ,
characterized by magnetic dipole moment M . Thus for mapping magnetic field, the simplest test object is a
dipole. That is why in the definition of B above, we have used the word 'hypothetical' isolated north pole.
However, this definition of, B (corresponding to definition of E ) enables us to simplify some calculations.

Thus magnetic dipole is characterized by a vector M in place of a scalar charge q in electricity. We

shall show that in an external magnetic field, the dipole experiences a torque (unlike the force experienced
by charge q in an external electric field). The effect of torque is to align the dipole along the external
magnetic field. The directive property of a magnet is attributed to the torque acting on the magnetic
dipole due to earth's magnetic field.
Each electric line of force starts from a positive charge and ends at a negative charge. It should be clearly
understood that the electric lines are discontinuous only in the sense that no such lines exist inside a charged body.
However, from a positively charged body to a negatively charged body, there is no discontinuity in the electric lines
of force. In magnetism, as there are no monopoles, therefore, the magnetic field lines will be along closed loops
with no starting or ending. The magnetic lines of force would pass through body of the magnet. At very far off points,
the field lines due to an electric dipole and a magnetic dipole will appear identical.

Remember that electric lines of force are discontinuous.Whereas magnetic lines of force are
closed continuous curves.

7. Mapping of Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet

For mapping the magnetic field of a bar magnet, place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper.Take a
small compass needle. Place it close to one of the poles, say North. Mark by pencil dots, the positions n, s
of the ends of the compass needle. Shift the compass needle so that its s pole touches the point marked n.
Mark the new position of n pole of the compass needle. Repeat this process to obtain a series of dots as
shown in Fig. 3(c).13. Join these points by a smooth curve. This is one magnetic line of force Similarly, other
magnetic lines of force can be drawn. Fig. 3(c).14 shows the pattern of fleld lines around a bar magnet.

FIGURE 3(c) 13

FIGURE 3(c) 14

It should be clearly understood that the field lines exist in all the space around the magnet. However, in
Fig. 3(c).14, these lines are confined only in the plane of the paper.

Fig. 3(c). 15(a) shows the pattern of magnetic lines of force due to a straight solenoid carrying
current. Fig. 3(c). 15(b) shows the pattern of magnetic lines of force due to a bar magnet. Comparison
of the two field patterns shows that current carrying solenoid from outside resembles a bar magnet. Inside
the solenoid, there is a strong magnetic field which can magnetise a specimen. Solenoid is hollow from
inside whereas the bar magnet is solid. The bar magnet is thus an equivalent solenoid. If we were to
move a small compass needle in the neighbourhood of a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid, we
find deflections of the needle are similar in both cases.

Fig 3(c). 15 (c) depicts the electric lines of force due to an electric dipole, for further comparison.
We find that electric lines of force start from the positive charge and end at the negative charge. They are not
closed continuous curves like magnetic lines of force.
 FIGURE 3(c)15

The magnetic lines of force due to a U-shaped magnet are shown in Fig. 3(c).16.

FIGURE 3(c) 16
Magnetic Dipole
A magnetic dipole consists of two unlike poles of equal strength and separated by a small distance.
For example, a bar magnet, a compass needle etc; are magnetic dipoles. We shall show that a current
loop behaves. as a magnetic dipole. An atom of. a magnetic material behaves as a. dipole due to electrons
revolving around the nucleus.
The two poles of a magnetic dipole (or a magnet); called north pole and south pole are always of equal
strength, and of opposite nature. Further such two magnetic poles always exist in pair and 'cannot be
separated from each other.
. The distance between the two poles of a bar magnet is called the magnetic length of the magnet. It

is.a,vector directed from S-pole of magnet to its N-pole, and is represented by 2l .

Magnetic dipole moment is the product of strength of either pole (m) and the magnetic length 2l of the
magnet. It is represented by M .
Magnetic dipole moment
= strength of either pole x magnetic length
M m(2l )

FIGURE 3(c) 17

Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of magnetic length i.e. M is directed
from the South to North pole of the Magnet, as shown in Fig.3(c).17.

We shall show that S.I. units of M are joule/tesla or ampere metre2.

S.I. unit of pole strength is Am.

Note that the direction of magnetic moment ( M ) of a magnetic dipole is from south to north. This
corresponds to the electric dipole moment ( p ) of an electric dipole from negative charge to positive charge.
(a) When point lies on axial line of bar magnet
Let 2l be the magnetic length of a bar magnet with centre O. M is the magnetic dipole moment of the
magnet; OP = d, is the distance of the point P on the axial line from the centre of the magnet, Fig.
3(c).18. If m is the strength of each pole, then magnetic field strength of P due to N pole of magnet,
then
0 m 1 0 m
B
4 Np 2 4 (d l )2
along NP produced.

FIGURE3(c) 18

Magnetic field strength at P due to S pole of magnet

0 m1 0 m
B1 , along PS
4 Sp 2 4 (d l ) 2
Magnetic field strength at P due to the bar magnet B1= B-B1

0 m m
= 0
4 (d l ) 4 (d l )2
2

0 m 1 1


4 (d l ) (d l ) 2
2

0 m ( d l ) 2 ( d l ) 2
B1
4 (d 2 l 2 ) 2

0 m.4ld (m 2l )2d
0
4 (d l )
2 2 2
4 (d 2 l 2 ) 2

0 2Md
B1 .(3)
4 (d 2 l 2 )2
When the magnet is short, l2 < <d2.
2Md 0 2M
B1 0 ..(4)
4 d 4 4 d 3
The direction of B1 is along SN produced.
(b) When point lies on equatorial line of bar magnet
In Fig. 3 (c).19, the point is shown on equatorial line of the same bar magnet where OP = d. Magnetic
field strength at P due to N pole of magnet
0 M 1 0 m
B ,
4 NP 2
4 (d l 2 )
2

along NP Produced.
 FIGURE 3(c) 19

Magnetic field strength at P due to S pole of magnet

0 M 1 0 m
= B1 , along PS.
4 SP 2
4 (d l 2 )
2

As B = B' in magnitude, their components B sin U along OP produced and B' sin along PO
cancel. However, components along PX parallel to NS add. Therefore.
Magnetic field strength at P due to the bar magnet
B2 =B cos +B' cos = 2B' cos ,
along PX
0 m l
= 2
4 (d l )
2 2
d l2
2

0 m 2l
=
4 (d 2 l 2 )3/2
0 M
B2 .(5)
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2

If the magnet is short, l2 < < d2

0
M m
B2 = B 0 3 (6)
4 (d )
2 3/2
4 d
The direction of B2 is along PX , a line parallel
to NS, as shown in Fig. 3(c).18. Dividing (4) by (6), w e g e t B 1 / B 2 = 2 o r B 1 = 2 B 2

Hence magnetic field due to a short bar magnet at any point on axial line of magnet is twice the
magnetic field at a point on the equatorial line of the magnet, at the same distance.
The analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles is summarised in the table below:
 S No Quantity Electrostatics Magnetism

0
1. Constant 1/40
4

dipole moment M
2. p

2p
3. 4 0 d 3
Axial Field 0 2 M
4 d 3

0 M
4. Equatorial p / 4 0 d 3
4 d 3
Field
5. Torque in p E M B
external field
6. Potential
Energy in
p.E M .B
external field

Note. Magnetic field at large distances due to a bar magnet of magnetic moment M can be obtained from the
equations of electric field due to an electric dipole of moment p by changing
1
E B; p M , 0
4 0 4

0 2 M
On axial line, B1 =
4 d 3
M
On equatorial Line B2, 0 3
4 d
Do you Know?

When point lies on axial line of magnetic dipole, it is known as end-on position or tangent A
position.
When Point lies on equatorial line of magnetic dipole, it is known as broadside on position or tangent B
position.
At any point at axial line of dipole, Magnetic field strength B1 is along M .
At any point of equatorial line of a dipole, Magnetic field strength B2 is in a direction opposite to M .
Sample problem:
A magnet 10 cm long has a pole strength of 12 A.m . Find the magnitude of magnetic field strength B at a
point on its axis at a distance of 20 cm from it. What would be the value of B , if the point were to lie at the
same distance on equatorial line of magnet?
Sol: Here 2l = 10 cm = 0.1 ; m = 12 Am
B = ? d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
2Md 0 4mld
As B1 0 2 2
4 (d l ) 4 (d 2 l 2 )
107 4 12 0.5 0.2
[(0.2)2 (0.5)2 ]2

B1 = 3.4 x 10-5T
At the same distance , on equatorial line ,

B2 = B1, assuming the magnet to be short.

B2 = x 3.4 x 10-5T = 1.7 x 10-5T.

3( c).10.Torque on a bar Magnet in a Magnetic Field

In Fig.3(c )20.a uniform magnetic field B is represented by equidistant parallel lines. NS is a bar magnet of a
length 2l and strength of each pole = m. The magnet is held at with the direction of B . These forces
being equal, unlike and parallel form a couple , which tends to rotate the magnet clockwise so as to align it
along B .

FIGURE3(c) 20

Draw NA perpendicular to B and SA B

Torque acting on the bar magnet
= moment of the couple
= mB x NA
NA NA
In NAS, Sin = = ..(7)\
NS 2l
NA = 2l sin
Put in (7)
= mB x 2 l sin . As M =M x 2l

= MB sin (8)
In vector form, we can rewrite this equation
M B
.
The direction of is perpendicular to the plane containing M and B , and is given by right-handed
screw rule.
When B= 1 and = 90, then from (8)
= M x 1 sin 90 = M or M =
Hence we may define magnetic dipole moment as the torque acting on a dipole held perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field of unit strength.
Unit of M is unit of divided by unit of B .

Therefore, the S.I. unit of M is joule per tesla (JT-1)

3(c ).11.Potential Energy of Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is the energy possessed by the dipole due to
its particular position in the field.
When a magnetic dipole of moment M is held at an angle with the direction of a uniform magnetic
field B , the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole is
=MB sin
This torque tends to align the dipole in the direction of the field. Work has to be done in rotating the
dipole against the action of the torque. This work done is stored as potential energy of the dipole.
Now, small amount of work done is rotating the dipole through a small angle d is
dW= d = MB sin.d
Total work done is rotating the dipole from
= 1 to = 2 is
2
W MB sin d MB[ cos ]12
1 ..(10)
W MB[cos 2 cos 1 ]

When 1 =90and 2 = , then

U =W=-MB(cos - cos 90)
W = -MB cos (11)

It vector notation, we may rewrite (11) as U M .B .

Note that when = 90, U = 0 i.e. potential is zero, when the magnetic dipole is perpendicular to the
field. Equation (11) shows that at = 0, potential energy is minimum. ( = +MB), which is the most
stable position. Further, at = 1800, potential energy is maximum ( + MB),
is the most unstable position.

Sample Problem. A magnet having a magnetic moment of 1.0 X 104 J/T is free to rotate in a
horizontal plane where a magnetic field 4 X 10-5 T exists. Find the work done in rotating the
magnet slowly from a direction parallel to the field to a direction 60 from the field.
 Sol. Here, M = 1.0 x 104 J/T ,
B = 4 x 10-5 T
W = ? , 1=0, 2 = 60
W= MB (COS 2 COS 1)
= 1.0 x 104 x 4 x 10-5 (cos 60 cos 0)
= - 0.4 (1/2 1) = 0.2J
3(c ) . 12 Current Loop As A Magnetic Dipole

Consider a plane loop of wire carrying current, Fig. 3(c).21. Looking at the upper face, current is
anticlockwise. Therefore, it has a north polarity .Looking at the lower face of the loop, current is
clockwise.
Therefore it has south polarity. The current carrying loop thus behaves as a system of two equal and
opposite magnetic poles and hence is a magnetic dipole.
The magnetic dipole moment of the current loop (M) is directly proportional to (i) strength of
current (I) through the loop and (ii) area (A) enclosed by the loop.
UPPER FACE (N)

LOWER FACE (S)

FIGURE3(c) .21

i.e .M I
and M A
M = KIA---(13)

where Kis a constant of proportionality.

If we define unit magnetic dipole moment as that of a small one turn loop of unit area carrying unit
current, then from (13),
1 =Kx 1 x 1 or K = 1
from (13),
M = IA
For N such turns,

M = NIA ...(14)
 The S.1. unit of M is ampere metre2. It is the magnetic moment of one turn loop of area one square
metre carrying a current of one ampere.

In vector form, we can rewrite Eqn. (14) as

M = NIA n

where n is unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop in a direction given by right handed
screw rule.

The factor NI is called ampere turns of the circular current loop. Thus magnetic dipole moment of
current loop ampere turns x area of the loop.

Note that eqn. (14) is valid for planar current loop of any shape and size.
13. Bohr Magneton or Magnetic dipole moment of an atom due to revolving electron
In every atom electron revolves around the nucleus. A revolving electron is like a loop of current,
which has a definite magnetic dipole moment. When an electron revolves in anticlockwise direction,
the current is clockwise. Therefore upper face of the electron loop acts as a south pole and lower face
acts as a north pole. Hence an atom behaves as a magnetic dipole.
If e is the charge on an electron revolving in an orbit of radius r with a uniform angular velocity ,
Then equivalent current

i= = where,

T = the period of revolution of electron

=2/.
e e
i= ..(1)
2 / 2
Area of the orbit A = r2
Magnetic moment of the atom is given by
e 2
M = iA = r
2
1
Or M = er2
2
According to Bohrs theory an electron in an atom can revolve only in certain stationary orbits in
which angular momentum of electron (m v r) is an integral multiple of h/2, where h is Plancks

constant. Thus m v r = 2, where n = 1,2,3 denotes the number of the orbit. Using v = r,
we get

M(r)r = 2 or r2 = 2

Put in (2),
1
M=2e . 2= n 4= n(B) (3)

Where (B) = eh / 4m
From (3), it is clear that the magnetic moment of an atom is quantized and the least value of atomic

dipole moment M is B = 4. This is called Bohr Magneton. It serves as the unit of atomic magnetic

dipole moment,

FIGURE3(c) 22

B = 4.

1.6 1019 6.6 1034

= ..(4)
22 31
4 9 10
7
B = 9.27 x 10-24ampere metre2.
We may define Bohr Magneton as the magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom due to orbital
motion of an electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom.
14. Gausss Theorem (or Gauss Law) in Magnetism:
We have studied Gauss's theorem in electrostatics, according to which, the surface integral of
1
electrostatic field E over a closed surface S is equal to times the total charge q inside the surface,
0
where 0 is absolute electrical permittivity of free space i.e.
q
s E.ds 0 (15)
If an electric diploe where enclosed by the surface, equal and opposite charges in dipole add up
to zero. Therefore, surface integral of electric field of a dipole over a closed surface
enclosing an electric dipole is zero i.e.
 E.ds 0 ..(16)
s

Whereas electric field can be produced by isolated charge, the magnetic field is produced only
by a magnetic dipole. This is because isolated magnetic poles do not exist. Hence magnetic
analogue of Eqn. (16), is

B.ds 0
s

i.e. surface integral of magnetic field over a surface (closed or open) is always zero. i.e. the net
magnetic flux B through any surface S is always zero.
This is called Gauss's law in magnetism. In terms of magnetic field lines, the law means that there are
as many lines entering S, as are leaving it. This is illustrated in Fig. 3(c).23.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

FIGURE3(c) 21

Gauss's theorem in magnetism establishes that :

(i) isolated magnetic poles called monopoles do not exist, or
(ii) in magnetism, there is no counterpart of free charge in electricity, or
(iii) magnetic poles always exist in unlike pairs of equal strength.
Thus corresponding to eqn. (15) of Gauss's theorem in electrostatics, we can visualize eqn. (17) as
B B.ds
s

0
( m) 0 ( m) 0
4 4

where m is strength of N-pole and m is strength of S-pole of same magnet. ,0 is absolute

magnetic permeability of free space.

Note. Unlike electric field, there are no sources or sinks of magnetic field B . The simplest element
is a dipole or current loop. All magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of arrangement of
dipoles and/or current loops.
Do you know?
There can be magnets with , no poles. For example, a magnetised ring (called. toroid) or a
Solenoid infinite length has properties of a magnet, but no poles, Fig. 3(c).24(a),

Toroid Magnet with similar poles

Magnet with no poles or with three poles.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3(c) 24

Fig. 3(c).24(b) represents a magnet with two similar poles with three poles. This may be
due to faulty magnetization of a bar. We find identical poles at the two ends with an opposite pole of
double strength at the centre of the bar.

15 Magnetic Field Of Earth

Sir William Gilbert was the first to suggest in the year 1600, that earth itself is a huge magnet. His
statement was based on the following evidence:

(i) A magnet suspended from a thread and free to rotate in a horizontal plane comes to rest
along the north-south direction. On disturbing, the magnet returns quickly to its north-south direction
again. This is as if a huge bar magnet lies along the diameter of earth. The north pole of this fictitious
magnet must be towards geographic south so as to attract south pole of the suspended magnet and vice-
versa. We must old here that fictitians magnet is just a conceptual device adopted to explain the earth's
magnetic field and its peculiarities. In reality, there is no such bar magnet in the interior of the earth.

(ii) When a soft iron piece is buried under the surface of earth in the north south direction, it is
found to acquire the properties of a magnet after some time.
(iii) When we draw field lines of a magnet, we come across neutral points. At these points,
magnetic field due to the magnet is neutralized or cancelled exactly by the magnetic field of earth. If
earth had no magnetism of its own, we would never observe neutral points.

The branch of Physics which deals with the study of magnetism of earth is called terrestrial
magnetism or geomagnetism.

It has been established that earth's magnetic field is fairly uniform. The strength of this field at
the surface of earth is approximately 10 -4 tesla or 1 gauss. The field is not confined only to
earth's surface. It extends upto a height nearly 5 times the radius of earth.

16 Cause of Earth's Magnetism

The exact cause of earth's magnetism is not yet known. However, some important postulates in
this respect are as follows :
(i) According to Prof. Brackett, earth's magnetism may be due to rotation of earth about its axis.
This is because every substance is made up of charged particles (protons and electrons).
Therefore, a substance rotating about an axis is equivalent to circulating currents, which are
responsible for the magnetisation.
(ii) In the outer layers of earth's atmosphere, gases are in the ionised state, primarily on account
of cosmic rays. As earth rotates, strong electric currents are set up due to movement of (charged)
ions. These currents might be magnetising the earth.
(iii) The earth's core is very hot and molten. Circulating ions in the highly conducting liquid
region of the earth's core could form current loops and produce a magnetic field.

This hypothesis seems probable as our moon, which has no molten core, also has no magetic field.
Venus, which has a slower rate of rotation, has a weaker magnetic field. Jupiter with a faster rotation
rate has a stronger field.

3(c ).17.General Features of Earth's Magnetic Field

The earth's magnetic field is approximately like that of a giant magnetic dipole, whose axis is inclined
roughly 200 west of the axis of rotation of earth which is along geographic north Ng and geographic south Sg,
Fig. 3(c).25. The strength of earth's magnetic field is of the order of 10-4 tesla.

For example, at Delhi, earth's field is 0 .35 gauss

= 0.35 x 10-4T
 FIGURE 3(c) 25

We can imagine a giant fictitious bar magnet located deep inside the earth. The points where the axis
of this fictitious bar magnet cut the earth's surface are called magnetic poles.
As the north pole of a freely suspended magnet points approximately towards N g
therefore, magnetic pole near Ng is called south magnetic poleSm . Similarly, the magnetic pole near

Sg is called north magnetic pole Nm..

At present,S m. is located at a place in North
Canada, longitude 96 W and latitude 70.50 N Obviously, Nm will be at a place diametrically

opposite to Sm. i.e. longitude 84 E and latitude 70.50 S. The magnetic poles are approximately 2000
km away from geographic poles.

As is clear from Fig. 3.(c).25, magnetic equator divides the earth's surface into two
(magnetic) hemi spheres. The magnetic field lines enter into the hemisphere containing Ng and come
out of the hemisphere containing Sg.

3(c ).18. Magnetic Elements

Magnetic elements of earth at a place are the quantities which describe completely in magnitude as
well as direction, the magnetic field of earth at that place.
Following are the three magnetic elements of earth :
1. Magnetic declination ( ),
2. Magnetic inclination or Magnetic dip (),
3. Horizontal component (H).

1.Magnetic declination: When a magnet is suspended freely by an unspun silk thread, the ends of
the magnet do not point out exactly along geographic north south direction, as shown in Fig.
3(c). 26(a). The line joining the north and south poles of a freely suspended magnet is called
magnetic axis. The axis about which earth rotates is the geographic axis.
 FIGURE 3(c) 26(a)

The small angle between magnetic axis and graphic axis at a place is defined as the magnetic lination at
the place. It is represented by .

A vertical plane passing through N S line of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic
meridian and the vertical plane passing through the geographi c nort h-south direction is called
geographic meridian. We may, therefore, also define magnetic declination at a place as the angle
between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian at that place.
In Fig. 3(c).26(b), CD represents the magnetic axis and C'D represents the geographic axis. The vertical
plane CD AB is the magnetic meridian and the vertical plane C`D AB' is the geographic meridian. By

definition, CDC ' = BAB ' = is the magnetic declination.

FIGURE 3(c) 26(b)

Magnetic declination arises because the axis of the fictitious bar magnet responsible for earth's
magnetism does not coincide with the axis of rotation of earth (which is the line joining the
geographic north N g and geographic south S g ). Infact, the imaginary magnet lies at an angle
of about 20 west of the polar axis as shown in Fig. 3(c).25. This is the order of magnetic declination
at the place.

2. Magnetic dip or Magnetic inclination : At a place is defined as the angle which the
direction of total strength of earth magnetic field makes with a horizontal line in magnetic
meridian. It is the angle by which total intensity of earth's magnetic field dips or comes up
out of the horizontal plane. It is represented by . The value of magnetic dip at a place can be
measured using an instrument called Dip circle'.

The essential parts of a dip circle are shown in Fig. 3 (c).27. A magnetic needle NS is pivoted on a
horizontal axle at the centre of a circular vertical scale V. The ends of magnetic needle are free
to move over this scale graduated is degrees marked 0 0 in the horizontal and 90 90 in the
vertical direction. The needle and the scale are enclosed in a rectangular box B with glass windows.
The box is mounted on a vertical pillar P on horizontal base

FIGURE 3(c) 27

HB provided with leveling screws L & L'. A circular scale C(0 to 3600) is made on the HB.
The box can be rotated over the horizontal base and its position can be read on the circular scale C
with the help of a vernier scale (not shown).
To use the dip circle,
 (i) adjust the leveling screws till the base is horizontal and scale V inside the box is vertical.
(ii) rotate the box B till the ends of magnetic needle NS read 90 90' on the vertical scale.

Obviously, the needle in this, position is aligned with the vertical component of earth's
field. The horizontal component of earth field being perpendicular to this plane does not affect
the needle.

The reading of the vernier is noted on horizontal circular scale C.

(iii) rotate the box exactly through 90 from this position. The plane of vertical scale V is now in
magnetic meridian. The total intensity R of earth's magnetic field is in this same plane and

hence magnetic needle rests along R . Angle which R makes with the horizontal direction in
magnetic meridian is the angle of dip. Hence the readings of the ends of magnetic needle on the
vertical scale gives us directly the angle of dip.

At different places on the surface of earth, is different. For example, at the two magnetic
poles, the magnetic needle rests vertically. Therefore, angle of dip at the two poles is 90.
Obviously in the northern hemisphere, where south pole of ficitious magnet lies, the north pole
of the mounted magnetic needle will dip down and vice-versa. On the magnetic equator, the
angle of dip is zero as the needle would rest horizontally at the magnetic equator. At other
places, the value of lies between 0 and 90. The dip angle at Delhi is about 42 below the
horizontal.

Not e t h at m a gn et i c de cl i n at i o n i s determined by a compass needle free to rotate in

the horizontal plane, about the vertical axis. And the magnetic dip angle is measured by
allowing the compass needle to rotate freely in the vertical plane of magnetic meridian, about the
horizontal axis.

3.Horizontal Component : It is the component of total intensity of earth's magnetic field in the
horizontal direction in magnetic meridian. It is represented by H.

In Fig. 5(a).26(b), AK represents the total intensity of earth's magnetic field, BAK =. The
resultant intensityR is resolved into two rectangular components :
Horizontal component along AB is
AL = H = R cos ...(18)
Vertical component along AD is
AM = V = R sin ...(19)
 Square (18) and (19), and add
H2 +V2 = R2 (cos2 +sin2) = R2.

R= H 2 R2
Dividing (19) by (18), we get
r sin V V
or tan =
r cos H H

The value of horizontal component H = R cos is different at different places. At the

magnetic poles, = 90

H = R cos 90 = zero
At the magnetic equator, = 0

H = R cos 0 = R

Horizontal component (H) can be measured using a vibration magnetometer and a deflection
magnetometer.
The value of H at a place on the surface of earth is of the order of 3.2 x 10-5 tesla.

Note that the direction of horizontal component H of earth's field is from geographic south to
geographic north above the surface of earth. (if we ignore declination).

More about angle of dip

(i) At a place on the poles, earth's mag. field is perpendicular to the surface of earth i.e. vertical.
R =V As V = R sin
sin = 1 = 90
As H = R cos = R cos 90 = 0
therefore, at poles, = 90 and H = 0

i.e. earth always has a horizontal component except at poles. A freely suspended magnet at poles
will stand vertical with its north pole pointing towards earth's north pole (which is
magnetic south), and vice-versa.
(ii) at a place on the equator, earth's magnetic field is parallel to the surface of earth i.e.
horizontal
R = H As H = R cos
cos = 1 =0
As V = R sin=Rsin 0 = 0
therefore, at the equator, = 0 and V = 0
 i.e. earth always has a vertical component except at equator. A freely suspended magnet at
equator will stand horizontal.
(iii) In a vertical plane at an angle to magnetic meridian.
H' = H cos and V' = V
Therefore, angle of dip ' in a vertical plane making with magnetic meridian is given by

V1 v tan
tan 1
1

H H cos cos
For a vertical plane, other than magnetic meridian, > 0, cos < 1
' >
i.e. angle of dip increases.
tan
When = 90, tan 1 =
cos 90
' = 90 i.e. in a plane perpendicular to magnetic meridian, dip needle will stand
vertical.
(iv) If 1 and 2 are observed angles of dip in t wo arb i t rar y vert i c al pl ane s - whi ch
are perpendicular to eachother, then the true angle of dip is given by the relation :
Cot2 = cot2 i + cot2 2
(v)If , is magentic latitude at a place, then the angle of dip at the place is given by tan = 2tan

Do you know?

A rnagnet suspended freely at equator will set itself parallel to the surface of earth while
one suspended at pole will stand vertical.

Sample Problem.
The horizontal component of earths m a g n e t i c f i e l d a t a p l a c e i s 0 . 4 x 10-4 T. If angle of dip
is 45, what are the values of vertical component and total intensity of the field ?
Here, H = 0.4 x 10-4 T, = 45,
H= ?R =?

V
As = tan
H

V= H tan = 0 . 4 x 10 -4 tan 45
V= 0.4 x 10-4 T
From H = R cos ,
 H 0.4 104
R
cos cos 45
=0.4 x 2 x 10-4T
R= 0.5656 x 10-4 T.

19 Variation of Earth's Magnetic Field

(a) Global Variation (i.e. from place to place).
Terrestrial magnetism as we know, is small (4 x 10 -5 T). Smaller still is the back ground field
of our galaxy, the Milky way (2 x 10-12 T).

At about 30000 km above the surface of earth, the earth's field falls below 10 -6 T. Beyond this
height, solar wind disturbs the dipole pattern. The solar wind consists of streams of charged particles
that emerge continuously from the sun. These particles get trapped near the magnetic poles of
earth. The ionise the atmosphere above these poles causing a spectacular display of light.
Magnetic maps showing the variation of magnetic elements from place to place have been
drawn.
The lines joining places of equal declination are called isogonic lines.

The lines joining places of zero declination are called agonic lines.
T h e l i n e s j o i n i n g p l a c e s O f e q u a l dip/inclination are called isoclinic lines.
The lines joining places of zero dip/inclination are called aclinic lines.

Similarly, the lines joining places of equal values of horizontal component (H) are called
Isodynamic lines.
(b) Temporal Variation (i.e. from time to time)

The magnetic field of earth is found to change with time. These changes may be characterised as
short term and long term changes.
In short term changes, the magnetic poles of earth Smand Nm keep on shifting their position. For

example, magnetic south pole (in northern arctic region of Canada) has been found to move in
north-westerly direction at a rate of 10 km per year. Detailed maps of earth's magnetic field are
maintained and revised from time to time.
The long term changes are an geological time scal e 10 5 t o 10 6 years. It appears that the
direction of earth's magnetic field has reversed itself every million year or so. It is believed that
once in a million years or so, the currents in the earth's core slow down, come to halt and then pick
up in the reverse direction.
 Do you know?
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (Iig) in colaba, Mumbai has set up over a dozen observatories to monitor
The geomagnetic fields and the flucations on land, In space and under the ocean. Its services are used by the
Oil and Natural gas Commission (ONGC) , the National Institute of Oceanology (NIO) and the Indian
Space Research Organisation(ISRO).
Neutral Points
When we trace magnetic lines of force around a magnet using a compass needle, what we
obtain is the resultant of the magnetic field of magnet and that of the earth. As earth's field
is fixed, the resultant field would depend on the direction in which the magnet is placed. In the
plot of the resultant field, we come across points at which field (B) due to the magnet becomes
equal and opposite to the horizontal component (H) of earth's field i.e. B = H. Therefore, the net
magnetic field at these points will be zero. These points where net magnetic field due to the magnet
and magnetic field of the earth is zero are called Neutral points. A small compass needle placed at a
neutral point shall experience no force/torque. Therefore, it can set itself in any direction, which
may be different from the usual N S direction.
We shall trace the lines of force in the following two cases :
1. Magnet placed with its N-pole towards north of earth.
Place a small compass needle on a line drawn on a sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board. Rotate the
board till the compass needle is parallel to the line. Now place a small bar magnet on this line with
north pole of the magnet pointing towards north of earth. Trace the magnetic lines of force using the
magnetic compass as already explained. The lines of force due to combined field of magnet and earth
are shown in Fig. 3(c).28.

FIGURE 3(c) 28

In the plot, P and Q are two neutral points lying on the equatorial line of the magnet.
If d = distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet,
 21 = magnetic length = NS
M = magnetic dipole moment of the magnet, then magnetic field at each neutral point is
0 M
B2
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2

At the neutral point, field due to the magnet is balanced by horizontal component of earth's field
i.e. B2 = H
0 M
i . e . B2 H ..(21)
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2

4 (d 2 l 2 )3/2 H
M (22)
0
W h e n m a gn e t i s s h or t l 2 < < d 2
4 Hd 3
M ..(23)
0
2. Magnet placed with its south pole towards north of earth.
Place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper in the magnetic meridian (as explained above) with its
south-pole pointing towards north of earth. Plot the lines of force using the compass needle. The lines
of force due to the combined field of magnet and earth are as shown in Fig. 3(c).29.

GEOG, NORTH

GEOG. SOUTH

FIGURE 3(c) 29

In this case, neutral points lie on the axial line of the magnet. At each point, intensity of magnetic field
due to the magnet is
 0 2Md
B1 =
4 (d 2 l 2 )2
As it is balanced by horizontal component of earth's magnetic field (H), therefore

0 2Md
B1 = =H (24)
4 (d 2 l 2 )2

4 H (d 2 l 2 )
M ..(25)
2 0 d

Hence magnetic dipole moment M of the bar magnet can be calculated.

When the magnet is short, 2 < < d2
4 Hd 3
M= M
2 0

Note. 1. In the two cases, the lines of force in the neighbourhood of the magnet are mainly due to
the magnetic field of the bar magnet, which is much stronger compared to the field of the
earth. However, as we move away from the magnet, field due to the magnet becomes weaker and
earth's field dominates. At large distances from the magnet, the lines of force are almost straight
and parallel directed from south to north. These lines represent earth's magnetic field.
2. From the two cases discussed above, that when north pole of a magnet is turned thorugh
1800, the position of neutral points turns through 90 in the same direction. Hence in general, when
north pole of magnet is turned through degrees, the neutral points would turn through /2 in the
same direction.

Sample Problem: A short bar magnet is placed with its north pole pointing south. The neutral
-
point is 10 cm away from the centre of the magnet. If H = 0. 4 gauss, calculate magnetic moment of
the magnet.

Sol. Here, d = 10 cm = 0.1m,

H= 0 .4 gauss = 0.4 x 10-4 T

M=?
Neutral points in this case, lie on axial line of Magnet such that,
0 2m
H
4 d 3
2M
10-7 x 3
=0.4 x 10-4
(0.1)
M=0.2Am2
21. The Tangent Law in Magnetism
According to the tangent law, when a magnet is suspended under the combined action of two
uniform magnetic fields of intensities F and H, acting at 90 to each other, the magnet comes to rest
making an angle with the direction of H, such that

F=Htan

In Fig .3(c ).30,NS is a bar magnet of length 2l,strength of each pole = m and dipole moment M =
mx2l . Under the combined action of two mutually perpendicular fields F and H, the magnet comes to rest at an
angle with H.

FIGURE 3(c) 30.

A couple acts on the magnet due to each field. In equilibrium, the moments of the two couples balance each
other.
Draw NA parallel to H and SA parallel to F. Let them meet at A.
Moment of the couple due to field H
1 = mH X SA
It is in the anticlockwise direction. Moment of the couple due to field F

2 = mF x N A
It is in the clockwise direction. In equilibrium, the moments of two couples must be equal i.e.,

2=1
mF X NA = mH X SA
or

SA
F=Hx =Htan
NA
 i.e.F=Htan
which proves the tangent law. ..(26)

Usually, H is horizontal component of earth's field and F is field due to a dipole or current loop. 4

Note : Tangent law is the basis of a deflection magnetometer used in the determination of M and H. 4

Two settings of deflection magnetometer are :

(v) Tangent A Position. In this setting, arms of the magnetometer are along east west ( to
magnetic meridian). Magnet is placed with its length parallel to the arms ; Fig. 3(c).31(a).

FIGURE 3(c) 31

As F = H tan
2M
0 3 H tan
4 d H

(ii) Tangent B Position: In this setting, arms of the magnetometer are along N-S (i.e. along the magnetic
meridian). Magnet is placed with its length perpendicular to the arms, Fig. 3(c).30(b).
As F = H tan.
0 M
H tan
4 d 3 H
In each setting, the experiment can be performed in two different ways :
1. Deflection method. One magnet is used at a time and distance of each magnet from the compass
needle is kept the same i.e. dl = d2. We can show that

M 1 tan 1

M 2 tan 2
where 1 and 2 are the mean values of deflection produced by the two magnets.
 2. Null method. Both the magnets are used simultaneously, one at each arm. Their distances d1 and
d2 are adjusted till net deflection is zero. We can show that
3
M 1 d1

M 2 d2

22. Tangent Galvanometer

It is an instrument which is used for detection and measurement of low electric currents.
Principle. It is based on tangent law in magnetism.
Construction. A tangent galvanometer consists of circular frame K of a non magnetic
material like wood, ebonite or brass. It is mounted vertically on a horizontal base called turn table (T),
provided with levelling screws S1 and S2 at the base.
The frame can be rotated about a vertical axis, Fig. 3(c).32.
Three coils of fine insulated copper wire having 2, 50 and 500 number of turns are wound on the
circular frame. The coils are well insulated from one another. One end of each of the three coils is

FIGURE 3(c) 32

connected to a common terminal C and their other ends are connected to terminals on the turn
table.
A ci rcul ar m agnetom et er box of non magnetic material is held at the centre of circular frame.
This box has a small magnetic needle ns pivoted at its centre on a vertical axis with a long thin
aluminium pointerp fixed at 900 to the needle. Both are free to move as one body. The ends of the
pointer lie over a horizontal circular scale graduated in degrees and divided into four
quadrants of 00 90 each. A small plane mirror is fixed at the base under the pointer. This
would remove error due to parallax in reading the position of the pointer on the scale.

Setting: (1) Adjust the levelling screws so that the turn table is horizontal and the frame is exactly
vertical.
(ii) Rotate the vertical frame so that the plane of the frame lies exactly over the magnetic needle
in the box. This sets the frame in magnetic meridian.
(iii) Hold the vertical frame firmly with hand and turn the magnetometer box, so that ends of the
aluminium pointer lie on zero zero line, on the scale.

Theory and Working. In Fig. 3(c).33, XY is cross section of the circular frame perpendicular to the
plane of the paper.

FIGURE 3(c) 33

As the frame is set already, in magnetic meridian., therefore, earth's horizontal field H is along
YX, (i.e. along south north direction). When a current I is passed through any one coil* of
tangent galvanometer, a magnetic field F develops along the axis of the circular coil and perpendicular
to the plane of the coili.e. along east west direction. T h e m a g n e t i c n e e d l e m o u n t e d i n t h e
magnetometer box is under the combined action of two mutually perpendicular fields F and H. The
needle gets deflected and comes to rest making an angle 9 with the direction of H.

The pointer also turns through the same angle . As pointer was already set on 0-0 line, therefore
angle is read from the scale under the ends of the pointer.
 According to tangent law in magnetism,,
F= Htan .(27)
0 2 nI
But F= 4 r

Where n is number of turns in the coil, r is radius of the coil and 0 is magnetic permeability of
free space.
0 2 nI
from (27 ) F= 4 r =Htan
4 rh tan
Or I = 0 .2 n
2rH H
tan tan
Or I = n 0 n 0 / 2 r .(28)
n0
Now n = 2r = G, the galvanometer constant.
H
I = G tan

H H 2rH
K
Put G = n 0 / 2 r n 0 ,
another constant. K is called reduction factor of tangent galvanometer.
from 28, I = ktan ..(29)

By measuring , and knowing K, current I can be calculated.

Reduction factor of Tangent Galvanometer
When = 45, from (29);
1= K t an 45 = K x 1 or K= I
Hence reduct i on f a ct or of a t an gent galvanometer is equal to current, required to be
passed through galvanometer to produce a deflection of 45. K is measured in ampere. The value of K
depends on number of turns (n), radius of coil (r) and horizontal component of earth's magnetic field
H at the place: Obviously, reduction factor of a tangent galvanometer increases with increase in
radius of the coil, and decreases with increase in number of turns of the coil.
Note. A tangent galvanometer is also called moving magnet type galvanometer, because, here
the coil is stationary and the magnetic needle m o v e s . T h i s i s c o n t r a r y t o m o v i n g c o i l
galvanometer.
Sample Problem 5. The radius of the coil of a tangent galvanometer is 16 cm. How many turns of the
wire should be used if a current of 40 m A is to produce a deflection of 45. Given, horizontal
component of earth's field is 0 .36 X 10-4 T.

Sol. Here r = 1.6 cm = 0 16 m, n?

I= 40 mA = 40 x 10-3A.,

= 45 , H= 0.36 x 10-4 T
nI 2rH tan
As 0 H tan n=
2r 0 I

2 0.16 0.36 104 tan 45

=
4 107 (40 103 )
n=229
3(c ).23.Vibration Magenometer:
A vibration or Oscillation magneto-meter is an instrument, which is used for comparing

(i) the intensities of earth's horizontal magnetic field at two places, and

(ii) the magnetic moments of two magnets.

By using it with a deflection magnetometer, we can determine the absolute value of
magnetic moment of a magnet and the horizontal component of earth's field at a place.
Principle. When a magnet is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, using an unspun thread, it
comes to rest in a direction NS parallel to direction of the field, Fig. 3(c).34. If this magnet is slightly
deflected from its equilibrium position and left, the magnet begins to vibrate simple harmonically
about the direction of the field as its mean position.

FIGURE 3(c) 34
 The time period T of vibration of the magnet is given by

I
T=2
MH
where I = moment of inertia of the magnet about the suspension fibre as the axis of rotation

M = magnetic moment of the magnet,

H = intensity of uniform magnetic field (usually horizontal component of earth's field).

Derivation of formula for Time period. Consider a magnet of moment of inertia I and
magnetic moment M vibrating in a uniform magnetic field of strength H.

At a particular instant, suppose is the angle which the axis of the magnet makes with the
direction of the field, Fig. 3(c).35. In this position, moment of the restoring couple acting on the
magnet is

FIGURE 3(c) 35

= MH sin ...(30)
If is small, sin (radian)
=MH =K .(31)
where K= MH = spring factor.
Eqn. (31) shows that motion of the magnet is simple harmonic.
 If I is moment of inertia of the suspended magnet about the suspension fibre as axis, then
as t i m e p e r i o d of vibration

in ertia factor
2
T= springfactor ..(32)

I
2
T= K;

I
2
MH ..(33)
The frequency of vibration of the magnet is

1 1 MH

n= T 2 I (34)

Construction. A vibration magnetometer consists of a rectangular wooden box with glass

sides. A plane mirror m is placed lengthwise at the centre of the base. L is a line engraved on the plane
mirror along its length. It serves as an index line. Rectangular slits S1 and S2 are provided at the top
of the box vertically above the index line L.
A cylindrical glass tube G is fitted vertically on to a hole at the centre of the top of the box. The tube
is provided with torsion head T, wherefrom an unspun silk thread or a horse-hair is suspended. A
stirrup of non-magnetic material like brass is attached to the free end of the suspension fibre, so
that it is just above the base of the box.
The box is provided with three levelling screws at the base, Fig. 3(c).36.
 FIGURE 3(c) 36

Setting. (i) Place a compass needle on the index line L. Rotate the magnetometer box till the
compass needle is parallel to the index line as observed through the slits S1 and S2. The box is
now set in magnetic meridian. Mark its boundary.
(ii) Move the levelling screws so that the top of box is horizontal as indicated by a spirit level
placed at the top.

To remove the torsion, if any, in the suspension fibre, we take a non magnetic substance, say a
brass bar. Place it in the stirrup. Adjust the torsion head from above so that the brass bar rests parallel
to the index line in its equilibrium position. This ensures that there is no twist in the suspension fibre
when brass bar stands along NS direction. Remove the brass bar and place a bar magnet in the
stirrup so that north pole of the magnet is towards north. The magnet stays parallel to the index
line without torsion in the fibre.
The suspended magnet can be set into vibrations of small amplitude using another magnet
from outside. Time period of vibration is measured using a stop watch.
Uses of Vibration Magnetometer
(a) Determination of magnetic moment of a magnet
Take a bar magnet and measure its time period of vibration T in a vibration magnetometer. From
T=2 I / MH

4 2l
T2 = 42I/MH or M= .(35)
HT 2
If m is mass, is length and b is breadth of the magnet, then
m(l 2 b 2 )
I=
12
If H is known, M can be calculated.
 b) Comparison of horizontal component of earth's magnetic field at two places
Let T1 and T2 be the time periods of vibration of the same magnet at two different places, where
horizontal components of earth's field are H1 and H 2 respectively.
T1 2 I / MH1 H2

T2 2 I / MH 2 H1

H 2 T12
2
H 1 T2 . .(36)

c) Comparision of magnetic moments of two magnets of same size and same mass :
When two magnets are of same size and same mass , their moments of inertia are equal. If T1 and T2
are their periods of vibration at a particular place, then

T1 2 I / M 1 H M2

T2 2 I / M 2 H M1

M 2 T12
2
(or) M 1 T2

If two magnets have same magnetic length then M 1 =m 1 x 2l and

M 2 =m 2 x2l
M 1 m2 T12

M 2 m1 T2 2
Hence ratio of pole strengths of two magnets can also be obtained.
(d) Comparison of magnetic moments of two magnets of unequal sizes and masses :
When two magnets are of unequal size/mass, their moments of inertia are different. To compare
their magnetic moments, we have to use sum and difference method.
Suppose M1, M2 are magnetic moments of two magnets A and B whose moments of inertia are I1
and I2 respectively.
Sum position : Place magnet B on magnet A such that their N-poles point in the same direction.
The combination has to be tied with a thread to overcome repulsion, Fig. 3(c).37. Put this
c o m b i n a t i o n i n t h e s t i r r u p o f v i b r a t i o n magnetometer so that their north poles are towards
geographic north.

(M1+M2)

FIGURE 3(c) 37
Moment of inertia of the combination

=I 1 +I 2
 Magnetic moment of the combination
=M 1 +M 2
This is called sum position.
If T 1 is time period of vibration of the combination, Then

I1 I 2
T 1 = 2 ..(38)
( M1 M 2 ) H
Difference Position. Reverse the polarity of weaker magnet, say B, as shown in Fig. 3(c).38. As
magnetic moment is a vector quantity, therefore, m a g n e t i c m o m e n t o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n =
(M1 M2). This is called difference position.

FIGURE 3(c) 38

However, as moment of inertia is a scalar quantity, therefore, moment of inertia of the combination
=( I 1 +I 2 )

If T2 is time period of vibration of this combination, then

I1 I 2
T2 2
( M1 M 2 ) H
..(39)
Dividing (38) by (39), we get
T1 M1 M 2

T2 M1 M 2

T12 M 1 M 2

Or T2
2
M1 M 2

M1T12+M2T12 = M1T22 M2T22

M2(T12 + T22)= M1 (T22 T22)
M1 T2 2 T12
2
Or 2 T2 T1 ..(40)
2
M
 Knowing T 1 and T 2 , the ratio M 1 /M 2 can be calculated.
Note that time period of vibration in difference position is more than the time period of
vibration in sum position.
Sample Problem 1. A magnet makes 10 oscillations per minute at one place
and take

5 seconds to complete one oscillation at another place. Compare the values of

horizontal components of earth's field at two places.

1 60
Sol. Here, T1= min = 10 s= 6 s
10
T2 = 5s

H1 T12 5 2 25
= 2= 2=
H 2 T2 6 36

Sample Problem 2. The time period of vibration of two magnets in sum position is 3 sec. When
polarity of weaker magnet is reversed, the combination makes 12 oscillations per minute. Compare
the magnetic moments of two magnets.

Sol. Here, T1= 3s

1 60
T2= min = s= 5s
12 12

M1 T2 2 T12

M 2 T2 2 T12

52 32 34 17
52 32 = 16 = 8

THE END