N Robotics, Automa

Automata-based programming (Shalyto's
approach)
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Automata-based
programming. (Discuss)
For other uses, see Automata-based programming.
Automata-Based Programming is a programming technology (Nepeyvoda 2005). Its

defining characteristic is the use of finite state machines to describe program behavior. The
transition graphs of a state machines are used in all stages of software development
(specification, implementation, debugging and documentation). Automata-Based
Programming technology was introduced by Anatoly Shalyto in 1991 (Shalyto 1991).
Switch-technology (Shalyto 1998) was developed to support automata-based programming.
Automata-Based Programming is considered to be rather general purpose program
development methodology than just another one finite state machine implementation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Automata-Based Programming
2 Main Features
3 Logical Control
4 State-Based Programming
5 State-Based Object-Oriented Programming
6 Computational algorithms
7 Instrumentation
8 Collected articles on automata-based programming
9 The First book about automata-based programming
10 References
11 See also
[edit] Automata-Based Programming

The main idea of suggested approach is to construct computer programs the same way the
automation of technological processes (and other kinds of processes too) is done.
For all that on the basis of data domain analysis the sources of input events, the control
system (the system of interacting finite state machines) and the control objects implementing
output actions are singled out. These control objects can also form yet another type of input
actions that are transmitted through a feedback from control objects back to the finite state
machines.
[edit] Main Features

In recent years great attention has been paid to the development of the technology of
programming for embedded systems and real-time systems. These systems have special
requirements for the quality of software. One of the best known approaches for this field of
tasks is synchronous programming (Benveniste 2003) (Shopyrin 2004).
Simultaneously with the advance of synchronous programming in Europe, an approach to
software development for crucial systems called automata-based programming or state-
based programming (Shalyto 1998) was being created in Russia.
The term event is being used more and more widely in programming; recently it has become
one of the most commonly-used terms in software development. As opposed to it, the offered
approach is based on the term state (State-Driven Architecture). After introduction of the
term input action, which could denote an input variable or an event, the term automaton
without outputs might be brought in. After adding the term output action, the term
automaton might be used. It is the finite deterministic automaton.
That is why, the sort of programming, which is based on this term, was called automata-
based programming. So the process of software creation could be named automata software
design (Shalyto 2000).
The feature of this approach is that automata used for development are defined with the help
of transition graphs. In order to distinguish the nodes of these graphs the term state coding
has been introduced. With multivalued state coding a single variable can be used to
distinguish states of automaton, the number of states is equal to the number of values this
variable can take on. This allowed introducing of the term program observability (that is, the
value of the state variable can be checked).
Using the concept of state in contrast to the concepts of events and variables, allows
one to understand and to specify the task and its parts (subtasks) more clearly.
It is necessary to note that using automata-based programming implies debugging by drawing

up the protocols (logging) in terms of automata.
For this approach there is a formal and isomorphic method of transforming from the
transition graph to the software source code. So when using high-level programming
languages, the simplest way is to use a construct which is similar to the switch construct of
the C programming language. That is why the first implementation of automata-based
programming was called Switch-Technology. Additional information about automata-
based programming can be found in the Switch-technology article.
Nowadays automata-based programming has been developed in several ways, for different
types of task to be solved and for various type of computing devices.
Russian registration certificate was issued for the Automata-based programming core and for
the Automata-based programming plug-in for Eclipse IDE.
[edit] Logical Control

In 1996 Russian Foundation for Basic Research[1] in the context of publishing project #96-01-
14066 had supported publishing of a book (Shalyto 1998), in which the offered technology
was described in application to the logical control systems.
In such systems there are no events, but input and output actions are binary variables and
operating system is working in the scanning mode. Systems of this class are usually to be
implemented on programmable logic controllers, which have relatively small amount of
memory and programming is to be performed using specialized languages (for example, the
language of ladder schemes or functional blocks). Methods of formal source code generation
for such languages were developed for the cases in which the specification of the project
being developed is represented by a system of transition graphs of interacting automata
(Shalyto 1998).
[edit] State-Based Programming
Henceforth automata approach was spread to the event-based (reactive) systems (Haryl
1987). In such systems all of the limitations mentioned above are taken away. It is obvious
from the name of these systems that events are used among the input actions. Output actions
could be represented by arbitrary functions. Any real-time operating system could be used as
an environment.
The automata implementation of event-based systems was made with the help of the
procedural approach to software development (Shalyto 2001a) (Shalyto 2001b), hence the
name state-based programming.
When using this method, output actions are assigned to the arcs, loops or nodes of the
transition graphs (in general case mixed Moore-Mealy automata are to be used (Shalyto
1998)). This allows representing in a compact form the sequences of actions, which are the
reactions to the corresponding input actions.
One of the features of such approach to programming for the reactive systems is that the
centralization of program logic is achieved by liquidation of logic in the event handlers and
forming of system of interacting automata, which are called from these handlers (Tukkel
2001). Automata in such system can interact by nesting, by ability to call each other and with
the help of state numbers interchange.
Another important feature of this approach is that automata in it are used thrice: for
specification, for implementation (they remain in the source code) and for drawing up the
protocol, which is performed, as said above, in terms of automata. The latter allows to verify
the propriety of automata system functioning. Logging is performed automatically on the
base of created program; it can be used for debugging of programs with complicated
behavior.
Also this approach allows effective documenting of the decisions made during design
process, especially those related to formalization of program behavior (Tukkel 2002).
All this allowed to start the Foundation for open project documentation (Shalyto 2003), in the
context of which many projects on perfecting of automata-based programming (Automata
programming homepage) are being developed.
[edit] State-Based Object-Oriented Programming

The composite approach, based on both object-oriented and automata-based programming
paradigms (Shalyto 2004), (Shalyto 2005), may be rather useful for solving tasks from a very
large spectrum. This approach was called state-based object-oriented programming.
The main feature of this approach is that, like in Turing machines, controlling (automata)
states are explicitly singled out. The number of these states is noticeably fewer than amount
of all other objects' states (for example, run-time states).
The term states space was introduced in programming. This term means the set of object's
controlling states. So this approach provides more understandable behavior in comparison
with the case when such space is not singled out explicitly.
The minimal set of documents, which visually and clearly describe structural (static) and
behavioral (dynamic) sides of a software project, is described (Tukkel 2003).
From the experience of adaptation of suggested approach (Tukkel 2001) one can conclude
that application of automata makes programs' behavior clearer as using objects makes
programs' structure clearer. Existence of high quality project documentation makes further
program refactoring (changing of its structure while retaining its functionality) much easier
(Kuznetsuv 2003).
[edit] Computational algorithms

Automata approach can be used for computational algorithms implementation. It was shown
(Tukkel 2002) that arbitrary iterative algorithm can be implemented with the help of
construction, that is equivalent to the loop operator do ... while, inside which there is
single switch operator that implements automaton.
Automata-based approach is very effective for implementation of some algorithms of discrete

mathematics, for example, tree parsing algorithm (Korneev 2004).
A new state-based approach to creation of algorithms' visualizers was offered. Such

visualization software is widely used in the Computer Technologies department of Saint
Petersburg State University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics for students
teaching in programming and discrete mathematics (Kazakov 2005) (Korneev 2005). This
approach allows representing of visualizer's logic as a system of interacting finite state
machines. This system consists of pairs of automata; each of this pairs contains forward
and backward automata, which provides step-by-step forwards and backwards execution of
algorithms respectively.
[edit] Instrumentation
Various software tools are developed to support automata programming. One of these tools is
UniMod (Gurov 2004) (Gurov 2005) (UniMod). This tool is based on the following concepts:
UML, Switch-technology, Eclipse IDE, Java programming language, open source code
(http://unimod.sourceforge.net/). All this enables one to talk about the UniMod as of the
implementation of executable UML.
Some examples of usage of UniMod tool are shown in (UniMod Examples).
[edit] Collected articles on automata-based programming

Collected articles on automata-based programming were published in St Petersburg State
University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics. Bulletin (ifmo.ru 2008)
contains 28 articles on different problems of automata-based programming.
[edit] The First book about automata-based programming

In 2009 in St. Petersburg, Russia the first book about automata-based programming was
published (Polikarpova2009).
[edit] References
1. ^ http://www.rfbr.ru/eng/default.asp?section_id=0
Nepeyvoda N.N. Styles and methods of programming. M.: Internet-university of

information technologies. 2005. (rus)
Shalyto A.A. Programmatic implementation of control automata //Marine industry,
"Automation and remote control" series. 1991, issue 13, pp. 41, 42. (rus)
Shalyto A.A. Switch-technology. Algorithmization and programming of logic control
problems. SPb.: Nauka. 1998. (rus)
Benveniste A. et al. The Synchronous Languages 12 Years Later. Proceedings of the
IEEE, vol. 91, no. 1, January 2003. pp. 6483. (engl)
Shopyrin D.G., Shalyto A.A. Synchronous programming // Information and control
systems. 2004. #3. pp.35-42. (rus)
Shalyto A.A. Software Automation Design: Algorithmization and Programming of
Problems of Logical Control //Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences
International. 2000. Vol.39. 6, p.899-916. (engl) (rus)
Harel D. Statecharts: A Visual Formalism for Complex Systems // Science of
Computer Programming. 1987. vol.8, pp. 231274. (archived from the original on
2007-04-27) (engl)
Shalyto A.A. Logic Control and "Reactive" Systems: Algorithmization and
Programming //Automation and Remote Control. 2001. Vol.62. 1, p.1-29. (engl)
(rus)
Shalyto A.A., Tukkel N.I. SWITCH-Technology: An Automated Approach to
Developing Software for Reactive Systems //Programming and Computer Software.
2001. 27(5). (engl) (rus)
Tukkel N.I., Shalyto A.A. State-based programming // PC World. 2001. #8, pp.116-
121; #9, pp.132-138. (rus)
Tukkel N.I., Shalyto A.A. Diesel-generator control system (fragment). State-based
programming. Project documentation. 2002. (rus)
Shalyto A.A. A new initiative in programming. Foundation for open project
documentation // PC Week/RE. 2003. #40, pp.38,39,42. (rus)
Automata programming homepage. (rus), (engl)
Shalyto A.A., Naumov L.A. Methods of object-oriented implementation of reactive
agents on base of finite state machines // Artificial Intelligence. 2004. #4. pp. 756
762. (rus)
Shalyto A.A., Naumov L.A., Korneev G.A. Methods of Object-Oriented Reactive
Agents Implementation on the Basis of Finite Automata /2005 International
Conference on Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems. KIMAS 05:
Modeling, Exploration, and Engineering. USA, MA: IEEE, 2005, pp. 460465.
(engl)
Tukkel N.I., Shalyto A.A. Automata and tanks // BYTE/Russia. 2003. #2. pp.6973.
(rus)
Tukkel N.I., Shalyto A.A. Tank control system for the "Robocode" game. Version 1.
State-based object-oriented programming. 2001. (rus)
Kuznetsuv D.V., Shalyto A.A. Tank control system for the "Robocode" game.
Version 2. State-based object-oriented programming. 2003. (rus)
Tukkel N.I., Shalyto A.A. Shalyto A.A., Tukkel N.I. Translating Iterative Algorithms
into Automation Ones //Programming and Computer Software. 2002. 28(5). (rus)
Korneev G.A., Shamgunov N.N., Shalyto A.A. Automata-based tree traversing //
Computer instruments in education. 2004. #3, pp.3237. (rus)
Kazakov M.A., Shalyto A.A. Automata-based approach to implementation of
animation in algorithms' visualizers //Computer instruments in education. 2005. #3,
pp.5276. (rus)
Korneev G.A., Shalyto A.A. Constructing of visualizers of algorithms of discrete
mathematics //Science and technical review of SPbSU ITMO. Issue 23. High
technologies in optical and information systems. SPb.: SPbSU ITMO. 2005, pp.118
129. (rus)
Gurov V.S., Mazine M.A., Narvsky A.S., Shalyto A.A. UML. Switch-technology.
Eclipse. // Information and control systems. 2004. #6, pp. 1217. (rus)
Gurov V.S., Mazin M.A. , Narvsky A.S., Shalyto A.A. UniMod: Method and Tool for
Development of Reactive Object-Oriented Programs with Explicit States Emphasis
/Proceedings of St. Petersburg IEEE Chapters. Year 2005. International Conference
110 Anniversary of Radio Invention. SPb ETU "LETI". 2005. V. 2, pp. 106110.
(engl)
UniMod. (engl)
Examples of using of UniMod tool.] (rus) (engl)
Bulletin of St Petersburg State University of Information Technologies, Mechanics
and Optics. 2008. Volume 53. Automata-based programming. (rus)
Polikarpova N. I., Shalyto A. A. Automata-based programming SPb.: Piter. 2009 (rus)
[edit] See also

Communicating sequential processes
Executable UML
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based_programming_(Shalyto%27s_approach)"
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Pneumatics
(Redirected from Pneumatic)
"Pneumatic" redirects here. For the highest order of humans in Gnosticism, see Pneumatic
(Gnosticism).
Preserved Porter Locomotive Company No. 3290 of 1923.
Pneumatics is a branch of technology, which deals with the study and application of use of
pressurized gas to affect mechanical motion.
Pneumatic systems are extensively used in industry, where factories are commonly plumbed
with compressed air or other compressed inert gases. This is because a centrally-located and
electrically-powered compressor that powers cylinders and other pneumatic devices through
solenoid valves is often able to provide motive power in a cheaper, safer, more flexible, and
more reliable way than a large number of electric motors and actuators.
Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Examples of pneumatic systems and components

2 Gases used in pneumatic systems
3 Comparison to hydraulics
o 3.1 Advantages of pneumatics
o 3.2 Advantages of hydraulics
4 Pneumatic logic
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
[edit] Examples of pneumatic systems and components

Air brakes on buses and trucks
Air brakes, on trains
Air compressors
Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles
Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching electricity
Cable jetting, a way to install cables in ducts
Compressed-air engine and compressed-air vehicles
Gas-operated reloading
Holman Projector, a pneumatic anti-aircraft weapon
Inflatable structures
Lego pneumatics can be used to build pneumatic models
Pipe organs:
o Electro-pneumatic action
o Tubular-pneumatic action
Pneumatic actuator
Pneumatic air guns
Pneumatic cylinder
Pneumatic Launchers, a type of spud gun
Pneumatic mail systems
Pneumatic motor
Pneumatic tire
Pneumatic tools:
o Jackhammer used by road workers
o Pneumatic nailgun
Pressure regulator
Pressure sensor
Pressure switch
Vacuum pump
[edit] Gases used in pneumatic systems

Pneumatic systems in fixed installations such as factories use compressed air because a
sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moisture
removed and a small quantity of oil added at the compressor, to avoid corrosion of
mechanical components and to lubricate them.
Factory-plumbed, pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakages as the gas
is commonly just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases which
are an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen - often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free
nitrogen), when supplied in cylinders.
Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard - including nitrogen, which
makes up 77% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 23% of air) would not asphyxiate, but it
would be an extreme fire hazard, so is never used in pneumatically powered devices.
Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles such as Robot Wars machines and other hobbyist
applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide because containers designed to
hold it such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available, and the
phase change between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of
compressed gas from a lighter container than compressed air would allow. Carbon dioxide is
an asphyxiant and can also be a freezing hazard when vented inappropriately.
[edit] Comparison to hydraulics

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily
compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas, while hydraulics uses relatively
incompressible liquid media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures
of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch (550 to 690 kPa). Hydraulics applications
commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi (6.9 to 34 MPa), but specialized applications may
exceed 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
[edit] Advantages of pneumatics
Simplicity of Design And Control

o Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders & other components. Control
is as easy as it is simple ON - OFF type control.
Reliability
o Pneumatic systems tend to have long operating lives and require very little
maintenance.
o Because gas is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shock.
The gas in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics
directly transfers force.
Storage
o Compressed Gas can be stored, allowing the use of machines when electrical power
is lost.
Safety
o Very low chance of fire (compared to hydraulic oil).
o Machines can be designed to be overload safe.
[edit] Advantages of hydraulics
Liquid (as a gas is also a 'fluid') does not absorb any of the supplied energy.
Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher forces due to the
incompressibility.
The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring
action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the
pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure
on the load.
[edit] Pneumatic logic

Further information: Circuit theory
Pneumatic logic systems (sometimes called air logic control) are often used to control
industrial processes, consisting of primary logic units such as:
And Units
Or Units
'Relay or Booster' Units
Latching Units
'Timer' Units
Sorteberg relay
fluidics amplifiers with no moving parts other than the air itself
Pneumatic logic is a reliable and functional control method for industrial processes. In recent
years, these systems have largely been replaced by electrical control systems, due to the
smaller size and lower cost of electrical components. Pneumatic devices are still used in
processes where compressed air is the only energy source available or upgrade cost, safety,
and other considerations outweigh the advantage of modern digital control.
[edit] See also

Ozone cracking
Polymer degradation
Pneudraulics
[edit] References
Look up pneumatics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain
unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise
citations where appropriate. (February 2010)
Compressed Air Operations Manual, ISBN 0-07-147526-5, McGraw Hill Book Company
[edit] External links

Four Ways to Boost Pneumatic Efficiency
A Global Leader in Pneumatics
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatics"

Categories: Pneumatics
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Robot
This article is about mechanical robots. For other uses of the term, see robot (disambiguation). For
software agents, see bot.
In Wikipedia, robot may refer to Wikipedia:Bots
TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo International Robot Exhibition (IREX) 2009.[1][2]
ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005, a humanoid robot
A robot is a mechanical intelligent agent which can perform tasks on its own, or with
guidance. The term robot can also apply to a virtual agent. In practice it is usually an electro-
mechanical machine which is guided by computer and electronic programming. Robots can
be autonomous or semi-autonomous and come in those two basic types: those which are used
for research into human-like systems, such as ASIMO and TOPIO, as well as those into more
defined and specific roles, such as Nano robots and Swarm robots; and helper robots which
are used to make or move things or perform menial or dangerous tasks, such as Industrial
robots or mobile or servicing robots. Another common characteristic is that, by its appearance
or movements, a robot often conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own.
When societies began developing nearly all production and effort was the result of human
labour. As mechanical means of performing functions were discovered, and mechanics and
complex mechanisms were developed, the need for human labour was reduced. Machinery
was initially used for repetitive functions, such as lifting water and grinding grain. With
technological advances more complex machines were slowly developed, such as those
invented by Hero of Alexandria in the 4th century BC, and the first half of the second
millennium AD, such as the Automata of Al Jazari in the 12th century AD. They were not
widely adopted as human labour, particularly slave labour, was still inexpensive compared to
the capital-intensive machines.
Men such as Leonardo Da Vinci in 1495 through to Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739, as well as
rediscovering the Greek engineering methods, have made plans for and built automata and
robots leading to books of designs such as the Japanese Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery)
in 1796. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age we find more
practical applications such as Nikola Tesla in 1898, who designed a radio-controlled torpedo,
and the Westinghouse Electric Corporation creation of Televox in 1926. From here we also
find a more android development as designers tried to mimic more human-like features
including designs such as those of biologist Makoto Nishimura in 1929 and his creation
Gakutensoku, which cried and changed its facial expressions, and the more crude Elektro
from Westinghouse in 1938.
Electronics then became the driving force of development instead of mechanics, with the
advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol,
England, in 1948. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in
1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors
in 1960 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines in a plant in
Trenton, New Jersey. Since then we have seen robots finally reach a more true assimilation of
all technologies to produce robots such as ASIMO which can walk and move like a human.
Robots have replaced slaves in the assistance of performing those repetitive and dangerous
tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do due to size limitations, or even those
such as in outer space or at the bottom of the sea where humans could not survive the extreme
environments.
Man haSMT placement equipment

This article does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (October 2007)
This article's factual accuracy may be compromised because of out-of-date

information. Please help improve the article by updating it. There may be additional
information on the talk page. (February 2010)
Internal details of a two head, gantry style pick-and-place JUKI SMT machine. In the
foreground are tape and reel feeders, then the (currently empty) conveyor belt for printed
circuit boards, and in back are large parts in a tray. The gantry carries two pickup needles,
flanking a camera (marked "do not touch" to avoid fingerprints on the lens).
Tape-and-reel feed mechanism used to load components into a pick-and-place machine
SMD pick-and-place machine (with simulated motion blurs)

SMT (surface mount technology) component placement systems, commonly called pick-
and-place machines[1] or P&Ps, are robotic machines which are used to place surface-mount
devices (SMDs) onto a printed circuit board (PCB). They are used for high speed, high
precision placing of broad range of electronic components, like capacitors, resistors,
integrated circuits onto the PCBs which are in turn used in computers, telecommunications
equipment, consumer electronic goods, industrial equipment, medical instruments,
automotive systems, military systems and aerospace engineering.
These systems normally use pneumatic suction nozzles, attached to a plotter-like device to
allow the nozzle head to be accurately manipulated in three dimensions. Additionally, each
nozzle can be rotated independently.
Surface mount components are placed along the front (and often back) faces of the machine.
Most components are supplied on paper or plastic tape, the tape reels are loaded onto feeders
mounted to the machine. Larger integrated circuits (ICs) are sometimes supplied arranged in
trays which are stacked in a compartment. More commonly IC's will be provided in tapes
rather than trays or sticks. Improvements in feeder technology means that tape format is
becoming the preferred method of presenting parts on an SMT machine.
Through the middle of the machine there is a conveyor belt, along which blank PCBs travel,
and a PCB clamp in the centre of the machine. The PCB is clamped, and the nozzles pick up
individual components from the feeders/trays, rotate them to the correct orientation and then
place them on the appropriate pads on the PCB with high precision.
As the part is carried from the part feeders on either side of the conveyor belt to the PCB, it is
photographed from below. Its silhouette is inspected to see if it is damaged or missing (was
not picked up), and the inevitable registration errors in pickup are measured and compensated
for when the part is placed. For example, if the part was shifted 0.25 mm and rotated 10
when picked up, the pickup head will adjust the placement position to place the part in the
correct location.
A separate camera on the pick and place head photographs fiducial marks on the PCB to
measure its position on the conveyor belt accurately. Two fiducial marks, measured in two
dimensions each, let the PCB's orientation and thermal expansion be measured and
compensated for as well.
To minimize the distance the pickup gantry must travel, it is common to have multiple
nozzles with separate vertical motion on a single gantry. This can pick up multiple parts with
one trip to the feeders.
The components may be temporarily adhered to the PCB using the wet solder paste itself, or
by using small blobs of a separate adhesive, applied by a glue dispensing machine.
Contents
[hide]
1 1980s and 1990s

2 2000 to present
3 2010 onwards
4 References
[edit] 1980s and 1990s

During this time, a typical SMT assembly line employed two different types of pick and place
(P&P) machines arranged in sequence.
The unpopulated board was fed into a rapid placement machine. These machines, sometimes
called chip shooters, place mainly low-precision, simple package components such as
resistors and capacitors. These high-speed P&P machines were built around a single turret
design capable of mounting up to two dozen stations. As the turret spins, the stations passing
the back of the machine pick up parts from tape feeders mounted on a moving carriage. As
the station proceeds around the turret, it passes an optical station that calculates the angle at
which the part was picked up, allowing the machine to compensate for drift. Then, as the
station reaches the front of the turret, the board is moved into the proper position, the nozzle
is spun to put the part in proper angular orientation, and the part is placed on the board.
Typical chip shooters can, under optimal conditions, place up to 53,000 parts per hour, or
almost 15 parts per second.[citation needed]
Because the PCB is moved rather than the turret, only lightweight parts that will not be
shaken loose by the violent motion of the PCB can be placed this way.
From the high speed machine, the board transits to a precision placement machine. These
pick and place machines use high resolution verification cameras and fine adjustment systems
via high precision linear encoders on each axis to place parts more accurately than the high-
speed machines. Furthermore, the precision placement machines are capable of handling
larger or more irregularly shaped parts such as large package integrated circuits or packaged
inductor coils. Unlike the rapid placers, precision placers generally do not use turret mounted
nozzles and instead rely on a gantry supported moving head. These precision placers rely
upon placement heads with relatively few pickup nozzles. Parts are picked up from tape
feeders or trays, scanned by a camera, and then placed in the proper position on the board.
The margin of error for some components is, in many cases, less than half a millimeter (less
than 0.02 inches). The process is a little slower than rapid placement, necessitating careful
line balancing when setting up a job, lest the precision placement machine become a
production bottleneck.[citation needed]
[edit] 2000 to present

Due to the huge cost of having two separate machines to place parts, the speed limitations of
the chip shooters, and the inflexibility of the machines, the electronic component machine
manufacturers abandoned the technique. To overcome these limitations they moved to an all-
in-one modular, multi-headed, and multi-gantry machines that could have heads quickly
swapped on different modules depending on the product being built to machines with
multiple mini turrets capable of placing the whole spectrum of components with theoretical
speeds of 136,000 components an hour.[2]
[edit] 2010 onwards

There is a big difference in the needs of SMT users. For many, the high speed machines are
not suitable due to cost and speed. With recent changes in the economic climate the
requirement for SMT placement becomes focused on the machine's versatility to deal with
short runs and fast changeover.[citation needed] This means that lower cost machines with vision
systems provide an affordable option for SMT users.[citation needed] There are more users of low
end and mid-range machines than the ultra fast placement systems.[citation needed]
[edit] References
1. ^ micromo.com - "Application Note: Pick-and-place Machines"
2. ^ uic.com - MC_5336B_Genesis_Platform_Solutions_brochure.pdf
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMT_placement_equipment"
Categories: Electronics manufacturing
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About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
s developed an awareness of the problems associated with autonomous robots and how they
may act in society. Fear of robot behaviour, such as Shelley's Frankenstein and the EATR,
drive current practice in establishing what autonomy a robot should and should not be
capable of. Thinking has developed through discussion of robot control and artificial
intelligence (AI) and how its application should benefit society, such as those based around
Asimov's three laws. Practicality still drives development forwards and robots are used in an
increasingly wide variety of tasks such as vacuuming floors, mowing lawns, cleaning drains,
investigating other planets, building cars, in entertainment and in warfare.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
o 2.1 Early modern developments
o 2.2 Modern developments
3 Definitions
o 3.1 Defining characteristics
4 Modern robots
o 4.1 Mobile robot
o 4.2 Industrial robots (manipulating)
o 4.3 Service robot
5 Social impact
o 5.1 Regional perspectives
o 5.2 Autonomy and ethical questions
o 5.3 Military robots
6 Contemporary uses
o 6.1 General-purpose autonomous robots
o 6.2 Factory robots
o 6.3 Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks
o 6.4 Military robots
o 6.5 Schools
o 6.6 Healthcare
o 6.7 Research robots
7 Future development
o 7.1 Technological trends
o 7.2 Technological development
o 7.3 Reading robot
8 Relationship to unemployment
9 Problems depicted in popular culture
10 Timeline
11 Literature
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
[edit] Etymology
See also: Glossary of robotics
A scene from Karel apek's 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), showing three robots
The word robot was introduced to the public by the Czech interwar writer Karel apek in his
play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), published in 1920.[3] The play begins in a factory
that makes artificial people called robots, though they are closer to the modern ideas of
androids, creatures who can be mistaken for humans. They can plainly think for themselves,
though they seem happy to serve. At issue is whether the robots are being exploited and the
consequences of their treatment.
Karel apek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an
etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother, the painter and
writer Josef apek, as its actual originator.[3]
In an article in the Czech journal Lidov noviny in 1933, he explained that he had originally
wanted to call the creatures laboi ("workers", from Latin labor). However, he did not like
the word, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested "roboti". The word robota
means literally "work", "labor" or "corve", "serf labor", and figuratively "drudgery" or "hard
work" in Czech and many Slavic languages. Traditionally the robota was the work period a
serf (corve) had to give for his lord, typically 6 months of the year. The origin of the word is
the Old Church Slavonic rabota "servitude" ("work" in contemporary Bulgarian and
Russian), which in turn comes from the Indo-European root *orbh-.[4] Serfdom was outlawed
in 1848 in Bohemia, so at the time apek wrote R.U.R., usage of the term robota had
broadened to include various types of work, but the obsolete sense of "serfdom" would still
have been known.[5]
The word robotics, used to describe this field of study, was coined by the science fiction
writer Isaac Asimov. Asimov and John W. Campbell created the "Three Laws of Robotics"
which are a recurring theme in his books. These have since been used by many others to
define laws used in fact and fiction. Introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround" the Laws
state the following:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.

[edit] History
Main article: History of robots
Many ancient mythologies include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by
the Greek god Hephaestus[6] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and
clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life.
According to Mark E. Rosheim, "The beginning of robots may be traced to the great Greek
engineer Ctesibius (c. 270 BC). ... Ctesibius applied a knowledge of pneumatics and
hydraulics to produce the first organ and water clocks with moving figures."[7][8] In the 4th
century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-
operated bird he called "The Pigeon". Hero of Alexandria (1070 AD), a Greek
mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and
described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.[9] Su Song built a clock tower
in China in 1088 featuring mechanical figurines that chimed the hours.[10]
In the 3rd century BC text of the Lie Zi, there is a curious account on automata involving a
much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (Chinese emperor 10th century BC) and a
mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi , an 'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king
with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical 'handiwork' made of leather, wood,
and artificial organs.[11]
Al-Jazari (11361206), a Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and
constructed a number of automated machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata
powered by water, and programmable automata.[12][13] The robots appeared as four musicians
on a boat in a lake, entertaining guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a
programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated
percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different
drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.[12][13]
Reconstruction of a washstand automaton with escapement mechanism, the earliest

known, as described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC)
Al-Jazari's programmable automata

Tea-serving karakuri, with mechanism, 19th century. Tokyo National Science

Museum.
Unimate.jpg
Unimate was the first industrial robot, which worked on a General Motors assembly
line in New Jersey, in 1961.
[edit] Early modern developments
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) sketched plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da
Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical
knight now known as Leonardo's robot, able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and
jaw.[14] The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian
Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. In 1738 and 1739, Jacques de
Vaucanson exhibited several life-sized automatons: a flute player, a pipe player and a duck.
The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and swallow food from the
exhibitor's hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a
hidden compartment.[15] Complex mechanical toys and animals built in Japan in the 18th
century were described in the Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796)
[edit] Modern developments
The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka (17991881), known as "Japan's Edison" or

"Karakuri Giemon", created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which
served tea, fired arrows drawn from a quiver, and even painted a Japanese kanji character.[16]
In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled torpedo.[17] Based on patents
for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop it into a weapon system for the US Navy.[18][19]
In 1926, Westinghouse Electric Corporation created Televox, the first robot put to useful
work. They followed Televox with a number of other simple robots, including one called
Rastus, made in the crude image of a black man. In the 1930s, they created a humanoid robot
known as Elektro for exhibition purposes, including the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs.[20][21]
In 1928, Japan's first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto
Nishimura.
The first electronic autonomous robots were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden
Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. They were named Elmer and
Elsie. These robots could sense light and contact with external objects, and use these stimuli
to navigate.[22]
The first truly modern robot, digitally operated and programmable, was invented by George
Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first Unimate to
General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift
hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them.[23] Devols patent for the first
digitally operated programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the modern
robotics industry.[24]
Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply
or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which
are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in
manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery,
weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.[25]
[edit] Definitions
The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are
usually referred to as bots.[26] There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but
there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to do some or all of
the following: move around, operate a mechanical limb, sense and manipulate their
environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior especially behavior which mimics humans
or other animals.
There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone and many people have their
own.[27] For example Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked: "I
can't define a robot, but I know one when I see one."[28] According to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica a robot is "any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though
it may not resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike
manner".[29] Merriam-Webster describes a robot as a "machine that looks like a human being
and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being", or a "device
that automatically performs complicated often repetitive tasks", or a "mechanism guided by
automatic controls".[30]
The various types of robots
KITT (a fictitious robot) is mentally anthropomorphic
ASIMO is physically anthropomorphic
[edit] Defining characteristics
While there is no single correct definition of "robot,"[31] a typical robot will have several, or
possibly all, of the following characteristics.
It is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects and to be
given electronic programming to do a specific task or to do a whole range of tasks or actions.
It may also have some ability to perceive and absorb data on physical objects, or on its local
physical environment, or to process data, or to respond to various stimuli. This is in contrast
to a simple mechanical device such as a gear or a hydraulic press or any other item which has
no processing ability and which does tasks through purely mechanical processes and motion.
Mental agency
For robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the way its
actions are controlled. The more the control system seems to have agency of its own, the
more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency is the ability
to make choices. Higher-level cognitive functions, though, are not necessary, as shown by ant
robots.
A clockwork car is never considered a robot.

A mechanical device able to perform some preset motions but with no ability to adapt (an
automaton) is rarely considered a robot.
A remotely-operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot (or telerobot).[32]
A car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable
sequence, might be called a robot.
A self-controlled car which could sense its environment and make driving decisions based on
this information, such as the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns or the entries in the
DARPA Grand Challenge, would quite likely be called a robot.
A sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can make decisions, navigate freely and converse
fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.
Physical agency
However, for many laymen, if a machine appears to be able to control its arms or limbs, and
especially if it appears anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g. ASIMO or Aibo), it would be
called a robot.
A player piano is rarely characterized as a robot.[33]

A CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot.
A factory automation arm is almost always characterized as an industrial robot.
An autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-guided
vehicle, is almost always characterized as a mobile robot or service robot.
A zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a robot.[34]
A mechanical humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot, usually as a
service robot.
Even for a 3-axis CNC milling machine using the same control system as a robot arm, it is
the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a
machine. Having eyes can also make a difference in whether a machine is called a robot,
since humans instinctively connect eyes with sentience. However, simply being
anthropomorphic is not a sufficient criterion for something to be called a robot. A robot must
do something; an inanimate object shaped like ASIMO would not be considered a robot.
[edit] Modern robots

A laparoscopic robotic surgery machine
[edit] Mobile robot

Main articles: Mobile robot and Automated guided vehicle
Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to
one physical location. An example of a mobile robot that is in common use today is the
automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV). An AGV is a mobile robot
that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or lasers. AGVs are discussed later
in this article.
Mobile robots are also found in industry, military and security environments. They also
appear as consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum
cleaning. Mobile robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and almost every
major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research.
Modern robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as on assembly lines
because they have difficulty responding to unexpected interference. Because of this most
humans rarely encounter robots. However domestic robots for cleaning and maintenance are
increasingly common in and around homes in developed countries. Robots can also be found
in military applications.
[edit] Industrial robots (manipulating)

Main articles: Industrial robot and Manipulator
Industrial robots usually consist of a jointed arm (multi-linked manipulator) and end effector
that is attached to a fixed surface. One of the most common type of end effector is a gripper
assembly.
The International Organization for Standardization gives a definition of a manipulating

industrial robot in ISO 8373:
"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in

three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial
automation applications."[35]
This definition is used by the International Federation of Robotics, the European Robotics
Research Network (EURON) and many national standards committees.[36]
A Pick and Place robot in a factory
[edit] Service robot

Main article: Service robot
Most commonly industrial robots are fixed robotic arms and manipulators used primarily for
production and distribution of goods. The term "service robot" is less well-defined. IFR has
proposed a tentative definition, "A service robot is a robot which operates semi- or fully-
autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment,
excluding manufacturing operations."
In South Africa robot is an informal and commonly used term for a set of traffic lights.
[edit] Social impact

Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North
America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa.[37] 30% of all the robots in the world are in
Japan,[38] making Japan the country with the highest number of robots.
[edit] Regional perspectives
In Japan and South Korea, ideas of future robots have been mainly positive, and the start of
the pro-robotic society there is thought to be possibly due to the famous 'Astro Boy'. Asian
societies such as Japan, South Korea, and more recently, China, believe robots to be more
equal to humans, having them care for old people, play with or teach children, or replace pets
etc.[39] The general view in Asian cultures is that the more robots advance, the better.
"This is the opening of an era in which human beings and robots can co-exist," says Japanese
firm Mitsubishi about one of the many humanistic robots in Japan.[40] South Korea aims to
put a robot in every house there by 2015-2020 in order to help catch up technologically with
Japan.[41][42]
Western societies are more likely to be against, or even fear the development of robotics,
through much media output in movies and literature that they will replace humans. Some
believe that the West regards robots as a 'threat' to the future of humans, partly due to
religious beliefs about the role of humans and society.[43][44] Obviously, these boundaries are
not clear, but there is a significant difference between the two cultural viewpoints.
[edit] Autonomy and ethical questions

Main articles: Roboethics and Ethics of artificial intelligence
As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have
increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots' behavior,[45] and
whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights.[46]
One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019.[47] Others
predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.[48] Recent advances have made robotic
behavior more sophisticated.[49] The social impact of intelligent robots is subject of a 2010
documentary film called Plug & Pray.[50]
Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are
smarter than humans. He calls this "the Singularity".[51] He suggests that it may be somewhat
or possibly very dangerous for humans.[52] This is discussed by a philosophy called
Singularitarianism.
In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the Association for the Advancement of
Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to
acquire any autonomy, and how much these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They
noted that some robots have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including being able
to find power sources on their own and being able to independently choose targets to attack
with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have
achieved "cockroach intelligence." They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science-
fiction is probably unlikely, but that there were other potential hazards and pitfalls.[51]
Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate trends in differing areas
which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose
some inherent concerns.[53][54][55]
[edit] Military robots
Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat,
especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions.[56] There are
also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled
mainly by other robots.[57] The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military
robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability
to make autonomous decisions.[58][59] One researcher states that autonomous robots might be
more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts
question this.[60]
Some public concerns about autonomous robots have received media attention.[61] One robot
in particular, the EATR, has generated concerns over its fuel source as it can continually
refuel itself using organic substances.[62] Although the engine for the EATR is designed to
run on biomass and vegetation[63] specifically selected by its sensors which can find on
battlefields or other local environments the project has stated that chicken fat can also be
used.[64]
[edit] Contemporary uses

See also: List of Robots
At present there are 2 main types of robots, based on their use: general-purpose autonomous
robots and dedicated robots.
Robots can be classified by their specificity of purpose. A robot might be designed to perform
one particular task extremely well, or a range of tasks less well. Of course, all robots by their
nature can be re-programmed to behave differently, but some are limited by their physical
form. For example, a factory robot arm can perform jobs such as cutting, welding, gluing, or
acting as a fairground ride, while a pick-and-place robot can only populate printed circuit
boards.
[edit] General-purpose autonomous robots

Main article: Autonomous robot
General-purpose autonomous robots can perform a variety of functions independently.
General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate independently in known spaces,
handle their own re-charging needs, interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform
other basic tasks. Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software
and accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or objects, talk,
provide companionship, monitor environmental quality, respond to alarms, pick up supplies
and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may perform a variety of functions
simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of day. Some such robots
try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this type of robot is
called a humanoid robot.
A general-purpose robot acts as a guide during the day and a security guard at night
[edit] Factory robots

Car production
Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical
factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines,
with one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line, a vehicle
chassis on a conveyor is welded, glued, painted and finally assembled at a sequence of robot
stations.
An intelligent AGV drops-off goods without needing lines or beacons in the workspace
Packaging
Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured
goods, for example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and
placing them into boxes, or for loading and unloading machining centers.
Electronics
Mass-produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick-
and-place robots, typically with SCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic
components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.[65] Such
robots can place hundreds of thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human
in speed, accuracy, and reliability.[66]
Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision[67] or lasers, are used
to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.[68]
Early AGV-Style Robots

Limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be performed the same way
every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots needed only the
most basic exteroceptors (sensors). The limitations of these AGVs are that their paths are
not easily altered and they cannot alter their paths if obstacles block them. If one AGV
breaks down, it may stop the entire operation.
Interim AGV-Technologies
Developed to deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for scanning on the floor
or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems tend to require moderate to high
maintenance, such as daily cleaning of all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large
vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred, AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are
designed to be used in human-free environments.
Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)
A U.S. Marine Corps technician prepares to use a telerobot to detonate a buried improvised
explosive device near Camp Fallujah, Iraq
Such as SpeciMinder,[69] ADAM,[70] Tug[71] and MT 400 with Motivity[72] are designed for
people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural features. 3D scanners or
other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to eliminate
cumulative errors in dead-reckoning calculations of the AGV's current position. Some AGVs
can create maps of their environment using scanning lasers with simultaneous localization
and mapping (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other path planning
and obstacle avoidance algorithms. They are able to operate in complex environments and
perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as transporting photomasks in a
semiconductor lab, specimens in hospitals and goods in warehouses. For dynamic areas,
such as warehouses full of pallets, AGVs require additional strategies using three-
dimensional sensors such as time-of-flight or stereovision cameras.
[edit] Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks
There are many jobs which humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring,
such as domestic cleaning, or dangerous, such as exploring inside a volcano.[73] Other jobs
are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another planet,[74] cleaning the inside of a long
pipe, or performing laparoscopic surgery.[75]
Space probes
Almost every unmanned space probe ever launched was a robot. Some were launched in the
1960s with more limited abilities, but their ability to fly and to land (in the case of Luna 9) is
an indication of their status as a robot. This includes the Voyager probes and the Galileo
probes, as well as other probes.
Telerobots
When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away,
or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Rather than following a
predetermined sequence of movements, a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human
operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different
scale to the operator. For instance, a laparoscopic surgery robot allows the surgeon to work
inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly
shortening recovery time.[75] When disabling a bomb, the operator sends a small robot to
disable it. Several authors have been using a device called the Longpen to sign books
remotely.[76] Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, are
increasingly being used by the military. These pilotless drones can search terrain and fire on
targets.[77][78] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot's Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are
being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to defuse roadside bombs or
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in an activity known as explosive ordnance disposal
(EOD).[79]
Automated fruit harvesting machines
The Roomba domestic vacuum cleaner robot does a single, menial job
Used to pick fruit on orchards at a cost lower than that of human pickers.
In the home
As prices fall and robots become smarter and more autonomous, simple robots dedicated to a
single task work in over a million homes. They are taking on simple but unwanted jobs, such
as vacuum cleaning and floor washing, and lawn mowing. Some find these robots to be cute
and entertaining, which is one reason that they can sell very well.
Duct cleaning
The ANATROLLER ARI-100 is a modular mobile robot used for cleaning hazardous environments
In the hazardous and tight spaces of a building's duct work, many hours can be spent cleaning
relatively small areas if a manual brush is used. Robots have been used by many duct
cleaners primarily in the industrial and institutional cleaning markets, as they allow the job to
be done faster, without exposing workers to the harmful enzymes released by dust mites. For
cleaning high-security institutions such as embassies and prisons, duct cleaning robots are
vital, as they allow the job to be completed without compromising the security of the
institution. Hospitals and other government buildings with hazardous and cancerogenic
environments such as nuclear reactors legally must be cleaned using duct cleaning robots, in
countries such as Canada, in an effort to improve workplace safety in duct cleaning.
[edit] Military robots

Main article: Military robots
Military robots include the SWORDS robot which is currently used in ground-based combat.
It can use a variety of weapons and there is some discussion of giving it some degree of
autonomy in battleground situations.[80][81][82]
Unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs), which are an upgraded form of UAVs, can do a
wide variety of missions, including combat. UCAVs are being designed such as the Mantis
UCAV which would have the ability to fly themselves, to pick their own course and target,
and to make most decisions on their own.[83] The BAE Taranis is a UCAV built by Great
Britain which can fly across continents without a pilot and has new means to avoid
detection.[84] Flight trials are expected to begin in 2011.[85][86]
The AAAI has studied this topic in depth[45] and its president has commissioned a study to
look at this issue.[87]
Some have suggested a need to build "Friendly AI", meaning that the advances which are
already occurring with AI should also include an effort to make AI intrinsically friendly and
humane.[88] Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such
as Japan and South Korea[41] having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped
with safety systems, and possibly sets of 'laws' akin to Asimov's Three Laws of
Robotics.[89][90] An official report was issued in 2009 by the Japanese government's Robot
Industry Policy Committee.[91] Chinese officials and researchers have issued a report
suggesting a set of ethical rules, as well as a set of new legal guidelines referred to as "Robot
Legal Studies."[92] Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence of robots
telling apparent falsehoods.[93]
[edit] Schools
Further information: FIRST Robotics Competition
Robotics have also been introduced into the lives of elementary and high school students with
the company FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology). The
organization is the foundation for the FIRST Robotics Competition, FIRST LEGO League,
Junior FIRST LEGO League, and FIRST Tech Challenge competitions.
[edit] Healthcare
Robots in healthcare have two main functions. Those which assist an individual, such as a
sufferer of a disease like Multiple Sclerosis, and those which aid in the overall systems such
as pharmacies and hospitals.
Home automation for the elderly and disabled

Further information: Disability robot
The Care-Providing robot FRIEND. (Photo: IAT)
Robots have developed over time from simple basic robotic assistants, such as the Handy
1,[94] through to semi-autonomous robots, such as FRIEND which can assist the elderly and
disabled with common tasks.
The population is aging in many countries, especially Japan, meaning that there are
increasing numbers of elderly people to care for, but relatively fewer young people to care for
them.[95][96] Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are
gradually being introduced.[97]
FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support disabled and elderly people in their
daily life activities, like preparing and serving a meal. FRIEND make it possible for patients
who are paraplegic, have muscle diseases or serious paralysis (due to strokes etc.), to perform
tasks without help from other people like therapists or nursing staff.
Pharmacies
Main article: Pharmacy automation
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2009)
Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist of
oral solids or medications in pill form. The pharmacist or pharmacy technician enters the
prescription information into its information system. The system, upon determining whether
or not the drug is in the robot, will send the information to the robot for filling. The robot has
3 different size vials to fill determined by the size of the pill. The robot technician, user, or
pharmacist determines the needed size of the vial based on the tablet when the robot is
stocked. Once the vial is filled it is brought up to a conveyor belt that delivers it to a holder
that spins the vial and attaches the patient label. Afterwards it is set on another conveyor that
delivers the patients medication vial to a slot labeled with the patient's name on an LED read
out. The pharmacist or technician then checks the contents of the vial to ensure its the
correct drug for the correct patient and then seals the vials and sends it out front to be picked
up. The robot is a very time efficient device that the pharmacy depends on to fill
prescriptions.
McKessons Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense
thousands of medications daily with little or no errors. The robot can be ten feet wide and
thirty feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of
doses. The pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable
in a resource scarce industry. It uses an electromechanical head coupled with a pneumatic
system to capture each dose and deliver it to its either stocked or dispensed location. The
head moves along a single axis while it rotates 180 degrees to pull the medications. During
this process it uses barcode technology to verify its pulling the correct drug. It then delivers
the drug to a patient specific bin on a conveyor belt. Once the bin is filled with all of the
drugs that a particular patient needs and that the robot stocks, the bin is then released and
returned out on the conveyor belt to a technician waiting to load it into a cart for delivery to
the floor.
[edit] Research robots

See also: Robotics Robot Research
While most robots today are installed in factories or homes, performing labour or life saving
jobs, many new types of robot are being developed in laboratories around the world. Much of
the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new
types of robot, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture
them. It is expected that these new types of robot will be able to solve real world problems
when they are finally realized.[citation needed]
Nanorobots
Further information: Nanorobotics
A microfabricated electrostatic gripper holding some silicon nanowires.[98]
Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field of creating machines or robots whose

components are at or close to the microscopic scale of a nanometer (109 meters). Also
known as "nanobots" or "nanites", they would be constructed from molecular machines. So
far, researchers have mostly produced only parts of these complex systems, such as bearings,
sensors, and Synthetic molecular motors, but functioning robots have also been made such as
the entrants to the Nanobot Robocup contest.[99] Researchers also hope to be able to create
entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale.
Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), utility fog,[100]
manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning.[101] Some people have suggested that if there were
nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into "grey goo", while others argue
that this hypothetical outcome is nonsense.[102][103]
Reconfigurable Robots
Main article: Self-reconfiguring modular robot
A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can alter their
physical form to suit a particular task,[104] like the fictional T-1000. Real robots are nowhere
near that sophisticated however, and mostly consist of a small number of cube shaped units,
which can move relative to their neighbours. Algorithms have been designed in case any such
robots become a reality.[105]
Soft Robots
Robots with silicone bodies and flexible actuators (air muscles, electroactive polymers, and
ferrofluids), controlled using fuzzy logic and neural networks, look and feel different from
robots with rigid skeletons, and are capable of different behaviors.[106]
Swarm robots
Main article: Swarm robotics
A swarm of robots from the Open-source Micro-robotic Project
Inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers are modeling the behavior
of swarms of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding
something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the emergent behavior
of the swarm is more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single
distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a superorganism,
exhibiting swarm intelligence. The largest swarms so far created include the iRobot swarm,
the SRI/MobileRobots CentiBots project[107] and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project
swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviors.[108][109] Swarms are also more
resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can
continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration
missions, where failure is normally extremely costly.[110]
Haptic interface robots

Further information: Haptic technology
Robotics also has application in the design of virtual reality interfaces. Specialized robots are
in widespread use in the haptic research community. These robots, called "haptic interfaces,"
allow touch-enabled user interaction with real and virtual environments. Robotic forces allow
simulating the mechanical properties of "virtual" objects, which users can experience through
their sense of touch.[111]
[edit] Future development

Further information: Future of robotics
[edit] Technological trends
Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method
is Evolutionary robotics, in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those
which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent "generation" of robots.
Another method is Developmental robotics, which tracks changes and development within a
single in the areas of problem-solving and other functions.
[edit] Technological development

Overall trends
Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much

technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the
Trade Ministry.[112]
As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating
system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System is an open-source set of
programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to
program a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also
provides high-level commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors.
When ROS boots up on a robot's computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the
length and movement of robots' limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms.
Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for robots" system with its Robotics Developer
Studio, which has been available since 2007.[113]
New functions and abilities
The Caterpillar Company is making a dump truck which can drive itself without any human
operator.[114]
Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well
beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction. As early as 1982
people were confident that someday robots would:[115] 1. clean parts by removing molding
flash 2. spray paint automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. pack things in boxes
for example, orient and nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. make electrical cable
harness 5. load trucks with boxesa packing problem 6. handle soft goods, such as garments
and shoes 7. shear sheep 8. prosthesis 9. cook fast food and work in other service industries
10. household robot.
Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.
[edit] Reading robot
A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can
read newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and
understand that some restaurants are better places to eat than others.[116]
[edit] Relationship to unemployment

Further information: Structural unemployment
Some analysts, such as Martin Ford,[117] argue that robots and other forms of automation will
ultimately result in significant unemployment as machines begin to match and exceed the
capability of workers to perform most jobs. At present the negative impact is only on menial
and repetitive jobs, and there is actually a positive impact on the number of jobs for highly
skilled technicians, engineers, and specialists. However, these highly skilled jobs are not
sufficient in number to offset the greater decrease in employment among the general
population, causing structural unemployment in which overall (net) unemployment rises.
As robotics and artificial intelligence develop further, some worry even many skilled jobs
may be threatened. In conventional economic theory this should merely cause an increase in
the productivity of the involved industries, resulting in higher demand for other goods, and
hence higher labour demand in these sectors, off-setting whatever negatives are caused.
Conventional theory describes the past well but may not describe the future due to shifts in
the parameter values that shape the context.
[edit] Problems depicted in popular culture

Fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and
films. A common theme is the development of a master race of conscious and highly
intelligent robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race. (See The Terminator,
Runaway, Blade Runner, RoboCop, the Replicators in Stargate, the Cylons in Battlestar
Galactica, The Matrix, and I, Robot.) Some fictional robots are programmed to kill and
destroy; others gain superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software
and hardware. Examples of popular media where the robot becomes evil are 2001: A Space
Odyssey, Red Planet and Enthiran. Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called
the "uncanny valley", of unease and even revulsion at the sight of robots that mimic humans
too closely.[118] Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become
synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. In the TV
show, Futurama, the robots are portrayed as humanoid figures that live alongside humans, not
as robotic butlers. They still work in industry, but these robots carry out daily lives.
Manuel De Landa has noted that "smart missiles" and autonomous bombs equipped with
artificial perception can be considered robots, and they make some of their decisions
autonomously. He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend in which
humans are handing over important decisions to machines.[119]
Marauding robots may have entertainment value, but unsafe use of robots constitutes an
actual danger. A heavy industrial robot with powerful actuators and unpredictably complex
behavior can cause harm, for instance by stepping on a human's foot or falling on a human.
Most industrial robots operate inside a security fence which separates them from human
workers, but not all. Two robot-caused deaths are those of Robert Williams and Kenji Urada.
Robert Williams was struck by a robotic arm at a casting plant in Flat Rock, Michigan on
January 25, 1979.[120] 37-year-old Kenji Urada, a Japanese factory worker, was killed in
1981; Urada was performing routine maintenance on the robot, but neglected to shut it down
properly, and was accidentally pushed into a grinding machine.[121]
[edit] Timeline
Date Significance Robot name Inventor
Descriptions of over a hundred machines and
1st century
automata, including a fire engine, wind organ, coin- Ctesibius, Philo,
AD and
operated machine, and steam-powered aeliopile, in Heron, and others
earlier
Pneumatica and Automata by Heron
1206 Early programmable automata Robot band[12] Al-Jazari
Mechanical
c. 1495 Designs for a humanoid robot Leonardo da Vinci
knight
Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap its wings, Digesting Jacques de
1738
and excrete Duck Vaucanson
19th Japanese mechanical toys that served tea, fired
Karakuri toys Hisashige Tanaka
century arrows, and painted
Rossum's
First fictional automata called "robots" appear in the
1921 Universal Karel apek
play R.U.R.
Robots
Humanoid robot, based on a suit of armor with
1928 electrical actuators, exhibited at the annual exhibition Eric W. H. Richards
of the Model Engineers Society in London
Westinghouse
Humanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and 1940
1930s Elektro Electric
World's Fairs
Corporation
Elsie and William Grey
1948 Simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors[122]
Elmer Walter
First commercial robot, from the Unimation company
1956 founded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger, Unimate George Devol
based on Devol's patents[123]
1961 First installed industrial robot Unimate George Devol
1963 First palletizing robot[124] Palletizer Fuji Yusoki Kogyo
First robot with six electromechanically driven KUKA Robot
1973 Famulus
axes[125] Group
Programmable universal manipulation arm, a
1975 PUMA Victor Scheinman
Unimation product
[edit] Literature
A gynoid, or robot designed to resemble a woman, can appear comforting to some people and
disturbing to others[118]
See also: List of fictional robots and androids and Robots in literature
Robotic characters, androids (artificial men/women) or gynoids (artificial women), and

cyborgs (also "bionic men/women", or humans with significant mechanical enhancements)
have become a staple of science fiction.
The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants appears in Homer's Iliad. In
Book XVIII, Hephaestus, god of fire, creates new armor for the hero Achilles, assisted by
robots.[126] According to the Rieu translation, "Golden maidservants hastened to help their
master. They looked like real women and could not only speak and use their limbs but were
endowed with intelligence and trained in handwork by the immortal gods." Of course, the
words "robot" or "android" are not used to describe them, but they are nevertheless
mechanical devices human in appearance. "The first use of the word Robot was in Karel
apek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) (written in 1920)" Robots in literature
The most prolific author of stories about robots was Isaac Asimov (19201992), who placed
robots and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works.[127][128] Asimov
carefully considered the problem of the ideal set of instructions robots might be given in
order to lower the risk to humans, and arrived at his Three Laws of Robotics: a robot may not
injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; a robot
must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with
the First Law; and a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.[129] These were introduced in his 1942 short story
"Runaround", although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. Later, Asimov added the Zeroth
Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the
rest of the laws are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!"
(1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov
was not initially aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with
mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.[130]
[edit] See also

Robotics portal
Main list: List of robotics topics
For classes and types of robots see Category:Robots.

FIRST - For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology; an organization that
founded various robotics competitions for elementary and high school students.
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[edit] Further reading

TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot
Gender, Tasks, & Pricing"
Cheney, Margaret [1989:123] (1981). Tesla, Man Out of Time. Dorset Press. New York. ISBN
0-88029-419-1
Craig, J.J. (2005). Introduction to Robotics. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Gutkind, L. (2006). Almost Human: Making Robots Think. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 2. Taipei: Caves Books
Ltd.
Sotheby's New York. The Tin Toy Robot Collection of Matt Wyse, (1996)
Tsai, L. W. (1999). Robot Analysis. Wiley. New York.
DeLanda, Manuel. War in the Age of Intelligent Machines. 1991. Swerve. New York.
Journal of Field Robotics
[edit] External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Robotics
Wikiversity has learning materials about Anthropomorphic Robotics
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Robots
Look up robot in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Robotics at the Open Directory Project
Research
International Foundation of Robotics Research (IFRR)

International Journal of Robotics Research (IJRR).
Robotics and Automation Society (RAS) at IEEE
Robotics Network at IET
Robotics Division at NASA
Human Machine Integration Laboratory at Arizona State University
[show]v d eRobotics (outline)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot"

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Automata-based programming (Shalyto's

Automata-Based Programming is a programming technology (Nepeyvoda 2005). Its

[edit] Automata-Based Programming

[edit] Main Features

It is necessary to note that using automata-based programming implies debugging by drawing

[edit] Logical Control

[edit] State-Based Object-Oriented Programming

[edit] Computational algorithms

Automata-based approach is very effective for implementation of some algorithms of discrete

A new state-based approach to creation of algorithms' visualizers was offered. Such

Some examples of usage of UniMod tool are shown in (UniMod Examples).

[edit] Collected articles on automata-based programming

[edit] The First book about automata-based programming

Nepeyvoda N.N. Styles and methods of programming. M.: Internet-university of

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1 Examples of pneumatic systems and components

[edit] Examples of pneumatic systems and components

[edit] Gases used in pneumatic systems

[edit] Comparison to hydraulics

[edit] Advantages of pneumatics

Simplicity of Design And Control

[edit] Advantages of hydraulics

[edit] Pneumatic logic

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005, a humanoid robot

Man haSMT placement equipment

This article's factual accuracy may be compromised because of out-of-date

Tape-and-reel feed mechanism used to load components into a pick-and-place machine

SMD pick-and-place machine (with simulated motion blurs)

1 1980s and 1990s

[edit] 1980s and 1990s

[edit] 2000 to present

[edit] 2010 onwards

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Reconstruction of a washstand automaton with escapement mechanism, the earliest

Al-Jazari's programmable automata

Tea-serving karakuri, with mechanism, 19th century. Tokyo National Science

[edit] Early modern developments

[edit] Modern developments

The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka (17991881), known as "Japan's Edison" or

The various types of robots

KITT (a fictitious robot) is mentally anthropomorphic

ASIMO is physically anthropomorphic

[edit] Defining characteristics

A clockwork car is never considered a robot.

A player piano is rarely characterized as a robot.[33]

[edit] Modern robots

[edit] Mobile robot

[edit] Industrial robots (manipulating)

The International Organization for Standardization gives a definition of a manipulating

"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in