Electrostatics 253

Chapter

6
Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Introduction
The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are
frequently used in everyday language. A farmer clearing
weeds in his field is said to be working hard. A woman Since body is being displaced in the direction of
carrying water from a well to her house is said to be F cos , therefore work done by the force in displacing
working. In a drought affected region she may be the body through a distance s is given by
required to carry it over large distances. If she can do
W (F cos ) s Fs cos
so, she is said to have a large stamina or energy. Energy
is thus the capacity to do work. The term power is or W F .s
usually associated with speed. In karate, a powerful Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar
punch is one delivered at great speed. In physics we (or dot product) of the force and the displacement of the
shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find body.
that there is a loose correlation between the physical
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ......F n are
definitions and the physiological pictures these terms
generate in our minds. acting on a body and it shifts from position vector r 1
Work is said to be done when a force applied on to position vector r 2 then
the body displaces the body through a certain distance
W (F 1 F 2 F 3 ....F n ).( r 2 r 1 )
in the direction of force.

Work Done by a Constant Force Nature of Work Done

Positive work
Let a constant force F be applied on the body Positive work means that force (or its component)
such that it makes an angle with the horizontal and is parallel to displacementDirection of
body is displaced through a distance s F motion

By resolving force F into two components :

s
0o 90o
(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the
body. Fig. 6.2

(ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of The positive work signifies that the external force
displacement of the body. favours the motion of the body.
F sin
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the
F ground, the work done by the (upward) lifting force is
positive

F cos F man
s
Fig. 6.1 s

Fig. 6.3
s
F
 254 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

The negative work signifies that the external force

opposes the motion of the body.
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the
ground, the work done by the (downward) force of
(ii) When a lawn roller is pulled by applying a force gravity is negative.
along the handle at an acute angle, work done by the
applied force is positive.
Fg
F

s
s
Fig. 6.4
(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the
external (stretching) force is positive. Fig. 6.7
(ii) When a body is made to slide over a rough
s
surface, the work done by the frictional force is
F negative.

Fig. 6.5 Minimum work : Wmin F s

Maximum work : Wmax F s

F
+ +
When cos maximum 1 i.e. 0 o s
It means force does maximum work when angle Fig. 6.8
between force and displacement is zero.
Negative work When cos minimum 1 i.e 180o
Negative work means that force (or its It means force does minimum [maximum
component) is opposite to displacement i.e. negative] work when angle between force and
F Direction of displacement is 180 o.
motion
(iii) When a positive charge is moved towards
o o
s 90 180 another positive charge. The work done by electrostatic
force between them is negative.
Fig. 6.6
Zero work

Under three condition, work done becomes zero W Fs cos 0

(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [F s ]

Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a

s
load on his head, work done against gravity by the coolie
is zero.

(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the Fg

centripetal force is always zero.

(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle in a magnetic

field as force [F q(v B)] is always perpendicular to
motion, work done by this force is always zero.

(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]

Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by

F
applying a force and it does not move, then work done is
zero. s 0
(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the
 Electrostatics 255
ground but does not work in holding it up.

(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]

Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work Done by a Variable Force From W = F s direction.

When the magnitude and direction of a force From W = F s
varies with position, the work done by such a force for 1erg 1dyne 1cm 1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt
an infinitesimal displacement is given by
Relation between Joule 1cm. = 981 dyne
dW F . ds
B and erg 1cm
ds 1 Joule = 1 N 1 m = 981 erg

F = 105 dyne 102 cm
= 107 dyne cm = 107
A erg
Fig. 6.9
The total work done in going from A to B as shown Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement
in the figure is Graph
B B
W A F . ds A (F cos )ds Let a body, whose initial position is xi , is acted
upon by a variable force (whose magnitude is changing
In terms of rectangular component
continuously) and consequently the body acquires its
F Fx
i Fyj Fzk
final position x f . Force

ds dx
i dy
j dzk

A (Fxi Fyj Fzk).(dxi dyj dzk)
B
W
xB yB zB
or W xA Fx dx yA Fydy zA Fz dz O xi xf Displacemen
x dx
t
Dimension and Units of Work Fig. 6.10

Dimension : As work = Force displacement

Let F be the average value of variable force within
[W] the interval dx from position x to (x + dx) i.e. for small
2
[MLT ] [L] [ML2T 2 ] displacement dx. The work done will be the area of the
shaded strip of width dx. The work done on the body in
Units : The units of work are of two types
displacing it from position xi to x f will be equal to
Absolute units Gravitational units the sum of areas of all the such strips
Joule [S.I.]: Work done is kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of dW F dx

said to be one Joule, when work is done when a xf xf

1 Newton force displaces force of 1kg-wt. W xi
dW xi
F dx
the body through 1 metre displaces the body
xf
in its own direction. through 1m in its own W xi (Areaof stripof widthdx)
From, W = F.s direction.
From W=Fs W Areaundercurve
between
xi andx f
1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m
1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt 1 i.e. Area under force-displacement curve with
m proper algebraic sign represents work done by the
force.
= 9.81 N 1 metre
Work Done in Conservative and
= 9.81 Joule
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done is gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1 Non-conservative Field
said to be one erg when 1 gm-cm of work is done (1) In conservative field, work done by the force
dyne force displaces the when a force of 1gm-
body through 1 cm in its wt displaces the body
(line integral of the force i.e. F.dl ) is independent
own direction. through 1cm in its own of the path followed between any two points.
I
A B
II

III
Fig. 6.11
 256 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

WAB WAB WAB

WIV F . ds mgh
It is clear that WI WII WIII WIV mgh.
Further if the body is brought back to its initial
position A, similar amount of work (energy) is released
from the system, it means WAB mgh and

PathI PathII PathIII WBA mgh.

Hence the net work done against gravity over a
round trip is zero.
WNet WAB WBA mgh (mgh) 0

or
F.dl F.dl F.dl i.e. the gravitational force is conservative in
nature.
Non-conservative forces : A force is said to be
non-conservative if work done by or against the force in
moving a body from one position to another, depends

PathI PathII PathIII on the path followed between these two positions and
for complete cycle this work done can never be zero.
Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag
etc.
(2) In conservative field work done by the force (line If a body is moved from position A to another
integral of the force i.e. F.dl ) over a closed path/loop position B on a rough table, work done against frictional
force shall depend on the length of the path between A
is zero.
and B and not only on the position A and B.
WA B WB A 0 A B

WAB mgs
or F .dl 0 Further if the body is brought back to its initial
position A, work has to be done against the frictional
Fig. 6.12
force, which opposes the motion. Hence the net work
done against the friction over a round trip is not zero.
R
Conservative force : The forces of these type of s
fields are known as conservative forces.
Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces, F
elastic forces, magnetic forces etc and all the central
forces are conservative in nature. Fig. 6.14
If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the
WBA mgs
.
ground level by different path as shown in the figure
B B B B WNet WAB WBA mgs mgs 2mgs 0.
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
I II III IV With change of frame of reference (inertial), force
l h
h3 does not change while displacement may change. So
h2
h1 the work done by a force will be different in different
frames.
A A A A Examples : (1) If a porter with a suitcase on his
Fig. 6.13 head moves up a
Work done through different paths staircase, work done
WI F . s mg h mgh by the upward lifting
force relative to him
h will be zero (as
WII F . s mgsin l mgsin mgh
sin displacement
relative to him is
WIII mgh
1 0 mgh
2 0 mgh
3 0 mgh4 zero) while relative h
mg(h1 h2 h3 h4 ) mgh to a person on the
ground will be mgh. Fig. 6.15

(2) If a person is pushing a box inside a moving
train, the work done in the frame of train will F.s
while in the frame of earth will be F . (s s0) where
s0 is the displacement of the train relative to the
ground.
Energy
The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for
doing work.
(1) Since energy of a body is the total quantity of
work done, therefore it is a scalar quantity.
(2) Dimension: [ML2T 2] it is same as that of
work or torque.
(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.]
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour
(KWh), Calories (cal)
Relation between different units:
1 Joule = 107 erg
1 eV = 1.6 1019 Joule
1 kWh = 3.6 106 Joule
Electrostatics 257
other, they annihilate or destroy each other. The masses
of electron and positron are converted into energy. This
energy is released in the form of -rays.
e e
Each photon has energy = 0.51 MeV.
Here two photons are emitted instead of one
photon to conserve the linear momentum.
(ii) Pair production : This process is the reverse of
annihilation of matter. In this case, a photon ( )
having energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts with a
nucleus and give rise to electron (e ) and positron
(Photon)
(e ) . Thus energy is converted into matter.
e + e+
Fig. 6.16
(iii) Nuclear bomb : When the nucleus is split up
due to mass defect (The difference in the mass of
nucleons and the nucleus), energy is released in the
form of -radiations and heat.

1 calorie = 4.18 Joule (5) Various forms of energy

(4) Mass energy equivalence : Einsteins special theory (i) Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)
of relativity shows that material particle itself is a form of (ii) Chemical energy
energy. (iii) Electrical energy
The relation between the mass of a particle m and (iv) Magnetic energy
its equivalent energy is given as (v) Nuclear energy
E mc2 where c = velocity of light in vacuum. (vi) Sound energy
If m 1 amu 1.67 1027 kg (vii) Light energy
10 (viii) Heat energy
then E 931MeV 1.5 10 Joule .
(6) Transformation of energy : Conversion of
If m 1kg then E 9 1016 Joule energy from one form to another is possible through
Examples : (i) Annihilation of matter when an various devices and processes.
electron (e ) and a positron (e ) combine with each
Table : 6.1 Various devices for energy conversion from one form to another

Mechanical electrical Light Electrical Chemical electrical

Light Cathod
N S Anode
+ e

Dynamo Photoelectric A Primary

cell cell
+

Chemical heat Sound Electrical Heat electrical

 258 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

Fe

Hot Cold
Coal
Burning Microphone Thermo-couple G Cu

Heat Mechanical Electrical Mechanical Electrical Heat

Engine Motor Heater

Electrical Sound Electrical Chemical Electrical Light

Anod Catho
e+ de

Speaker Voltameter Bulb

Electrolyt
e
Kinetic Energy s = Distance travelled by the body,

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its v = Final velocity of the body
motion, is called kinetic energy. From v2 u2 2as
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic
energy which is used to run the water mills. v2
v2 0 2as s
2a
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.
Since the displacement of the body is in the
(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic energy
direction of the applied force, then work done by the
which is used to run wind mills.
force is
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which is
used to drive the nails in wood. W F s ma
v2
2a
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy
and due to this energy the bullet penetrates into a 1
target.
W mv2
2
v
u= This work done appears as the kinetic energy of
0
F 1
the body KE W mv2
2
s (2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at
Fig. 6.17 rest and force F is applied on the body to displace it
(1) Expression for kinetic energy :
through small displacement ds along its own direction
Let m = mass of the body, then small work done
u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0) dW F .ds F ds
F = Force acting on the body,
dW ma ds [As F =
a = Acceleration of the body, ma]
 Electrostatics 259
dv dv 1
dW m ds Asa dt W m[v2 u2 ]
dt 2
Work done = change in kinetic energy
ds
dW mdv.
dt W E
dW mv dv This is work energy theorem, it states that work
(i) done by a force acting on a body is equal to the change
in the kinetic energy of the body.
ds
As dt v This theorem is valid for a system in presence of
all types of forces (external or internal, conservative or
Therefore work done on the body in order to non-conservative).
increase its velocity from zero to v is given by If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is
v positive i.e. body moves in the direction of the force (or
v v v2 1 field) and if kinetic energy decreases, work will be
W 0 mvdv m0 v dv m mv2
2 0 2 negative and object will move opposite to the force (or
field).
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of
Examples : (i) In case of vertical motion of body
1 2 under gravity when the body is projected up, force of
the body KE mv .
2 gravity is opposite to motion and so kinetic energy of
the body decreases and when it falls down, force of
1 gravity is in the direction of motion so kinetic energy
In vector form KE m(v .v )
2 increases.

As m and v .v are always positive, kinetic energy (ii) When a body moves on a rough horizontal
surface, as force of friction acts opposite to motion,
is always positive scalar i.e. kinetic energy can never be
kinetic energy will decrease and the decrease in kinetic
negative.
energy is equal to the work done against friction.
(3) Kinetic energy depends on frame of
(6) Relation of kinetic energy with linear
reference : The kinetic energy of a person of mass m,
momentum: As we know
sitting in a train moving with speed v, is zero in the
1 1 1P
frame of train but mv2 in the frame of the earth. E mv2 v2 [As P mv]
2 2 2v
(4) Kinetic energy according to relativity : As 1
E Pv
1 2 2
we know E mv .
2
P2
But this formula is valid only for (v << c) If v is or E
2m
comparable to c (speed of light in free space =
3 108 m/ s ) then according to Einstein theory of P
As v m
relativity

mc2 So we can say that kinetic energy

E mc2 2
1 (v2 / c 2 ) 1 1 p
E mv2 Pv
2 2 2m
(5) Work-energy theorem: From equation (i)
dW mvdv . 2E
and Momentum P 2mE
v
Work done on the body in order to increase its
velocity from u to v is given by From above relation it is clear that a body can not
v
have kinetic energy without having momentum and vice-
v v v2 versa.
W u mvdv mu v dv m
2
u

(7) Various graphs of kinetic energy

E E

v v
 260 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
E v2 E P2
m = constant m = constant

E
1 P E
E
E m m = constant
P = constant
P

m
Stopping of Vehicle by Retarding Force The ratio of their stopping distances

If a vehicle moves with some initial velocity and due x1 E1 m1v12

to some retarding force it stops after covering some

x2 E 2 m2v22
distance after some time.
(1) Stopping distance : Let m = Mass of t1 P1 m1v1
vehicle, and the ratio of their stopping time
t2 P2 m2v2
v = Velocity, P = Momentum, E = Kinetic energy
(i) If vehicles possess same velocities
F = Stopping force, x = Stopping distance,
v1 = v2
t = Stopping time
x1 m1 t1 m1
Then, in this process stopping force does work on ;
the vehicle and destroy the motion. x2 m2 t2 m2
By the work- energy theorem (ii) If vehicle possess same kinetic momentum
1 P1 = P2
W K mv2
2
Initial velocity = v Final velocity = x1 E1 P12 2m2 m2

0
x2 E2 2m1 P22 m1
t1 P1
x 1
Fig. 6.18
t2 P2
Stopping force (F) Distance (x) = Kinetic (iii) If vehicle possess same kinetic energy
energy (E) x1 E1
1
Kineticenergy(E) x2 E 2
Stopping distance (x)
Stoppingforce(F )
t1 P1 2m1E1 m1
mv2
x (i) t2 P2 2m2E2 m2
2F
(2) Stopping time : By the impulse-momentum Note : If vehicle is stopped by friction
theorem then
F t P F t P
1 1
P
mv2 mv2 v2
Stopping distance 2 2
t x 2g
F F ma
mv
or t (ii)
F [As a g]
(3) Comparison of stopping distance and mv mv v
time for two vehicles : Two vehicles of masses m1 and Stopping time t
F m g g
m2 are moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively.
When they are stopped by the same retarding force (F). Potential Energy
 Electrostatics 261
Potential energy is defined only for conservative U
forces. In the space occupied by conservative forces Partial
x
every point is associated with certain energy which is U(x)
derivative of U w.r.t. x
called the energy of position or potential energy. Potential D
(keeping y and z constant) C
energy generally are of three types : Elastic potential A
energy, Electric potential energy and Gravitational U
Partial
potential energy. y
derivative of U w.r.t. y B
(1) Change in potential energy : Change in O
x
potential energy between any two points is defined in (keeping x and z constant) Fig. 6.19
the terms of the work done by the associated U
conservative force in displacing the particle between
Partial derivative
z
these two points without any change in kinetic energy. of U w.r.t. z (keeping x and y constant)
r2
(3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted
U 2 U1 r F . dr W (i)
between the potential energy of a particle and its
1
displacement from the centre of force is called potential
We can define a unique value of potential energy
energy curve.
only by assigning some arbitrary value to a fixed point
Figure shows a graph of potential energy function
called the reference point. Whenever and wherever
U(x) for one dimensional motion.
possible, we take the reference point at infinity and
As we know that negative gradient of the potential
assume potential energy to be zero there, i.e. if we take
energy gives force.
r1 and r2 r then from equation (i)
dU
F
r
U F . dr W dx
(4) Nature of force
In case of conservative force (field) potential (i) Attractive force :
energy is equal to negative of work done by On increasing x, if U increases,
conservative force in shifting the body from reference dU
position to given position. positive, then F is in negative direction
dx
This is why, in shifting a particle in a conservative i.e. force is attractive in nature.
field (say gravitational or electric), if the particle moves In graph this is represented in region BC.
opposite to the field, work done by the field will be (ii) Repulsive force :
negative and so change in potential energy will be On increasing x, if U decreases,
positive i.e. potential energy will increase. When the
dU
particle moves in the direction of field, work will be negative
, then F is in positive direction
positive and change in potential energy will be negative dx
i.e. potential energy will decrease. i.e. force is repulsive in nature.
(2) Three dimensional formula for potential In graph this is represented in region AB.
(iii) Zero force :
energy: For only conservative fields F equals the
On increasing x, if U does not change,
negative gradient () of the potential energy.
dU
So F U ( read as Del operator or 0 then F is zero
dx

Nabla operator and i j k) i.e. no force works on the particle.
x y z
Point B, C and D represents the point of zero force
U U U or these points can be termed as position of equilibrium.
F i j k
x y z (5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a
particle is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium.
where,
dU
For equilibrium 0 , but the equilibrium of particle
dx
can be of three types :

Stable Unstable Neutral

When a particle is displaced
slightly from its present position,
then a force acting on it brings it
back to the initial position, it is
said to be in stable equilibrium
When a particle is displaced
slightly from its present position,
then a force acting on it tries to
displace the particle further away
from the equilibrium position, it is
When a particle is slightly displaced
from its position then it does not
experience any force acting on it and
continues to be in equilibrium in the
displaced position, it is said to be in
 262 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
position. said to be in unstable equilibrium. neutral equilibrium.
Potential energy is minimum. Potential energy is maximum. Potential energy is constant.
dU dU dU
F 0 F 0 F 0
dx dx dx

d2U d2U d2U

positive negative 0
dx2 dx2 dx2
dU dU dU
i.e. rate of change of is i.e. rate of change of is i.e. rate of change of is zero.
dx dx dx
positive. negative.
Example : Example : Example :

A marble placed at the bottom of A marble balanced on top of a A marble placed on horizontal table.
a hemispherical bowl. hemispherical bowl.

Elastic Potential Energy force is more, then spring is said to be more stiff and
vice-versa.
(1) Restoring force and spring constant : When
a spring is stretched or compressed from its normal Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of
position (x = 0) by a small distance x, then a restoring the spring.
force is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal F
position. Dimension : As k
x
According to Hookes law this restoring force is
2
proportional to the displacement x and its direction is [F ] [MLT ]
[k] [MT 2 ]
always opposite to the displacement. [x] L
Units : S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit
m Dyne/cm.

F
x=0 Note : Dimension of force constant is
similar to surface tension.
m Fext
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy :
+x When a spring is stretched or compressed from its
F normal position (x = 0), work has to be done by external
m Fext force against restoring force. F ext F restoring k x

x Let the spring is further stretched through the

Fig. 6.20 distance dx, then work done

i.e. F x dW F ext. d x Fext. dxcos0o kx dx

[As cos 0o = 1]
or F kx
(i) Therefore total work done to stretch the spring
through a distance x from its mean position is given by
where k is called spring constant.
x
If x = 1, F = k (Numerically) x x x2 1 2
W 0 dW 0 kxdx k kx
2 0 2
or k=F
Hence spring constant is numerically equal to This work done is stored as the potential energy in
force required to produce unit displacement the stretched spring.
(compression or extension) in the spring. If required
 Electrostatics 263
1 2 Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy U kx
2 1 2 1 F 2
U kx Fx
2 2 2k
1 F
U Fx As k x
2 Note : If spring is stretched from initial
position x1 to final position x2 then work done
F2 F
As x k
U = Increment in elastic potential energy
2k 1
k(x22 x12 )
2
Work done by the spring-force on the
block in various situation are shown in the following
table
Table : 6.2 Work done for spring
Initial state of the Final state of the Initial position (x1) Final position (x2) Work done (W)
spring spring

Natural Compressed 0 x 1/2 kx2

Natural Elongated 0 x 1/2 kx2

Elongated Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

Compressed Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

Elongated Compressed x x 0

Compressed Elongated x x 0

(3) Energy graph for a spring : If the mass This is maximum potential energy or the total
attached with spring performs simple harmonic motion energy of mass.
about its mean position then its potential energy at any
1 2
position (x) can be given by Total energy E ka (ii)
2
x=0
[Because velocity of mass is zero at extreme
m
position]
O 1
x=a K mv2 0 ]
2
m
Now kinetic energy at any position
A
1 1
x=+ K EU k a2 k x 2
a
m 2 2
1
B K k(a2 x 2 ) (iii)
Fig. 6.21
2
1 2 From the above formula we can check that
U kx (i)
2 1 2
U max ka [At extreme x = a]
So for the extreme position 2
1 2 and U min 0 [At mean x = 0]
U ka [As x = a for extreme]
2
Energy

1 2
K max ka [At mean x = 0]
2
E K min 0
and [At extreme x = a]
U
1 2
K E ka constant (at all positions)
A O B 2
x = a x=0 x = +a
Position
Fig. 6.22
 264 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
It means kinetic energy and potential energy height its kinetic energy becomes zero and potential
changes parabolically w.r.t. position but total energy energy maximum but through out the complete motion,
remain always constant irrespective to position of the total energy remains constant as shown in the figure.
mass
Electrical Potential Energy
It is the energy associated with state of separation
between charged particles that interact via electric
force. For two point charge q1 and q2 , separated by
distance r.
Work Done in Pulling the Chain Against Gravity
1 q1q2
U . A chain of length L and mass M is held on a
4 0 r frictionless table with (1/n)th of its length hanging over
the edge.
While for a point charge q at a point in an electric
field where the potential is V M
Let m mass
L
U = qV L/n
per unit length of the chain
As charge can be positive or negative, electric potential and y is the length of the
energy can be positive or negative. chain hanging over the
edge. So the mass of the
Gravitational Potential Energy chain of length y will be Fig. 6.25
It is the usual form of potential energy and this is ym and the force acting on
the energy associated with the F12 F21 it due to gravity will be mgy.
m1 m2
state of separation between The work done in pulling the dy length of the chain
two bodies that interact via r on the table.
gravitational force.
Fig. 6.23 dW = F( dy) [As y is decreasing]
For two particles of i.e. dW = mgy ( dy)
masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r
So the work done in pulling the hanging portion on
G m1m2 the table.
Gravitational potential energy U
r 0 y2
0
mgL2
(1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to
W L /n
mgydy mg
2 L / n

2n2
surface of earth then
MgL
W [As m = M/L]
mgh 2n2
U
Gravitational potential energy h
1 Alternative method :
R
If point mass m is
Where R = radius of earth, g = acceleration due to pulled through a height h
gravity at the surface of the earth. then work done W = L/2n
mgh
(2) If h << R then above formula reduces to U = Centre of
mgh. Similarly for a chain mass
we can consider its
(3) If V is the gravitational potential at a point, the centre of mass at the Fig. 6.26
potential energy of a particle of mass m at that point middle point of the
will be hanging part i.e. at a height of L/(2n) from the lower end
U = mV M
and mass of the hanging part of chain
(4) Energy height graph : When a body projected n
vertically upward from the ground level with some initial So work done to raise the centre of mass of the
velocity then it possess kinetic energy but its initial chain on the table is given by
potential energy is zero.
M L
As the body moves upward its potential energy W g [As W = mgh]
n 2n
Energy

increases due to increase in height but kinetic energy

decreases (due to decrease in velocity). At maximum
E

Height
Fig. 6.24
 Electrostatics 265
MgL i.e. if the kinetic energy of the body increases its
or W potential energy will decrease by an equal amount and
2n2 vice-versa.
Velocity of Chain While Leaving the Table (2) Law of conservation of total energy : If
some non-conservative force like friction is also acting
on the particle, the mechanical energy is no more
(L/n) constant. It changes by the amount equal to work done
by the frictional force.
L
(K U) E Wf

[where Wf is the work done against

friction]
Fig. 6.27 The lost energy is transformed into heat and the heat
Taking surface of table as a reference level (zero energy developed is exactly equal to loss in mechanical
potential energy) energy.
Potential energy of chain when 1/nth length We can, therefore, write E + Q = 0
[where Q is the heat produced]
MgL
hanging from the edge This shows that if the forces are conservative and
2n2 non-conservative both, it is not the mechanical energy
Potential energy of chain when it leaves the table which is conserved, but it is the total energy, may be
MgL heat, light, sound or mechanical etc., which is
conserved.
2
In other words : Energy may be transformed from
Kinetic energy of chain = loss in potential energy
one kind to another but it cannot be created or
1 MgL MgL destroyed. The total energy in an isolated system
Mv2
2 2 2n2 remain constant". This is the law of conservation of
energy.
1 MgL 1
Mv2 1 2 Power
2 2 n
Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the
1 body can do the work.
Velocity of chain v gL 1 2
n W W
Average power (Pav.)
Law of Conservation of Energy t t


(1) Law of conservation of energy dW F . ds
Instantaneous power (Pinst.)
For a body or an isolated system by work-energy dt dt

[As dW F . ds ]
theorem we have K 2 K 1 F. dr
ds
(i) Pinst F .v [As v ]
But according to definition of potential energy in a
dt
i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force
conservative field U 2 U 1 F . dr (ii) with velocity.

So from equation (i) and (ii) we have Important Points

K 2 K 1 (U 2 U 1 ) (1) Dimension :
2 1
[P ] [F ][v] [MLT ][LT ]
or K 2 U 2 K 1 U 1
i.e. K + U = constant. [P ] [ML2T 3 ]
For an isolated system or body in presence of
(2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
conservative forces, the sum of kinetic and potential
energies at any point remains constant throughout the Erg/sec [C.G.S.]
motion. It does not depend upon time. This is known as Practical units : Kilowatt (KW), Mega watt (MW)
the law of conservation of mechanical energy. and Horse power (hp)
(K U) E 0 Relations between different units :
[As E is constant in a conservative field] 1Watt 1 Joule / sec 107 erg/ sec
K U 0
1hp 746Watt
 266 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
1 MW 106 Watt 2Pt
1/ 2

1KW 103 Watt

i.e.
ds

m
dt

By integrating both sides we get

(3) If work done by the two bodies is same then 1/ 2
2P 2 3/ 2
1 s . t C2
power m 3
time
Now as at t = 0, s = 0, so C 2 0
i.e. the body which perform the given work in
1/ 2
lesser time possess more power and vice-versa. 8P
s t3 / 2
(4) As power = work/time, any unit of power 9m
multiplied by a unit of time gives unit of work (or Collision
energy) and not power, i.e. Kilowatt-hour or watt-day
are units of work or energy. Collision is an isolated event in which a strong
force acts between two or more bodies for a short time
as a result of which the energy and momentum of the
J interacting particle change.
1 KWh 103 (60 60sec) 3.6 106 Joule
sec In collision particles may or may not come in real
touch e.g. in collision between two billiard balls or a ball
(5) The slope of work time curve gives the and bat, there is physical contact while in collision of
instantaneous power. As P = dW/dt = tan alpha particle by a nucleus (i.e. Rutherford scattering
experiment) there is no physical contact.
(1) Stages of collision : There are three distinct
identifiable stages in collision, namely, before, during
and after. In the before and after stage the interaction
Work forces are zero. Between these two stages, the
interaction forces are very large and often the
dominating forces governing the motion of bodies. The
(6) Area under power-time curve gives the work magnitude of the interacting force is often unknown,
therefore, Newtons second law cannot be used, the law
dW of conservation of momentum is useful in relating the
done as P Time
dt initial and final velocities.
Fig. 6.28
F
W
P dt
W = Area under P-t curve
u1 u2 v1 v2
Position and Velocity of an Automobile w.r.t Time m1 m2 m1 m2
mmmm
1 1 2 2
An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting Fext
from rest, while the engine supplies constant power P, t
t
its position and velocity changes w.r.t time. Before collision During collision After collision
(1) Velocity : As Fv = P = constant
Fig. 6.29
dv mdv
i.e. m v P As F dt (2) Momentum and energy conservation in
dt collision
P (i) Momentum conservation : In a collision, the
or
vdv m
dt effect of external forces such as gravity or friction are
not taken into account as due to small duration of
v2 P collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for
By integrating both sides we get t C1 collision is much larger than external force acting on the
2 m
system and since this impulsive force is 'Internal'
As initially the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0, so
therefore the total momentum of system always
C1 0 remains conserved.
1/ 2 (ii) Energy conservation : In a collision 'total
2Pt
v energy' is also always conserved. Here total energy
m includes all forms of energy such as mechanical energy,
(2) Position : From the above expression internal energy, excitation energy, radiant energy or
1/ 2 even mass energy.
2Pt
v These laws are the fundamental laws of physics
m
and applicable for any type of collision but this is not
1/ 2
ds 2Pt ds true for conservation of kinetic energy.
or As v dt (3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of
dt m
conservation of kinetic energy.
 Electrostatics 267

Perfectly elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collision

If in a collision, kinetic energy after
collision is equal to kinetic energy
before collision, the collision is said to
be perfectly elastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1
(KE)final = (KE)initial
Examples : (1) Collision between
atomic particles
(2) Bouncing of ball with same velocity
after the collision with earth.
(ii) On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies
Head on or one dimensional collision
In a collision if the motion of colliding particles before and
after the collision is along the same line, the collision is
said to be head on or one dimensional.
Impact parameter b is zero for this type of collision.
If in a collision kinetic energy after If in a collision two bodies stick
collision is not equal to kinetic together or move with same
energy before collision, the velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to inelastic. collision is said to be perfectly
inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1 Coefficient of restitution e = 0
Here kinetic energy appears in other The term 'perfectly inelastic' does
forms. In some cases (KE)final < not necessarily mean that all the
(KE)initial such as when initial KE is initial kinetic energy is lost, it
converted into internal energy of implies that the loss in kinetic
the product (as heat, elastic or energy is as large as it can be.
excitation) while in other cases (Consistent with momentum
(KE)final > (KE)initial such as when conservation).
internal energy stored in the
colliding particles is released
Examples : (1) Collision between Example : Collision between a
two billiard balls. bullet and a block of wood into
(2) Collision between two which it is fired. When the bullet
automobile on a road. remains embedded in the block.
In fact all majority of collision
belong to this category.
Oblique collision
If two particle collision is glancing i.e. such that their
directions of motion after collision are not along the
initial line of motion, the collision is called oblique.
If in oblique collision the particles before and after
collision are in same plane, the collision is called 2-
dimensional otherwise 3-dimensional.
Impact parameter b lies between 0 and (r1 r2)
i.e.

0 < b < (r1 r2 ) where r1 and

v1 r2 are radii of

u1 u2 v1 v2 colliding bodies. m1
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1
m1 b
m2 u2
Before After collision
collision
Before After collision
collision m2
v2

Example : collision of two gliders on an air track. Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly elastic head on collision

Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving
According to law of conservation of momentum
with initial velocities u1 and u2 in the same direction
and they collide such that after collision their final m1u1 m2u2 m1v1 m2v2 (i)
velocities are v1 and v2 respectively.
m1(u1 v1 ) m2 (v2 u2 )
u1 u2 v1 v2 (ii)
m1 m2 m1 m2
According to law of conservation of kinetic energy
Before After collision
collision
Fig. 6.30
 268 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
1 1 1 1 For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
m1u12 m2u22 m1v12 m2v22
2 2 2 2 v2 v1 0 or v2 v1
(iii)
2 2 2 2
It means that two body stick together and move
m1(u1 v1 ) m2 (v2 u2 ) with same velocity.
(iv)
For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
Dividing equation (iv) by equation (ii)
v2 v1 e(u1 u2 )
v1 u1 v2 u2
(v) In short we can say that e is the degree of
elasticity of collision and it is dimensionless quantity.
u1 u2 v2 v1
Further from equation (v) we get
(vi)
Relative velocity of separation is equal to relative v2 v1 u1 u2
velocity of approach.
Substituting this value of v2 in equation (i) and
Note : The ratio of relative velocity of rearranging
separation and relative velocity of approach is defined
as coefficient of restitution. m m2 2m2u2
we get, v1 1 u1

v2 v1 m1 m2 m1 m2
e (vii)
u1 u2
Similarly we get,
or v2 v1 e(u1 u2 )
m m1 2m1u1
For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1 v2 2 u2

m1 m2 m1 m2
v2 v1 u1 u2 [As shown in eq. (vi)] (viii)

(1) Special cases of head on elastic collision

(i) If projectile and target are of same mass i.e. m1 = m2

m m2 2m2 m m1 2m1u1
Since v1 1 u1
u2 and v2 2 u2

m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

Substituting m1 m2 we get

v1 u2 and v2 u1
It means when two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision, their velocities get
interchanged. Before After collision
collision
Example : Collision of two billiard balls Sub case : u2 0 i.e. target is at rest
10 10 10 10
kg kg kg kg v1 0 and v2 u1
u1 = u2 = v1 = 20 v2 = 50 m/s
50m/s 20m/s m/s

(ii) If massive projectile collides with a light target i.e. m1 >> m2

m m2 2m2u2 m m1 2m1u1
Since v1 1 u1
and v2 2 u2

m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
Substituting m2 0 , we get
v1 u1 and v2 2u1 u2
Example : Collision of a truck with a cyclist
u1 = 120 km/hr
3
m1 = 10 m2 = 60
kg v1 = 120 km/hr u2 = 10
kg
km/hr
v2 = 230 km/hr Sub case : u2 0 i.e. target is at rest

v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1
 Electrostatics 269

Before collision

After collision
(iii) If light projectile collides with a very heavy target i.e. m1 << m2
m m2 2m2u2 m m1 2m1u1
Since v1 1 u1
and v2 2 u2

m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
Substituting m1 0 , we get
v1 u1 2u2 and v2 u2
Example : Collision of a ball with a massive wall.
Sub case : i.e. target is at rest
u2 = 2 m/s v2 = 2 m/s v1 = u1 and v2 = 0
u1 = 30 m/s v1 = 26 m/s i.e. the ball rebounds with same speed in
opposite direction when it collide with
m1 = 50gm stationary and very massive wall.

m2 = 100
Before collision kg After collision

(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on 1

elastic collision m (u2 v12 ) 2
K 2 1 1 v1
1
Kinetic energy of projectile before collision K 1
m1u12 u1
1 2
Ki m1u12 (i)
2
Kinetic energy of projectile after collision We can substitute the value of v1 from the
equation
1
Kf m1v12
2 m m2 2m2u2
v1 1 u1

Kinetic energy transferred from projectile to target m1 m2 m1 m2
K = decrease in kinetic energy in projectile
If the target is at rest i.e. u2 = 0 then
1 1
K m1u12 m1v12
2 2 m m2
v1 1 u1

1
m1 (u12 v12 )
m1 m2
2
2
K m m2
Fractional decrease in kinetic energy From equation (i) 1 1

(ii)
K m1 m2
 270 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

K 4m1m2 m m1 2m1u1
or (iii) v2 2 u2
K (m1 m2 )2
m1 m2 m1 m2

K 4m1m2
or (iv) u1 u2=0 v1 v2
K (m1 m2 )2 4m1m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

Note : Greater the difference in Before

collision
After collision

masses, lesser will be transfer of kinetic Fig. 6.31

energy and vice versa

Transfer of kinetic energy will be 2m1u1

v2
maximum when the difference in masses is minimum m1 m2
i.e. m1 m2 0 or m1 m2 then
2u1
K As u2 0 and
1 100% 1 m2 / m1
K
So the transfer of kinetic energy in head on m2
Assuming n
elastic collision (when target is at rest) is maximum m1
when the masses of particles are equal i.e. mass ratio is
1 and the transfer of kinetic energy is 100%. 2u1
v2
If m2 n m1 then from equation (iii) we 1 n

K 4n 2nm1u1
get (ii) Momentum of target : P2 m2v2
K (1 n)2 1 n
Kinetic energy retained by the projectile

K 2u1
1 kinetic energy transferred by As m2 m1n andv2 1 n
K Retained
projectile
2m1u1
P2
K m m 2 1 (1 / n)
1 1 1 2


K Retained m1 m2
(iii) Kinetic energy of target :

2 1 1 2u1
2
2 m1u12n
m m2 K2 m2v22 nm1
1
2 2 1 n (1 n)2
m1 m2

(3) Velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of 4(K 1 )n 1 2

2 As K 1 2 m1u1
stationary target after head on elastic collision (1 n) 4n
(i) Velocity of target : We know
(iv) Relation between masses for maximum
velocity, momentum and kinetic energy

Velocity For v2 to be maximum n must be minimum

2u1 Target should be
v2 m very light.
1 n i.e. n 2 0 m2 m1
m1
 Electrostatics 271
Momentum For P2 to be maximum, (1/n) must be minimum
or n must be maximum. Target should be
2m1u1
P2 massive.
(1 1/ n) m2
i.e. n m2 m1
m1
Kinetic energy For K 2 to be maximum (1 n)2 must be
4K 1 n minimum. Target and projectile
K2 2
should be of equal
(1 n) 4n m mass.
i.e. 1 n 0 n 1 2 m2 m1
m1

Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision ) 0

Using (vi) and (vii) we get cos(
Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.
/2
By law of conservation of momentum
i.e. after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two bodies
v1
of equal masses (if the second body is at rest), the
m1 scattering angle would be 90o .
u1
m1
u2 Head on Inelastic Collision
m2
(1) Velocity after collision : Let two bodies A
Before After collision
m2 and B collide inelastically and coefficient of restitution is
collision v2
e.
Fig. 6.32
Where
Along x-axis,
m1u1 m2u2 m1v1 cos m2v2 cos ...(i)
v2 v1 Relativevelocityof separation
e
u1 u2 Relativevelocityof approach
Along y-axis, 0 m1v1 sin m2v2 sin ...
v2 v1 e(u1 u2 )
(ii)

By law of conservation of kinetic energy v2 v1 e(u1 u2 ) (i)

1 1 1 1 From the law of conservation of linear momentum

m1u12 m2u22 m1v12 m2v22
2 2 2 2 m1u1 m2u2 m1v1 m2v2 (ii)
...(iii)
By solving (i) and (ii) we get
In case of oblique collision it becomes difficult to
m em2 (1 e)m2
solve problem unless some experimental data is v1 1 u1
m m u2

provided, as in these situations more unknown variables m
1 m 2 1 2
are involved than equations formed.
(1 e)m1 m2 e m1
Special condition : If m1 m2 and u2 0 Similarly v2 u1 u2

substituting these values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we m1 m2 m1 m2
get By substituting e = 1, we get the value of v1 and
u1 v1 cos v2 cos ... v2 for perfectly elastic head on collision.
(iv) (2) Ratio of velocities after inelastic
collision : A sphere of mass m moving with velocity u
0 v1 sin v2 sin ...(v)
hits inelastically with another stationary sphere of same
mass.
and u12 v12 v22 (vi)
u1 = u u2 = v1 v2
Squaring (iv) and (v) and adding we get m m 0 m m

u12 v12 v22 2v1v2 cos( ) (vii) Before After collision

collision
Fig. 6.33
 272 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
v1 e v0 e 2gh0
v2 v1 v2 v1
e velocityaftercollision
u1 u2 u 0 Ase
velocitybeforecollision
v2 v1 eu
v12
(i) (1) First height of rebound : h1 e2h0
2g
By conservation of momentum :
Momentum before collision = Momentum after h1 = e2h0
collision (2) Height of the ball after nth rebound :
Obviously, the velocity of ball after nth rebound will be
mu mv1 mv2
vn env0
v1 v2 u (ii)
Therefore the height after nth rebound will be
u vn2
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get v1 (1 e) hn e2nh0
2 2g
u hn e2nh0
and v2 (1 e)
2
(3) Total distance travelled by the ball before
v1 1 e it stops bouncing
H h0 2h1 2h2 2h3 ...
v2 1 e
(3) Loss in kinetic energy h0 2e2h0 2e4h0 2e6h0 ...

Loss in K.E. (K) = Total initial kinetic energy H h0 [1 2e2 (1 e2 e4 e6 ....)]

Total final kinetic energy 1
h0 1 2e2
1 1 1 1 1 e2
= m1u12 m2u22 m1v12 m2v22
2 2 2 2 2 4 1
As 1 e e ....
Substituting the value of v1 and v2 from the 1 e2
above expressions 1 e2
H h0 2
1 m1m2 1 e
Loss (K) = (1 e2)(u1 u2)2
2 m1 m2 (4) Total time taken by the ball to stop
bouncing
By substituting e = 1 we get K = 0 i.e. for T t0 2t1 2t2 2t3 ..
perfectly elastic collision, loss of kinetic energy will be
zero or kinetic energy remains same before and after 2h0 2h1 2h2
2 2 ..
the collision. g g g
Rebounding of Ball After Collision With Ground 2h0
[1 2e 2e2 ......] [As h1 e2h0 ;
If a ball is dropped from a height h on a horizontal g
floor, then it strikes with the floor with a speed.
h2 e4 h0 ]
v0 2gh0 [From v2 u2 2gh]
2h0
and it rebounds from the floor with a speed [1 2e(1 e e2 e3 ......)]
g

2h0 1 2h0 1 e
1 2e
h0
h1 h2
g 1 e g 1 e
v0 v1 v2
1 e 2h0
t0 t1 t2 T
Fig. 6.34 1 e g
 Electrostatics 273
Perfectly Inelastic Collision 1 m1m2
(u1 u2)2
In such types of collisions, the bodies move 2 m1 m2
independently before collision but after collision as a one
single body. Collision Between Bullet and Vertically
(1) When the colliding bodies are moving in Suspended Block
the same direction A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with
By the law of conservation of momentum velocity u in block of mass M suspended by vertical
m1u1 m2u2 (m1 m2 )vcomb thread.
After the collision bullet gets embedded in block.
m1u1 m2u2 Let the combined system raised upto height h and the
vcomb
m1 m2 string makes an angle with the vertical.

u1 u2 vcomb (1) Velocity of system

m1 m2 m1 m2
Let v be the velocity of the system (block + bullet)
just after the collision.
Before After collision
collision
Fig. 6.35
L
Loss in kinetic energy Lh

1 1 1
K m1u12 m2u22 (m1 m2 )vcomb
2
M
2 2 2 m u h
M
1 m1m2
K (u1 u2 )2 Fig. 3.37
2 m1 m2

Momentumbullet + Momentumblock = Momentumbullet and
[By substituting the value of block system
vcomb]
mu 0 (m M )v
(2) When the colliding bodies are moving in
the opposite direction mu
v (i)
By the law of conservation of momentum (m M )
m1u1 m2 (u2 ) (m1 m2 )vcomb (2) Velocity of bullet : Due to energy which
remains in the bullet-block system, just after the
(Taking left to right as positive)
collision, the system (bullet + block) rises upto height h.
m1u1 m2u2 By the conservation of mechanical energy
vcomb
m1 m2 1
(m M )v2 (m M )gh v 2gh
u1 u2 2
m1 m2
Now substituting this value in the equation (i) we
Before mu
collision get 2gh
Fig. 3.36 m M

when m1u1 m2u2 then vcomb 0 (positive) (m M ) 2gh

u
i.e. the combined body will move along the m
direction of motion of mass m1 . (3) Loss in kinetic energy : We know that the
formula for loss of kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic
when m1u1 m2u2 then vcomb 0 (negative) collision
i.e. the combined body will move in a direction 1 m1m2
opposite to the motion of mass m1 . K (u1 u2)2 (When the
2 m1 m2
(3) Loss in kinetic energy bodies are moving in same direction.)
K = Initial kinetic energy Final kinetic energy 1 mM 2
K u
1 1 1 2 m M
m1u12 m2u22 (m1 m2 )vcomb
2

2 2 2
 274 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
[As u1 u , u2 0 , m1 m and W E .
m2 M ] Work energy theorem is particularly useful in
calculation of minimum stopping force or minimum
(4) Angle of string from the vertical stopping distance. If a body is brought to a halt, the
From the expression of velocity of bullet work done to do so is equal to the kinetic energy lost.
(m M ) 2gh 2 Potential energy of a system increases when a
u2 m
u we can get h conservative force does work on it.
m 2g m M
The kinetic energy of a body is always positive.
Lh h When the momentum of a body increases by a
From the figure cos 1 factor n, then its kinetic energy is increased by factor
L L
n2.
2
u2 m If the speed of a vehicle is made n times, then its
1
2gL m M stopping distance becomes n2 times.
The total energy (including mass energy) of the
1 mu
2

or
1
cos 1
2gL m M
The area under the force-displacement graph is
equal to the work done.
Work done by gravitation or electric force does
not depend on the path followed. It depends on the
initial and final positions of the body. Such forces are
called conservative. When a body returns to the
starting point under the action of conservative force,
the net work done is zero that is dW 0 .
Work done against friction depends on the path
followed. Viscosity and friction are not conservative
forces. For non conservative forces, the work done on
a closed path is not zero. That is dW 0 .
Work done is path independent only for a
conservative field.
Work done depends on the frame of reference.
Work done by a centripetal force is always zero.
Energy is a promise of work to be done in future.
It is the stored ability to do work.
Energy of a body is equal to the work done by the
body and it has nothing to do with the time taken to
perform the work. On the other hand, the power of
the body depends on the time in which the work is
done.
When work is done on a body, its kinetic or
potential energy increases.
When the work is done by the body, its potential
or kinetic energy decreases.
According to the work energy theorem, the work
done is equal to the change in energy. That is
universe remains constant.
One form of energy can be changed into other
form according to the law of conservation of energy.
That is amount of energy lost of one form should be
equal to energy or energies produced of other forms.
Kinetic energy can change into potential energy
and vice versa.
When a body falls, potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy.
Pendulum oscillates due to conversion of kinetic
energy into potential energy and vice versa. Same is
true for the oscillations of mass attached to the
spring.
Conservation laws can be used to describe the
behaviour of a mechanical system even when the
exact nature of the forces involved is not known.
Although the exact nature of the nuclear forces is
not known, yet we can solve problems regarding the
nuclear forces with the help of the conservation laws.
Violation of the laws of conservation indicates
that the event cannot take place.
The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at
a height h above the surface of the earth (radius R) is
mgh
given by U . When h << R, we find
1 h/R
U=mgh.
1
Electrostatic energy in capacitor - U CV 2 ,
2
where C is capacitance, V = potential difference
between the plates.
Electric potential energy of a test charge q0 at a
place where electric potential is V, is given by :
UP=q0V.
Electric potential energy between two charges (q1
and q2) separated by a distance r is given by
1 q1q2
U . Here 0 is permittivity of vacuum
4 0 r

and 1 / 4 0 9 109 Nm 2C 2 .
Magnetic energy stored in an inductor
1 2
U LI , where L = inductance, I = current.
2 The collision is said to be elastic when the kinetic
Energy gained by a body of mass m, specific heat
C, when its temperature changes by is given by :
Q mC .
Electrostatics 275
The mutual forces between the colliding bodies
are action and reaction pair. In accordance with the
Newtons third law of motion, they are equal and
opposite to each other.
energy is conserved.
In the elastic collisions the forces involved are
conservative.

The Potential energy associated with a spring of In the elastic collisions, the kinetic or mechanical
constant k when extended or compressed by distance energy is not converted into any other form of energy.

1 2 Elastic collisions produce no sound or heat.

x is given by U kx . There is no difference between the elastic and
2
perfectly elastic collisions.
Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is
In the elastic collisions, the relative velocity
1 2 2 2 before collision is equal to the relative velocity after
given by : K m (a y ) where m = mass,
2 the collision. That is u1 u2 v2 v1 where u1 and
= angular frequency, a= amplitude, y =
displacement.
u2 are initial velocities and v 1 and

Potential energy of a particle executing SHM is v2 are the velocities of the colliding bodies after the
1 collision. This is called Newton's law of impact.
given by : U m 2 y2 .
2 The collision is said to be inelastic when the
kinetic energy is not conserved.
Total energy of a particle executing SHM is given
In the perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding
1
by : E K U m 2a2 . bodies stick together. That is the relative velocity of
2 the bodies after the collision is zero.
Energy density associated with a wave In an elastic collision of two equal masses, their
1 kinetic energies are exchanged.
2a2 where =density of medium, =
2 If a body of mass m moving with velocity v,
angular frequency, a = amplitude of the of the wave. collides elastically with a rigid wall, then the change
Energy associated with a photon : in the momentum of the body is 2mv.

E h hc / , where h = plancks constant, = v2 v1
e is called coefficient of restitution. Its
frequency of the light wave, c = velocity of light, = u1 u2
wave length. value is 1 for elastic collisions. It is less than 1 for
Mass and energy are interconvertible. That is inelastic collisions and zero for perfectly inelastic
mass can be converted into energy and energy can collision.
be converted into mass. During collision, velocity of the colliding bodies
A mass m (in kg) is equivalent to energy (in J) changes.
which is equal to mc2 where c = speed of light. Linear momentum is conserved in all types of
A stout spring has a large value of force constant, collisions.
while for a delicate spring, the value of spring Perfectly elastic collision is a rare physical
constant is low.
phenomenon.
The term energy is different from power. Whereas
Collisions between two ivory or steel or glass balls
energy refers to the capacity to perform the work,
are nearly elastic.
power determines the rate of performing the work.
Thus, in determining power, time taken to perform The force of interaction in an inelastic collision is
the work is significant but it is of no importance for non-conservative in nature.
measuring energy of a body. In inelastic collision, the kinetic energy is
Collision is the phenomenon in which two bodies converted into heat energy, sound energy, light
exert mutual force on each other. energy etc.
The collision generally occurs for very small In head on collisions, the colliding bodies move
interval of time. along the same straight line before and after collision.
Physical contact between the colliding bodies is Head on collisions are also called one dimensional
not essential for the collision. collisions.
 276 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
In the oblique collisions the colliding bodies move If the engine pulls down on the inclined plane
at certain angles before and/or after the collisions. then power of the engine is
The oblique collisions are two dimensional P ( cos sin )mgv .
collisions.
When a heavy body collides head-on elastically
with a lighter body, then the lighter body begins to
move with a velocity nearly double the velocity of
the heavier body.
When a light body collides with a heavy body, the
lighter body returns almost with the same speed.
If a light and a heavy body have equal momenta,
then lighter body has greater kinetic energy.
Suppose, a body is dropped form a height h0 and
it strikes the ground with velocity v0. After the
(inelastic) collision let it rise to a height h1. If v1 be the
velocity with which the body rebounds, then
1/ 2 1/ 2
v1 2gh1 h
e 1
v0 2gh0 h0
If after n collisions with the ground, the velocity is
vn and the height to which it rises be hn, then
1/ 2
n v h
e n n
v0 h0

P F . v F v cos where v is the velocity

of the body and is the angle between F and v .
Area under the F v graph is equal to the
power dissipated.
Power dissipated by a conservative force
(gravitation, electric force etc.) does not depend on
the path followed. It depends on the initial and final
positions of the body. That is dP 0 .

Power dissipated against friction depends on the

path followed. That is dP 0 .

Power is also measured in horse power (hp). It is

the fps unit of power. 1 hp = 746 W.
An engine pulls a train of mass m with constant
velocity. If the rails are on a plane surface and there is
no friction, the power dissipated by the engine is
zero.
In the above case if the coefficient of friction for
the rail is , the power of the engine is P mgv.
In the above case if the engine pulls on a smooth
track on an inclined plane (inclination ), then its
power P (mgsin ) v .
In the above case if the engine pulls upwards on a
rough inclined plane having coefficient of friction ,
then power of the engine is
P ( cos sin )mgv .