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TYPES OF DAM

Arch dams

Gordon Dam, Tasmania, is an arch dam. Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a multiple-arch


buttress dam.

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is
vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of
the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon
the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the
distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by
the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this
type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more
important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed
of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence
not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be
carefully inspected.

Gravity dams

The Grand Coulee Dam is an example of a solid gravity dam.

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity
pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to
overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's
weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer
ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that
is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam
acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam..
Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression
stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.
Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry.
The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical
to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity
dam.
Arch-gravity dams

The Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity dam.

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive
amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of
the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force
required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner
dams and saves resources.

Rock-fill dams

The Gathright Dam in Virginia is a rock-fill embankment dam.

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone.
The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles, hence the term "rock-fill". The
impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel
sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which
case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam
is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage
forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the
migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized
leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes.
However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the
embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential
can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate
compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California or
the Fierza Dam in Albania.
Steel dams

Red Ridge steel dam, built 1905, Michigan

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with around the start of the 20th century which uses
steel plating (at an angle) and load-bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures,
steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be
devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

Timber dams

A timber crib dam in Michigan, photographed in 1978

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to
ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of their relatively short lifespan
and the limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to
maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations
where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or
difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber
dams were once numerous, especially in the North American West, but most have failed, been hidden
under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of
timber dams were the crib and the plank.
Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the
interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of
the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logsdownstream in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries.
Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods
utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.
Cofferdams

A cofferdam during the construction of locks at the Montgomery Point Lock and Dam

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally
submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow
construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is
completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous
maintenance. (See also causeway and retaining wall.)
Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of offshore oil platforms. In such cases the
cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the
space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

TYPES OF MARINE AND WATER STRUCTURE

Piers in Marine Structures

Piers are built normal to the shore and extended from land along the edge of sea into the deep water
and either side of piers can be applied for berthing.

The length of the pier is determined based on the length of the largest ship that may utilize it, so the
length of the pier is either equal or longer than the ship length.

Not only does the structural considerations are considered while the width of the pier is specified but
also both geotechnical and functional considerations as well.

There are three kinds of piers including open pier, closed pier, and floating pier.

As far as open piers are concerned, they are either single or double deck structures which are sit on
piles and permit the flow of water under the structure.

Fig.2: Pier Structure


Fig.3: Single Deck Pier Structure Fig.4: Double Deck Pier Structure

Solid fill or closed piers consists of a structure such as quay wall, anchored sheet pile, or bulkhead which
support earth fill behind it, provides working area. It does not allow discharge of water under the
structure.

There is a specific type of solid fill pier called mole pier which is built and extended from land on the
edge of the sea into water. Concrete sheet pile or masonry is employed on either side of the structure to
support the material behind it.

Fig.5: Solid Pier Structure

Floating piers are either single or double deck structure which


is joined with to land through access ramp. Either chain
anchorage system or other appropriate means are employed
to avoid structural movement laterally and facilitate
movements vertically during water wave fluctuations.

Wharves in Marine Structures

These platforms are built nearly parallel to the land on the edge of sea and most wharves are not
connected completely to the shore. Bulkhead or quay walls are used to support fill materials or stones
behind the structure. Unlike pier, ships can be supported only at one side of the wharf.

Structural, geotechnical, and functional considerations are considered when the width of the wharf is
specified and wharf length depend on the length of ships which may use the structure. Solid fill (Figure-
11) and open (Figure-9 and Figure-10) platforms are the major types of wharves.

Wharf structures supported by piles may be built at specific distance away from the land on the edge of
sea if the water close to land is not adequately deep and ships with long draft cannot get close to the
structure without damages. This structure is connected to shore by trestles (Figure-12) fixed on piles.
Fig.8: Wharf Structure

Marine Railways

Marine railways facilitate the movement of ships or containers into the water and out of water. It consists
of ramps that reach to water body, hosting equipment, a mobile ship cradle on rollers, ground-way ship
cradle tracks, and cables for hauling ship cradle. Figure-18 illustrates various parts of railway platform.

Fig.17: Marine Railway

SEAWALL

The structure constructed parallel to shore line essentially to separate land area from water area.

Located inside the sea and along the line landward of which further erosion, that is recession of
shoreline, is to be stopped.

Built as water retaining wall along the sea.

Seawalls are constructed to resist encroachment by the sea

It is often incorporated into the construction of a promenade

Seawalls are constructed in various materials: masonry blocks, precast concrete, insitu concrete etc.
The design of the wall should: Minimise the effect of wave action Prevent the under-scouring of the
foundation

Concrete blocks with projecting reinforcement may be used in conjunction with an insitu backing.

DOCKS

Enclosed areas for berthing ships, to keep them afloat at a uniform level, to facilitate loading and
unloading cargo.

Shut off by entrances or locks to maintain a fairly uniform level of water, and basin are partially
enclosed areas of water, which are approached by open entrances and are subject to fluctuations of
levels, due to tidal variations.

Docks may be divided into two types:

1. Dry Docks

2. Wet Docks

A dry dock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained
to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform.

Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships, boats, and other watercraft.

The walls must be impermeable to retain the water at high tide level.

Locks are provided if entry to the dock is desired at times other than high tide.

The walls may be formed by sinking monoliths to a suitable depth and joining them together with insitu
concrete.

A space of 2 to 3 meters is left between the monoliths to facilitate jointing and finishing.

Alternatively, the walls may be constructed with deep diaphragms, decking being supported by cross-
wall diaphragm.
JETTIES

Jetties jut out into the sea, usually at right angles to the shore line, although T-shaped and L-shaped
jetties are not uncommon

They are open structures, usually of steel tubular or hexagonal piling with a heavy concrete deck

They may be used for offloading heavy cargoes, in which case the deck may require extra bracing to
the piles

Alternatively, the jetty may carry pipelines and light lifting gear which do not require heavy bracing

The jetty structure must be designed to withstand impact loads and bollard pulls from berthing ships
This is usually accommodated by raking pile construction and fendering, the latter to avoid holing the
ship

If the sea bed is a rock formation, the piling construction will not be economically produced by normal
driving methods ; holes up to 600 mm diameter may be bored into the sea bed and steel or concrete
piles grouted in

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