TELEPHONE

Historically the telephone network was

composed of a hierarchical structure
consisting of 5 different office types. The
most common of these is the class 5 end-
office. An end-office connects directly to
subscriber telephone sets and performs
switching functions over a relatively small
area. Telephone exchanges connect to
subscribers by means of local loops or lines,
generally one per customer. Telephone
offices connect to each other by means of
trunks.

A class 5 or end-office interconnects telephones throughout a small service area. Each end-
office may contain several three-digit exchange numbers and is aware of other local
exchange numbers held by other offices.

Calls between offices are routed over interoffice or tandem trunks. Long distance calls are
routed to toll offices via toll trunks. The average class 5 office serves approximately 41,000
subscribers, and covers 30 square km in an urban environment.

Some nodes may have no customers at all, and may be connected only to other nodes.
These inter-node or trunk connections are usually made by FDM or TDM transmission links.

EXCHANGE AREA NETWORK

An exchange network consists of local

and tandem exchanges connected by
trunks. A tandem office interconnects
class 5 offices by means of twisted pair,
coax, microwave, or fiber optic carriers.
Alternate routing paths between local
exchanges are provided if the direct
trunks are occupied.

An exchange area includes all of the

offices, which are aware of each other,
but do not involve long distance charges. In very large urban areas, there is an overlap
between exchange areas, which may also cross over area code boundaries.
LONG HAUL NETWORK

A long haul network consists of

exchanges interconnected by toll
offices. Toll offices keep track of long
distance charges and are typically
confined to national boundaries.
These trunks consist of high capacity
coax, microwave, or glass fiber.

Messages used to control the call

setup and takedown can be sent by
two basic methods. Traditionally,
inter-office messages are sent over
the same channel that will carry the voice path, but in newer systems, common channel
signaling is being employed. In this method, the offices have dedicated facilities, which are
used to send inter-office messages. There are some advantages to this, perhaps the notable
being the added degree of difficulty encountered if one wants to defraud the system. When
in-band signaling was used, it was possible for people to dial long distance calls without
being charged, if they created the tones used to disable the toll circuit.

INTEROFFICE SIGNALLING

Trunks are used to interconnect the various levels of telephone exchanges. It is necessary for
these links to exchange on a wide range of information including:

Call related signaling messages

Billing information
Routing and flow control signals
Maintenance test signals

There are two ways for telephone offices to communicate with each other and pass on
routing information. Information can be conveyed in the same channel that will be used to
convey the voice signal, or it may be completely disassociated with it.

CAS

Trunks are used to interconnect the various levels of telephone exchanges. It is necessary for
these links to exchange on a wide range of information including:

Call related signaling messages

Billing information
Routing and flow control signals
Maintenance test signals

There are two ways for telephone offices to communicate with each other and pass on
routing information. Information can be conveyed in the same channel that will be used to
convey the voice signal, or it may be completely disassociated with it.

CCIS

The CCIS (Common Channel Interoffice Signaling) approach has the signaling information
conveyed on a facility completely separated from the customers voice path. This allows for
a faster, more efficient control, however the reliability of the CCS network must be
considerably greater than that of the individual voice paths. The signaling channel may
follow the same route as the final connection path, or it may be completely disassociated
with it. STPs (Switch Transfer Point) are need in the network if the signaling path is
disassociated, thus effectively creating two networks: a speech network and a signaling
network overlay.

SS7

Virtually all calls requiring tandem or toll office routing are established and controlled by the
SS7 signaling network.

The SS7 signaling network is a packet switching facility comprised primarily of STPs (Signaling
Transfer Point) and SCPs (Service Control Point) connected to the PSTN SSP (Signal Switching
Point). STPs are deployed in pairs and are the brains of the system. They determine which
trunks and offices should be used in establishing inter-office connections.

The SCP is a database that keeps track of such things as: credit card authorization, virtual
network subscriber listings, 800 number conversion tables, billing, and other special services.

SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS

There are some components associated with telephone systems that deserve special
consideration.

LINE CARDS

Line cards are the single

most common
component in a
telephone office. It is a
very complex device
that contains a wide
range of technologies.

The (telephone) line interface is often referred to as a BORSCHT circuit.

This acronym describes the functional requirements of a standard telephone line interface.
The tip and ring leads of the telephone set are wired through some protection devices to the
line interface located in the peripheral module. This interface must perform the following
functions:
 B Battery feed
O Over voltage protection
R Ringing
S Supervision & Signaling
C Coding
H Hybrid
T Test

Many of these functions can be integrated into a single IC, often called a SLIC chip
(subscriber line interface chip). SLICs have been available for the PBX market for over a
decade. Recently however, they have also become available for the central office
environment as well.

B - Battery Feed

Most domestic appliances are powered from an electric utility grid. The notable exception
to this is the telephone. This is because the telephone should still operate in the event of a
power failure. Indeed, the telephone is vital in case of disaster or emergency.

The telephone office provides a nominal -48 volt dc feed to power the phone. This
magnitude is considered the maximum safe dc operating potential. It would not be in the
telephone companys best interest to provide a dc voltage, which could electrocute its
customers, or its own employees.

There are several ways to provide loop current, the simplest being a resistor in series with a
battery.

Another way to provide loop current is by an electronic current source.

Although this method is quite

complex, it has become
quite popular with the
advent of high voltage
bipolar technology. One of
the more difficult
requirements to meet is the
60-dB longitudinal line balance requirement. To achieve this, the impedance to ground on
each side of the loop, must match within 0.1%. This is easy to do with laser trimmed thick film
resistors, but a bit tricky with current sources.

A standard telephone requires a minimum of about 20 ma. This means that the maximum
possible loop resistance is about 2000 . In actual practice, the loop is generally limited to
1250 W. The maximum loop length is determined by the wire gauge.

O - Over-voltage Protection

The two major types of over-voltage that can occur are lightning strikes and power line
contact. In both cases, the circuit must either recover or fail-safe. Under no circumstances
can a surge be allowed to propagate further into the system, or create a fire.

Initial surge protection is provided at the MDF by gas tubes and/or carbon blocks, which arc
if the applied voltage exceeds a few hundred volts. Since these devices take a finite time to
respond, high-speed diodes are also used at the line circuit inputs.

R - Ringing

Ringing is often provided by means of a dedicated ringing generator that is connected onto
the loop by means of a relay. It is possible to generate ringing voltages at the line interface if
the current generators have a high enough voltage source available to them. Or alternately,
a switching converter with step up capability can be place on the interface.

In Canada, the ringing voltage is a nominal 86 Vrms at 20 Hz, with a 2 second on and 4
second off cycle. On rural party lines, ringing codes of long and short rings are sometimes
used.

In the U.S. there are a number of fully selective and semi-selective ringing methods used on
party lines. One employs different frequencies ranging from about 16 66 Hz. In such cases,
each telephone ringer is tuned to its own frequency. Other methods use positive and
negative battery voltages or apply ringing on either the tip or ring side of the line with
respect to ground.

S - Supervision & Signaling

The central office must supervise the loop in order to identify customer requests for service. A
request for service is initiated by going off-hook. This simply draws loop current from the CO.

Loop current at the far-end is monitored during ringing to enable the CO to disconnect the
ringing generator when the phone is answered. The office continues to monitor the loop
current at both ends of the connection throughout the call, to determine when the call is
terminated by hanging up.

Signaling is a way to inform the CO what the customer wants. The two basic signaling
methods used in customer loops are dial pulse and touch-tone. It is interesting to note that
preferred customer loop signaling method in analog exchanges is digital, while the preferred
method in digital exchanges is analog!
 MF Signaling Tones

Two tones are used to perform the signaling function

to eliminate the possibility that speech be interpreted
as a signal. At one time DTMF decoders were costly
and bulky devices located in a common equipment
bay, but today with the advent of LSI technology,
this function can be performed on a chip. An
example is the Mitel MT8865 DTMF filter, and MT8860
DTMF decoder.

Positions 11 to 14 are not presently being used.

C - Coding

Telecommunications signals are seldom linearly encoded, but rather are companded (a
combination of compression & expansion). This allows for a more uniform S/N ratio over the
entire range of signal sizes. Without companding, a 12 bit linear encoding scheme would be
needed to obtain the same S/N ratio at low volume levels. It also reduces the noise and
crosstalk levels at the receiver.

There are two principal international standards used to implement coding algorithms today:
A-law, which is used in Europe, and -law, which is used in North America. These both involve
8 kHz sampling, and 8 bit A/D & D/A conversion, thus resulting in 64 kbps digital bit streams.

H - Hybrid

A diplexer performs a bi-directional 2-wire to 4-wire

conversion. It allows two unidirectional electrical paths to
be combined into a single bi-directional one, and vice
versa. It is advantageous to separate transmit and
receive portions of the signal since it is easier to make
unidirectional amplifiers, filters, and logic devices.

One of the simplest ways to create an audio band hybrid

is to use a transformer hybrid.

T - Testing

In order to maintain a high degree of service (99.999%), the equipment must be capable of
detecting and repairing faults before the customer is even aware that there may be a
problem. As a result, a separate test buss and access relay is provided on a line interface.
Tests may be performed in a bridged mode or with the loop and line card disconnected
from each other.
INTERCOM

An intercom (intercommunication device), talkback or doorphone is a stand-alone voice

communications system for use within a building or small collection of buildings, functioning
independently of the public telephone network. Intercoms are generally mounted
permanently in buildings and vehicles. Intercoms can incorporate connections to public
address loudspeaker systems, walkie talkies, telephones, and to other intercom systems.
Some intercom systems incorporate control of devices such as signal lights and door latches.

PERMANENT SYSTEM

Traditional intercoms and public address systems are composed entirely of analogue
electronics components but many new features and interfacing options can be
accomplished with new intercom systems based on digital connections. Video signals can
be carried as well as voice. Digital intercom stations can be connected using Cat 5 cable
and can even use existing computer networks as a means of interfacing distant parties.

Many schools and office buildings now use audio / video systems to identify visitors trying to
gain access to a locked building, and can be interfaced with the building's access control
system.

Intercom systems can be found on many types of vehicles including trains, watercraft,
aircraft and armoured fighting vehicles.

PORTABLE SYSTEMS

Portable intercoms are commonly used by special event production crews and professional
sports teams. Performing arts venues such as theaters and concert halls often have a
combination of permanently mounted and portable intercom elements. Motorsports race
tracks often have both portable and permanent intercom stations mounted at critical points
around the racecourse for use by race officials and emergency medical technicians.

Basic intercom system terms

Master Station or Base Station These are units that can control the system, i.e., initiate
a call with any of the stations and make announcements over the whole system.
Sub-station Units that are capable of only initiating a call with a Master Station but
not capable of initiating calls with any other stations (sometimes called slave units).
Door Station Like sub-stations, these units are only capable of initiating a call to a
Master Station. They are typically weather-proof.
Intercom Station Full-featured remote unit that is capable of initiating and receiving
party-line conversation, individual conversation and signalling. May be rack-mounted,
wall-mounted or portable.
Wall Mount Station fixed-position intercom station with built-in loudspeaker. May
have flush-mounted microphone, hand-held push to talk microphone or telephone-
style handset.
 Belt Pack portable intercom station worn on the belt such as an interruptible
feedback (IFB) with an earpiece worn by talent.
Handset permanent or portable telephone-style connection to an intercom station.
Holds both an earpiece and a push to talk microphone.
Headset portable intercom connection from a belt pack to one or both ears via
headphones with integrated microphone on a boom arm. Connects to a belt pack.
Paging Signal An audible and/or visual alert at an intercom station, indicating that
someone at another station wants to initiate a conversation.
Power Supply Used to feed power to all units. Often incorporated into the design of
the base station.

CABLE TV

Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via

radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-
optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is
transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to
the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar
non-television services may also be provided through these cables.

The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community
Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in
areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous
terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to
individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming
was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.

DISTRIBUTION

In order to receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be
available on the local utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal
to the customer's building through a service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the
subscriber's building does not have a cable service drop, the cable company will install one.
The standard cable used in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm impedance, and connects
with a type F connector.

The cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building
exterior, and built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different
rooms to which televisions are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the
incoming cable with a small device called a splitter.

There
are two
standards for cable
television; older analog cable,
and newer digital cable which is
capable of carrying high definition
signals used by newer digital HDTV televisions. All
cable companies have upgraded to or are in process of upgrading to digital cable
infrastructures since it was first introduced in the late 1990s.[citation needed] To receive digital
cable, most television sets require a digital television adapter (set-top box or cable converter
box) supplied by the cable provider. A cable from the jack in the wall is attached to the
input of the box, and an output cable from the box is attached to the "Antenna In" or "RF In"
connector on the back of the television. Different converter boxes are required for newer
digital high definition televisions and older legacy analog televisions. The box must be
"activated" by a signal from the cable company before use.

A new distribution method that takes advantage of the low cost high quality DVB distribution
to residential areas, uses TV gateways to convert the DVB-C, DVB-C2 stream to IP for
distribution of TV over IP network in the home.

BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEM

Building Automation Systems (BAS) are centralized, interlinked, networks of hardware and
software, which monitor and control the environment in commercial, industrial, and
institutional facilities. While managing various building systems, the automation system
ensures the operational performance of the facility as well as the comfort and safety of
building occupants.

Typically, such control systems are installed in new buildings or as part of a renovation where
they replace an outdated control system.
Related Terms

You may hear any of the following terms to describe the control or automation of buildings:

Building Automation and Control Systems (BACS), Building Control System (BCS),
and/or Building Management System (BMS)same as Building Automation System or
the subject of this page.
ControlsThis term is appropriate in describing discrete devices that control particular
pieces of equipment or processes.
Direct Digital Control (DDC)describes the communication method used in modern
devices (hardware and software). Collectively, DDC products control various building
systems and form the automation system.
Energy Management System (EMS)generally understood to be the same as a
Building Automation System but may have special emphasis on energy
metering/monitoring
Energy Management and Control Systemwell, youre getting the idea.
Smart (Intelligent) Buildinga building equipped with a data-rich BAS.

What is Controlled?

Generally, building automation begins with control of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
(MEP) systems. For instance, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system is
almost always controlled, including control of its various pieces of equipment such as:

Chillers
Boilers
Air Handling Units (AHUs)
Roof-top Units (RTUs)
Fan Coil Units (FCUs)
Heat Pump Units (HPUs)
Variable Air Volume boxes (VAVs)
Lighting control is, likewise, low-hanging fruit for optimizing building performance.

Other systems that are often controlled and/or brought under a complete automation
system include:

Power monitoring
Security
Close circuit video (CCTV)
Card and keypad access
Fire alarm system
Elevators/escalators
Plumbing and water monitoring

Types of Building Automation and Control Systems

Early control systems were pneumatic or air-based and were generally restricted to
controlling various aspects of the HVAC system. Common pneumatic devices include
controllers, sensors, actuators, valves, positioners, and regulators. Due to their large base of
installation throughout the 1960s and 1970s, pneumatic control systems are still in place in a
majority of existing buildings, especially in established metropolitan areas.

Analog electronic control devices became popular throughout the 1980s. They provided
faster response and higher precision than pneumatics.

However, it was not until digital control or DDC devices came on the scene in the 1990s that
a true automation system was possible. However, as there were no established standards for
this digital communication, various manufacturers, created their own (proprietary)
communication methods.

The automation system was fully functional but was not interoperable or capable of mixing
products from various manufacturers. Thus, a given building or portfolio could be locked
into a specific manufacturer. This is not necessarily a problem unless the relationship with the
associated service provider is challenging.

By the late 1990s and especially into the 2000s, movements were afoot to standardize on
open communication systems. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) developed the BACnet communication protocol that
eventually became the industry open standard.

What Does a BAS Look Like?

Most of the automation system is behind the scenes as hardware devices mounted to
equipment or hidden underfloor or in the ceiling. Some personalized control can be made
available through thermostat-like devices. From a central management perspective, the BAS
resides as software on an operator workstation (computer) or is available as a web page.

Various types of controllers manage equipment and portions of the network. Sensors
provide input data to the controllers.
Here is a generalized view of a BAS:

ROBOTICS

A flexible communication suite should link sensing, actuation, and control units but it should
also be independent of specific tasks or missions. The same communication platform should
be used, for example, to interconnect nearby robotic assistants equally well as sensors and
actuators in a crew exploration vehicle. A common platform would be flexible, affordable,
and sustainable. An instantiation of such architecture is the Internet protocol suite, which is a
programmable and manageable communication substrate to which new applications and
software can be seamlessly added. The Internet forms a common architecture that leads to
shared interfaces and re-usable systems. However, the Internet was originally designed to
support bulk data transfer and remote log-in applications. Although its applicability has since
extended to new domains and applications, there is relatively less work that addresses the
Internet-enabled communication among sensors and actuators. For example, a networked
robot should exhibit real-time properties, such as stability and tracking, in spite of
communication vagaries (see [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] for examples in this direction). Exploration poses
special research, integration, and development challenges, which will described throughout
this white paper.
SYSTEMS COMPLEXITY

Robotic control software is complex and constantly evolving. A networked control system is
the intricate composition of complex subsystems that collectively address the needs of
sensing, actuation, communication, computing, and power supply. Complex control and
robotic communication requires:

Flexibility and interoperability to support different applications, protocols, and

communication needs,

The ability to coordinate multiple units and to aggregate robot teams into controllable
units,
Control evolvability, in terms of

o Rapid re-programmability (addition of new functionality after hardware

deployment),
 o Dynamic reconfiguration (creation of new collections of sensors, actuators,
computers, robots, vehicles, and instruments into coordinated, task-oriented teams), and
o Extensibility (growth through modular incorporation of additional assets),
Adaptive power management,
Adaptation to computing needs and resources,

Survivability and fault-tolerance (automatic reallocation of communications software in

response to component failures). The requirements of complex applications can be
supported by advanced middleware (e.g., for resource discovery that enables modular
growth [2]) and overlay networks (e.g., to ensure an evolvable network). Furthermore,
mobile software can support survivability and rapid reprogrammability by allowing software
component to stop their execution on one host and resume seamlessly on a different host
[2]. A correct architecture will also ease the maturation of innovative technical contributions.

AUDIO AND VIDEO

Videoconferencing (VC) is the conduct of a videoconference (also known as a video

conference or videoteleconference) by a set of telecommunication technologies which
allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way video and audio
transmissions. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware.

Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference
or multiple locations rather than individuals.[1] It is an intermediate form of videotelephony,
first used commercially in Germany during the late-1930s and later in the United States during
the early 1970s as part of AT&T's development of Picturephone technology.

With the introduction of relatively low cost, high capacity broadband telecommunication
services in the late 1990s, coupled with powerful computing processors and video
compression techniques, videoconferencing has made significant inroads in business,
education, medicine and media. Like all long distance communications technologies (such
as phone and Internet), by reducing the need to travel, which is often carried out by
aeroplane, to bring people together the technology also contributes to reductions in carbon
emissions, thereby helping to reduce global warming.

TECHNOLOGY

The core technology used in a videoconferencing system is digital compression of audio and
video streams in real time. The hardware or software that performs compression is called a
codec (coder/decoder). Compression rates of up to 1:500 can be achieved. The resulting
digital stream of 1s and 0s is subdivided into labeled packets, which are then transmitted
through a digital network of some kind (usually ISDN or IP). The use of audio modems in the
transmission line allow for the use of POTS, or the Plain Old Telephone System, in some low-
speed applications, such as videotelephony, because they convert the digital pulses to/from
analog waves in the audio spectrum range.
The other components required for a videoconferencing system include:

Video input : video camera or webcam

Video output: computer monitor, television or projector
Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any other source of
PreAmp audio outlet.
Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone
Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet
Computer: a data processing unit that ties together the other components, does the
compressing and decompressing, and initiates and maintains the data linkage via the
network.

There are basically two kinds of videoconferencing systems:

1. Dedicated systems have all required components packaged into a single piece of
equipment, usually a console with a high quality remote controlled video camera.
These cameras can be controlled at a distance to pan left and right, tilt up and down,
and zoom. They became known as PTZ cameras. The console contains all electrical
interfaces, the control computer, and the software or hardware-based codec.
Omnidirectional microphones are connected to the console, as well as a TV monitor
with loudspeakers and/or a video projector. There are several types of dedicated
videoconferencing devices:
1. Large group videoconferencing are non-portable, large, more expensive
devices used for large rooms and auditoriums.
2. Small group videoconferencing are non-portable or portable, smaller, less
expensive devices used for small meeting rooms.
3. Individual videoconferencing are usually portable devices, meant for single
users, have fixed cameras, microphones and loudspeakers integrated into the
console.
2. Desktop systems are add-ons (hardware boards, usually) to normal PCs, transforming
them into videoconferencing devices. A range of different cameras and microphones
can be used with the board, which contains the necessary codec and transmission
interfaces. Most of the desktops systems work with the H.323 standard.
Videoconferences carried out via dispersed PCs are also known as e-meetings.

VIDEO CONFERENCING MODES

Videoconferencing systems use several common operating modes:

1. Voice-Activated Switch (VAS);

2. Continuous Presence.

In VAS mode, the MCU switches which endpoint can be seen by the other endpoints by the
levels of ones voice. If there are four people in a conference, the only one that will be seen
in the conference is the site which is talking; the location with the loudest voice will be seen
by the other participants.

Continuous Presence mode, displays multiple participants at the same time. The MP in this
mode takes the streams from the different endpoints and puts them all together into a single
video image. In this mode, the MCU normally sends the same type of images to all
participants. Typically these types of images are called layouts and can vary depending
on the number of participants in a conference.