Five Dimensions of Variations in Approaches to Observation

I. ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER

Full participant ---------- Partial ---------- Onlooker observation as an

observation - observation - outsider

II. PORTRAYAL OF THE RESEARCHER'S ROLE TO OTHERS

Covert observations: program

Overt observations: program Observer role
staff and participants do not
staff and participants know --------- known by ----------
know that observations are
that observations are being - some, not by -
bing made or that there is an
made and who the observer is others
observer

III. PORTRAYAL OF THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH TO OTHERS

Covert evaluations: no False explanations:

Full explanation
---- Partial ---- explanation given to ----- deceived staff and/or
of real purpose to
- explanations - either staff or - participants about
everyone
participants research purpose

IV. DURATION OF THE RESEARCH OBSERVATIONS

Single observation, limited
duration (e.g., 1 hour)
Long-term, multiple
------------------------------------
observations (e.g., months,
-
years)

V. FOCUS OF THE OBSERVATIONS

Narrow focus: single element Broad focus: holistic view of the

------------------------------------
or component in the setting entire setting and all of its
-
observed elements is sought

.....Patton, M. Q. (1980). Qualitative evaluation methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Changes in the Scope of Observation

Participant observation begins with wide-focused descriptive observations.
Although these continue until the end of the field project, as indicted by the broken
line, the emphasis shifts first to focused observations and later to selective
observations.

.....Spradley, J. (1980). Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston.

Checklist of Elements Likely to be Present in an Observation

It is impossible to observe and record everything in a setting, and therefore one
must begin somewhere with some type of plan.

1. The setting:
What is the physical environment like?
What is the context?
What kinds of behavior does the setting promote or prevent?

2. The participants:
Describe who is in the scene, how many people, and their roles.
What brings these people together?
Who is allowed here?

3. Activities and interactions:

What is going on?
Is there a definable sequence of activities?
How do the people interact with the activity and with one another?
How are people and activities connected or interrelated?

4. Frequency and duration:

When did the situation begin?
How long does it last?
Is it a recurring type of situation or is it unique?
If it recurs, how frequently?
How typical of such situations is the one being observed?
5. Subtle factors:
Less obvious but perhaps as important to the observation are:

• informal and unplanned activities

• symbolic and connotative meaning of words
• nonverbal communication such as dress and physical space
• unobtrusive measures such as physical clues
• what does not happen especially if it ought to have happened.

Checklist by Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A

qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

as published in Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen , S. D.

(1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.

"The interview provides leads for the researcher's

observations. Observation suggests probes for interviews. The
interaction of the two sources of data not only enriches them
both, but also provides a basis for analysis that would be
impossible with only one source"
(Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, p. 99).

"I interview because I am interested in other people's stories...stories are a way of

knowing....Every word that people use in telling their stories is a microcosm of
their consciousness....The subjects of inquiry in the social sciences can talk and
think. Unlike a star, or a chemical, or a lever...if given a chance to talk freely,
people appear to know a lot about what is going on....At the very heart of what it
means to be human is the ability of people to symbolize their experiences through
language. To understand human behavior means to understand the use of
language....A basic assumption in in-depth interviewing research is that the
meaning people make of their experience affects the way they carry out the
experience....The purpose of in-depth interviewing is not to get answers to
questions, nor to test hypotheses, and not to evaluate....At the root of in-depth
interviewing is an interest in understanding the experience of other people and the
meaning they make of that experience."

A Phenomenological Approach to In-Depth Interviewing

(developed by David Schuman)
The goal is to have the participant reconstruct his or her experience within the
topic under study. Schuman recommends three separate interviews. (McCracken
recommends something very different-- onelong interview).

• Interview One: Focused Life History

DO: How did you become a mentor?
DON'T: Why did you become a mentor?
• Interview Two: The Details of Experience
DO: Describe what you do as a mentor?
DON'T: What do you think about being a mentor?
• Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning
Given what you have said about your life before you became a mentor and
given what you have said about your work now, how do you understand
mentoring in your life? What sense does it make to you?

Some Guidelines and Suggestions for Interviewing

• listen more, talk less

• follow up on what the participant says
• ask questions when you don't understand
• ask to hear more about a subject
• explore rather than probe
• listen more, talk less, and ask real questions
• avoid leading questions
• ask open-ended questions
• follow up, don't interrupt
• ask participants to talk to you as if you were someone else
• ask participants to tell a story
• keep participants focused, and ask for details
• do not take the ebbs and flows of interviewing too personally
• share experiences on occasion
• ask participants to reconstruct, not to remember
• avoid reinforcing your participants' responses
• explore laughter
• follow your hunches
• use an interview guide carefully
• tolerate silence

Remember that you need written permission from the individual you are
interviewing and interviewees have certain rights

• Participation in the interview is entirely voluntary.

• They are free to refuse to answer any question at any time.
• They are free to withdraw from the interview at any time.
 • The interview will be kept strictly confidential and will be available only to
members of the research team and identities will not be revealed to members
of the research team.
• Excerpts of the interview may be part of the final research report, but under
no circumstances will names or identifying characteristics be included in the
report.

Seidman, I. E. (1991). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for

researchers in education and the social sciences. New York: Teachers College
Press.

Del Siegle, PhD

del.siegle@uconn.edu