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Paper: Optics
Lesson: Nature of Light and Huygens Wave Theory
Author: Dr. D. V. Chopra
College/Department: Associate Professor (Retired),
Department of Physics and Electronics, Rajdhani College,
University of Delhi
So far, we have considered the theorems which may be deduced from the axioms
formulated for rays of light and the optical instruments based on them. Such a study is
made in Geometrical Optics which is developed without going into detail with regard to the
nature of light. We shall see that the knowledge of the nature of light has an important
bearing on the design of optical instruments, e.g., resolving power of a telescope using the
phenomenon of diffraction which is based on the wave nature of light. In geometrical
optics, it is assumed that light travels in straight lines and we assume particle nature of
light. We are going to discuss theories of light; that is, answers to the question: What is
light; What is nature of light ? The answers to the question and the experimental evidence
bearing on it are called Physical Optics to distinguish it from the preceding geometrical
optics. In physical optics, we deal with wave nature of light.
There are only two possible types of theory, for there are only two possible ways of
transmitting energy through empty space. One is by a stream of moving material particles,
when the energy is transmitted as the kinetic energy of the particles, and other is by means
of waves, when the energy is transmitted as the energy of the waves without any motion of
medium transmitting them. And so the following theories of light arise:
(i) Newtons Corpuscular theory : In 1665, Newton gave the corpuscular theory of
light. It states that light consists of a large number of minute material corpuscles (i.e.
particles) emitted by a luminous body which produces the sensation of sight when these
corpuscles strike the eye. According to this theory, light travels with a tremendous speed
(3 x 108 ms1) in straight lines is a homogeneous medium. Different colours of light were
ascribed to different sized corpuscles. The corpuscles travel with tremendous speed in
straight lines, because of their insignificant masses pull of gravity on them is negligible.
This theory was able to explain the principle of rectilinear propagation of light, laws
of reflection as well as the law of refraction.
Failures of this theory: Explanation of laws of refraction leads to the result that light
travels with a higher speed in denser medium. Again, the experiment of Faucault on the
direct determinal of the velocity of light in different media gives an opposite result. The
phenomenon of diffraction, viz, a small bending of the rays round a small object shows that
the propagation of light is not strictly rectilinear but approximately so. Thus a correct
theoty should explain the approximate rectilinear propagation of light but Newtons
corpuscular theory failed to explain this.
(ii) Huygens wave theory: This wave theory was given by Huygens in 1678.
According to this theory, a source of light propagates spherical waves in hypothetical
medium called the ether which pervades the whole of universe, in much the same way that
a stone sets up circular ripples when it falls into a pond. But as light can travel even in
vacuum, Huygens had to assume the existence of this medium ether in much the similar
way as sound water waves require medium for its propagation. On the basis of this theory,
these light waves produce the sensation of sight when they enter the eyes. It explains that
light travels more slowly in water than air, the precise opposite of the corpuscular theory.
Failures: Huygens in 1678 considered these light waves as longitudinal and the
phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction were successfully
explained. Difficulty aread to explain the phenomenon of polarization of light, but that
difficulty was surmounted by Fresnel, who assumed the light waves to be transverse.
Fresnel explained the approximate rectilinear propagation of light on the basis of wave
theory and Fresnel half-period zones vis--vis diffraction. Though the Huygens wave
theory, as modified by Fresnel, successfully supplented Newtons corpuscular theory, yet it
had many drawbacks. It necessitated the adoption of a hypothetical medium called ether
possessing an extraordinary property of elastic solid. The velocity of transverse wave in a
solid medium is given by
is the modulus rigidity and , the density of the medium. Hence, to account high
velocity of light, ether must possess high rigidity and low density the elasticity of ether
must be many times, greater than that of steel and its density many times less than that of
the best vacuum we can produce ! card of etis asumeher medium.
On the basis of Huygens wave theory, light waves are transverse in nature and a
longitudinal light wave has not been detected so far. Since the ether is assumed to have
property of an elastic solid and elastic solid is capable of transmitting both transverse and
longitudinal waves, this difficulty is removed by supposing that ether is incompressible. For
incompressible fluid, bulk modulus (k) is infinite. The velocity of longitudinal wave
This makes the velocity of longitudinal wave infinitely small, but can a medium be
stable under such conditions ! Michlson Morely experiment, conducted in 1887, attempted
to measure the velocity of the earth through the ether. This experiment proved that there
is no relative velocity between the earth and the ether. Nor only this, all experiments
designed to detect the presence of ether have, so far failed and hence its contradictory
properties cannot be tested. Hence, ether concept was abandoned.
Before the Michelron Morley experiment was performed in 1887, it was assumed
by Faraday that a medium like ether was an essential feature of the electrical theory. It
was however not a mechanical medium in which material displacements took place but
rather an electromagnetic phenomenon in which displacement currents and magnetic fields
occur. The periodic disturbances which are supposed to constitute these waves, were
called displacement currents by Maxwell.
This led Maxwell to put forward his famous Electro-magnetic Theory of light. In 1873
Maxwell therefore concluded theoretically that light is an electromagnetic wave.
called photons. According to this Einsteins theory of light, every radiation is to consist of
indivisible radiation quanta of energy . Einstein (1904) used the concept of black body
radiation put forth by Planck (1900). Quantum theory of light was able to explain the
photoelectric effect, the atomic structure, the Compton effect and Raman effect, but it failed
to explain the phenomena of interference, diffraction, etc. The latter phenomena were
explainable on the basis of wave theory of light. Thus for one phenomenon we regard light
as quanta (or particles) while for another phenomenon we regard light as waves. A
satisfactory theory must therefore combine these two conceptions into one general co-
ordinating principle. This led to dual nature of light.
Co-relation between wave theory and quantum theory of light (or Dual nature of
light)
where m is mass of particle and its velocity where as is the wavelength of the wave
associated with the moving particles called de Broglie wave and h, the Plancks constant.
Conclusion:
Value Addition:
Ether: As sound needs a medium to propagate, so light must also need a medium to
propagate. Ether was suggested a medium for light to propagate but ether is now a
discarded hypothetical medium once thought to fill all space and to be responsible for
carrying light waves and other electromagnetic waves. Such a medium of ether was
postulated with mechanical properties adjusted to provide a consistent theory. For
propagation of electromagnetic radiation, it was assumed to pervade all space and matter,
to be extremely elastic yet extremely light, to transmit transverse waves with the speed of
light to have a greater density in matter than in free space.
A search for ether medium was made by Michelson and Morley in their famous Michelson
Morley experiment to detect the presence of ether. But, they failed to detect its existence.
On this result obtained by Michelson and Morley in 1887, Albert Einstein built up his
revolutionary Relativity and Quantum theories. Further, Einstein concluded that light rays do
not travel in straight lines but they curve under the influence of a gravitational field.
If a stone is dropped into a pond, circular ripples spread out from the point O where
the stone entered the water, as shown in Fig 1. They are produced by the vibration of the
water due to the entry of the stone and the ripples are circles with O as centre. Each one of
these circles is called a wave front and the direction OA, in which any very small portion of a
wave front travels, is normal to the wave front and is called a ray. If a graph of the
displacement (y) of the particles, which normally lie on the line OA, against their distance
(x) from O is drawn, it will resemble the wave form shown in Fig. 2 and the wave form
travels through the medium without any
bodily motion of the medium itself. But
we are dealing with waves travelling in two A
dimensions, and hence the concept of
wave front comes in.
O
A wave front at any instant of time
is defined as the locus of all the
neighboring particles in the medium which
are being just disturbed at that instant of
time and are consequently in the same
phase of vibration. The direction in which Fig. 1 Wave-front
the disturbance is propagated in a Y
homogeneous medium is called a ray. It is
always normal to the wave front. A wave
front is the locus of a particular phase of O x
the vibration of the particles of the B
medium. The phase most usually chosen
is the position of maximum positive
displacement and so, the locus is the line Fig. 2 Wave-form
joining the crests. The wave front is
clearly a circle in the case of the waves
produced by dropping a stone in a pond. If a plank BC O A
floating on the surface of a pond is moved up and down, it
will produce waves roughly of the form shown in Fig. 3, in
which the wave fronts are straight lines, a ray being straight
line, OA, normal to the wave fronts.
C
Fig. 3 Plane Wave Fronts
In the case of waves in three dimensional, a point source
will produce spherical waves, the rays being radii of the
spheres, while a plane source will produce plane waves in which the rays are lines normal to
the plane.
We know from simple experience that a circular wave front grows into a circle of ever
increasing radius; a linear wave front moves as a line parallel to itself; a spherical wave
front spreads as a sphere of ever increasing radius; a plane wave front moves as a plane
parallel to itself. There is no propagation of waves (or energy) in the backward direction.
The theory of predicting the future course of wave fronts was put forward by Huygens and is
known as Huygens principle.
Similarly, we can construct new plane wave front from a plane wave
front AB at any time t, as shown in Fig 5, by drawing spherical wavelets of radius vt from a
number of points on AB. The rear envelope cannot be new plane wave front after time
t.
where is the angle between the wave normal and the diretrion of wave propagation.
B B
To find the position of vt S
vt
the reflected wave front, with A Q Vt2
as centre and radius = = AC
P vt R
= vt, describe a sphere. From 1
draw a tangent plane to the i r
i
sphere touching the latter at . r
Then is the trace of the X A M N Y
reflected wave front . Let E
make an angle r with the
reflecting surface XY , where r D
is the angle of reflection.
With M as centre draw a sphere so that it touches the tangent plane at S. Join MS
Let AM = x, and
Similary
are similar
Hence, the wavelet from P, after reflection at M, reaches the point S on the wave
front exactly at the same time as the disturbance from A reaches . Similarly it can be
proved that disturbances from other points, such as Q etc. reach at the same time t, or
is the trace of the common reflected wave front.
Hence, a plane wave front is reflected back from a plane reflecting surface as a
plane wave front.
[The reader will recall that Huygens principle cannot predict the way the wave front will
travel]
In . We have
is common
Hence
Also AB, and are all section of the plane perpendicular to the plane of paper; hence
normal to the planes are in the same plane. But normal to AB and are incident and
reflected rays, hence the incident and reflected rays and normal to the surface at the point
of incidence lie in the same plane. This is the first law of reflection (Proved).
Fig 7 shows the trace XY of a plane surface perpendicular to the plane of paper,
separating the two media of refractive indices 1 and 2, such that 2>1; and v1 and v2
being the velocities of light in the upper and lower media respectively in such a way that v 2
< v1.
Let AB be the trace of a plane wave front from a monochromatic source of light,
perpendicular to the plane of paper, incident at an angle i with surface XY, and travelling in
the direction AE from less dense to
more dense medium (Fig. 7).
1, v1
According to Huygens
principle, each point on the wave
front AB is a source of secondary B (Rarer)
wavelet. Assume the wave front AB Q
at time t=0. Let t be the time taken i P v1t i
by the disturbance from B to reach v 1t1
A i
the surface XY at C. Then during X L r C Y
this time t, the spherical wavelet v2t2 r
from A will have spread out in a L
v2t M
sphere of radius v1t and the plane N
wave front will have occupied its D E 2 , v2
parallel position CE if the refracting
(Denser)
surface XY were not present. But
owing to the presence of the Fig.7 Laws of Refraction from Huygens wave theory
refracting surface XY, during this
time t, the wavelet from A which
started earlier, instead of spreading into the lower medium 2 as a sphere of radius AE =
BC, moves into it with a velocity v2 and spreads out as a sphere of radius AD = v2t.
An envelope (or a tangent plane) perpendicular to the plane of paper drawn from C
to the sphere, i.e., the tangent plane CD would represent the refracted wave front.
To prove that CD is the common refracted wave front for all disturbances which
originate from points such as P, Q etc. on AB, one has to show that during the time the
wavelet from A travels to D or from B to C, the wavelet from P reaches the wave front CD.
Let t1 be the time taken by the wavelet from P to reach XY at L and also let t 2 be the time
taken by the disturbance from L to reach CD at M.
Then
Let
This gives ,
Hence, the wavelet from P after refraction at L, reaches the point M on the wave front CD
exactly at the same time as the wavelet from A reaches D. Similarly, it can be proved that
wavelets from other points, such as Q etc., reach the same wave front at the same time or
CD is the trace of common rerfracted wave front.
From , in which
From , in which
Therefore is greater than one. is refractive index of second medium with respect to
first medium.
This proves second law of refraction. This is Snells law of refraction, i.e.
Since
This means that the velocity of light in a denser medium is less than that in a rarer medium.
This has been verified experimentally.
Also AB, CE and CD aer all traces of the planes perpendicular to the plane of paper;
hence normals to these planes are in the same plane. Since normals AB and CD are the
incident and refracted rays, hence the incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the
refracting surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. This proves the first law of
refraction.
When the lower medium (see Fig.7) is denser, 2>1 and because maximum value of
sin i is one then AD is always less than AC. Here AD is the radius of refracted wavelet.
The tangent CD can always be drawn. Since CD is refracted wave front, there is always
refracted ray in the lower medium.
Since
Suppose the lower medium is rarer, then 2<1 From Eq.(7-1) it follows that the
following three cases arise, depending upon whether AD is less than, equal (Dens
(Denser)
to or greater than AC.
er)
B
This is shown in Fig. 10. Point C will lie inside the spherical wavelet drawn from A in the
lower medium. In such a case, no real tangent from C to the wavelet is possible. Hence no
refracted wave front i.e. refracted ray is possible. Since reflection is possible, the reflected
wavelet from A propagates in the first medium and the radius of this spherical wavelet in
AD, as shown in Fig.10.
Fig.10. AD>AC
Consider reflection of a spherical wave from a concave mirror MPM, as shown in Fig.
11. Let R be the radius of curvature of the mirror, C centre of curvature and P its pole. Let
A be the point source, emitting spherical wave fronts. Let XLY be a spherical wave front at
any instant. This wave front touches the concave mirror at point M and M. By the time
wavelet from L touches P, wavelet from M and M reach E and D respectively.
LP=ME=MD
N.B. Reflection of a spherical wave front from a convex surface can be studied in the same
way. In this case the incident spherical wave front XLY would meet pole P of convex mirror.
air K J
We are to obtain the relation G
B
D
y
We assume small aperture of the convex
surface. E P L
I A Q C
Consider a convex surface KPL where pole u P R
is P and is refractive index of the medium v
having convex surface. Let A be a point
object at a distance u from P. Since A is a H S
point object, it emits spherical wave front. L
GPH is a spherical wave front touching the
convex surface at P. Obviously the radius
of curvature of the spherical wave front will Fig.12. Refraction at a convex surface
be u. Each point on GPH is a source of (using Huygens wave theory)
secondary wavelets, as follows from
Huygens wave theory. By the time wavelet
from point D in air reaches B on the convex surface, wavelet from P will have covered a
distance PQ in the medium where B Q S is the refracted wave front.
DB = .P Q
The refracted spherical wave front BQS appears to come from point I where I is the centre
of this spherical wave front. Thus I is point image of point object A, BJ is refracted ray and
the distance IQ = v. In other words, the radius of curvature of the refracted wave front is
v. Now, draw perpendicular DE and BL on the principal axis
DB=EL=.P Q(9-1)
EL=EP+PL .(9-2)
PQ=PL+LQ .(9-3)
EP+PL= .PL+.LQ
EP.LQ=.PL.PL(9-4)
BL.LS=PL.LT
=PL(PTPL)
y2 = PL 2R
P T
L C
where
y y
Each point on wave front GDH is a source of
secondary wavelets. By the time, wavelet from
point D reaches P, the wavelet from K and L
reaches D and E in the medium . Distance KD in A I M D N P
the medium is equivalent to a distance .KD in air
v
u
Th refracted wave front is DPE which appears to L E
originate from point I (I is centre of spherical H
(reracted) wave front DPE).
Fig.14. Refraction at concave surface
PI = v
C
R M P
L
(Neglecting small quantity PM2 in comparison to )
Fig.15
10. Thin Convex Lens Formula on the basis of Huygens wave theory of light:
1 v1 M 1
K1
K2
q
p y v1
Let AM = p, MB = q; AL = u, LB = v, P1L L
A P1 P2 C1 B
= a, LP2 = b, ML=y C2
a
As stated above regarding the time taken b
being equal along the two paths; one has
u v
2
Let C1 be the centre of curvature of the surface of the lens at which the light enters
and C2 that at which it leaves, as shown in Fig. 16. The
corresponding radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the
lens are
M
y
P1C1 = R1 a L C1
P1
P2C2 = R2 Q
y
2R1a
From the property of circle in geometry, one can write, as
shown in Fig. 17,
M
P1LLQ = MLL Fig.17 Property of circle
a(2R1a) = y2
2R1aa2 = y2
Similarly,
Using sign conventions of optical distances, u and R 2 are negative whereas v and
R1 are positive. Rewriting the above equation,
This is the general formula for lenses. For object lying at infinity u = , v = f,
(second) focal length of the lens.
N.B. (i) A similar formula for refraction by a concave lens, on the basis of Huygens
wave theory, can be derived
(ii) The reader will recall that the above procedure uses the same
principle(regarding the time taken along the two paths) which was used in section
2.17 in proving the lens formula by Fermats principle and so the above proof from
Huygens principle follows just the same lines.
11. Thin concave lens formula on the basis of Huygens wave theory of light.
Time taken by light to travel from D to G partly in air and partly in lens is
Since t1 = t2
Now,
Cancelling
Since ,
This gives
AH = u
BH = v
O
P
For a point object at infinity
B
Consider a plane wave front AB at any instant of time. We are to find the effect of
AB at any point P on a screen. From P draw perpendicular PO and AB. Each point on AB is
a source of secondary wavelets which are superimposed on P. It can be proved that the
resultant effect at P due to all the secondary waves from the wave front AB will be due to a
small element around O whereas the effect due to the others parts of the wave front will
cancel each others effect and its resultant effect is nil. This is due to their mutual
cancellation by the phenomenon called interference of light. Thus, the light travels along
the path OP which is the shortest (or the least) path between the wave front AB and the
point P. In other words, disturbance travels along the minimum path. It shows that it
follows Fermats principle which is also the principle of extreme path. Thus Fermats
principle follows from the concept of the wave theory of light. The straight line OP along
which the disturbance travels is called a ray. Thus, a ray is a straight line which is
perpendicular to wave front.
Examples 1:
(a) Calculate the optical path for two wavelengths 1 and 2 of light propagating
in a medium of refractive index .
(b) Calculate also for two lights of frequencies 1 and 2 .
Solution:
In air, all the waves (or wave-fronts) of different wavelets travel with the
same speed of light. Therefore, the frequencies of light are inversely proportional
to the wavelengths. If v1 and v2 are the velocities of waves in a medium, and 1
and 2 are their wavelengths,
(c) Velocity of light for each wavelength is different, but the frequency for each
light remains the same
Example 2:
Calculate the total optical path when light travels d1, d2 and d3 in three different
media with refractive indices 1, 2 and 3. How much distance in the third medium
3 will have the same optical path ?
Solution:
This is the answer for initial part of the question. Let l be the distance in the third
medium 3 with the same optical path d.
Example 3.
the convex surface. Let it be AB . As rays are perpendicular to plane wave front,
and are the rays meeting convex surface on and . Let 1 and v1 be the
refractive index and velocity of light in incident medium and the corresponding
quantities be 2 and v2 in refracting medium such that v1 > v2 and 1<2. If the
convex surface were absent, plane wave front AB would have occupied the position
after a time t. Due to the presence of refracting medium in which v2 < v1 the
wavelet from D and E reach and while the wavelet from P reaches M instead of
N.
Because
Thus the plane wave front takes the shape whose radius of curvature is
larger than R. is radius of curvature of , then from the property of circle.
Thus, a plane wave front becomes a spherical wave front whose curvature is less
than that of the convex refracting surface (2 > 1) and is of the same sign as that
of the convex surface.
Summary:
Newtons Corpuscular theory of light: According to this theory, light consists of a large
number of minute material corpuscles (or particles) emitted by a luminous body and it travels
with a tremendous speed in straight lines in a homogeneous medium. This theory of light could
explain rectilinear propagation of light, laws of reflection and refraction. It led to wrong result
that light travels with a higher speed in denser medium.
Huygenss wave theory states that a source of light propagates spherical waves in hypothetical
medium called ether, which pervades the whole of universe. It led to correct result that light
travels more slowly in water than air. Michelson- Morley experiment conducted in 1887, failed
to detect the presence of ether. Hence ether concept was abandoned.
Maxwells electromagnetic wave theory of light concluded theoretically that an
electromagnetic wave travelling in space has a velocity given by
In 1900, Planck gave quantum theory of radiation. According to this theory, exchanges of energy
between ether and matter can occur only in discrete steps, i.e. in multiples of some small unit,
called the quantum and energy of one quantum is where h is Plancks constant and is
the frequency of radiation.
This idea of Plancks constant was verified by experiment.
In 1904, Einstein gave quantum theory of light. He used the concept of black body radiation put
forth by Planck in year 1900. Quantum theory of light was able to explain the photoelectric
effect, the atomic structure, the Compton Effect and Raman Effect, but it failed to explain the
phenomena of interference, diffraction etc. The latter phenomena were explainable on the basis
of wave theory of light. In other words, for one phenomenon we regard light as waves while for
another phenomenon we regard light as quanta (particles). This led to dual nature of light.
In 1924, de Broglie worked out mathematically to correlate dual nature of light. Soon after, in
year 1926, Schrdinger extended Broglies theory and formulated a system of mechanics known
as wave mechanics. This is how the wave and particle aspect of matter are co-related.
Mathematically it is given by,
where m is mass of particle and is its velocity, whereas is the wavelength of the wave
associated with moving particle called the de Broglie wavelength and h, the Plancks constant.
De Broglies theoretical prediction of the existence of matter waves was first verified
experimentally in 1927 by C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer and by G.P. Thomson.
A wavefront at any instant of time is defined as the locus of all the neighboring particles in the
medium which are being just disturbed at that instant of time and are consequently in the same
phase of vibration. The direction in which the disturbance is propagated in a homogeneous
medium is called a ray. A ray is always normal to the wave front. In the case of waves in three
dimensional, a point source will produce spherical waves, the rays being radii of the spheres,
while a plane source will produce plane waves in which the rays are lines normal to the plane.
Huygenss principle of wave propagation of light is a geometrical method of finding the position
of the new wave front after a certain time. It states that the position of a wave front t seconds
after its present position is found by regarding each point of the given wave front as the source of
secondary wavelets. With each point on the given wave front as centre a sphere of radius vt is
drawn, where v is the velocity of the waves in the medium. The required position of the wave
front is the envelope of the spherical wavelets in the forward direction. Only forward wave front
exists and no backward wavefront exists. Application of Huygens principle of wave theory of
light:
(b) State the laws of reflection and refraction of light and obtain them form the wave
theory of light.
6. Explain the laws of refraction of light on wave theory of light. What is meant by
refractive index and how is it related to the velocities of light in different media.
8. How is refraction of a plane wave explained on wave theory of light. When does total
internal reflection occure ?
9. Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection on the basis of Huygens principle and
obtain the value of critical angle.
10. Derive a formula for refraction of a spherical wave at a spherical surface according to
the wave theory of light ?
11. Derive a formula for reflection of a spherical wave at a spherical surface according to
the wave theory of light.
12. Account for the formation of images by refraction through lenses on the wave theory
and prove the relation
13. What is a wave-front and what is the mode of its propagation in a medium ? Using the
wave theory establish the thin lens formula
14. Using the concept of wave theory prove the thin lens formula
15. State Huygenss principle for propagation of light. Using the same, deduce the formula
connecting object and image distances with the constants of a thin lens.
16. Derive the refraction formula for a thin concave lens on the basis of Huygens wave
theory of light.
1 State and explain Huygens principle of secondary waves. Apply this principle for
explaining the simultaneous reflection and refraction of a plane light wave from a plane
surface of separation of two optical media.
18. Explain how Huygens wave theory of light is related to Fermats principle.
20. Give an elementary account of the wave theory of light, and prove by its means that the
focal length of a concave mirror is equal to half its radius of curvature.
21. Explain, on the basis of wave theory of light, how a lens forms an image of a point on
its axis. Use the ideas of the wave theory to deduce an expression for the focal length
of the lens, pointing out very clearly the assumptions made. Point out which of these
assumptions are not true is practice, and in what way an actual lens may differ form
the simple theoretical lens as a result.
22. (a) Apply the principles of the wave theory to find the relation between the focal length
of a thin lens, the radii of curvature of the surfaces, and the refractive index of the
material.
(b) If a convex lens of focal length 15 cm, made of glass of refractive index 1.52 is totally
immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.35, how will its focal length be affected ?
23. Apply the principles of the wave theory to establish the formula
A ray of light is incident in a direction parallel to the axis on one face of a thin double
convex lens of refractive index 1.5, and after two internal reflections, emerges from the
second face. Show that it will cut the axis at a point at a distance from the centre of
the lens.