8.

38 Steam Turbine Controls STM

E. J. FARMER (1985) B. G. LIPTK (1995, 2005)

Flow sheet symbol

INTRODUCTION Such variable-speed operation is an advantage, if the turbine

Steam turbines are used in the generation of electric power,
particularly in combined cycle power stations (Section 8.33),
and also as variable- or constant-speed drives (Section 7.10)
for larger rotary equipment, such as compressors and pumps
(Sections 8.15 and 8.34). Their controls are often integrated
with the steam generator (Section 8.6), which can use fossil
or nuclear fuel.
In the first part of this section, the nature and the operating
principles of steam turbines will be discussed first. This will
be followed by a description of the various types of turbine
designs, efficiencies, and applications.
In the second part of this section, the control of steam
turbines will be covered. This discussion will be started with
the description of the traditional steam governors and basic
regulatory turbine controls. The controls of pressure let-down
and extraction turbine applications and the methods of elim-
is used to drive pumps or compressors. Figure 8.38a shows
the relative operating ranges of different types of compressor
drives. When provided with the appropriate speed governor,
steam turbines can provide excellent speed stability, which
is desirable when the turbine serves as the prime mover in
electric generators.
In comparison to all other prime movers, steam turbines
are very reliable. Their availability factors are high, and
their maintenance costs are low. This is largely a result of
the inherently balanced design that is completely free of
106
Compressor inlet ow, ft3/min

inating interaction and decoupling will also be discussed. The

section will also describe the steam turbine safety systems 105
and will be concluded with a description of optimization and Steam turbine
advanced controls.
The optimization strategies described will consider the
Gas turbine
nature of the installation, which might have the goal of max-
imized electric power production while meeting the steam 104
Electric motor,
demand of the plant or the goal of maximizing direct steam
gear driven
utilization.
The discussion of advanced controls will cover the use
of model-based predictive control and self-diagnostics for
maintenance purposes. It will also touch upon thermal stress 103
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
monitoring (TSM), turbine protection (TP), and monitoring/
Compressor speed, thousand RPM
sequential control (MSC).
Speed governor classification

Characteristics Governor class Regulation Variation

Steam turbines are energy conversion machines. They extract
energy from the steam and convert it to work, which rotates
the shaft of the turbine. Steam turbine sizes range from shaft
output energies of a few kilowatts to well over 1000 megawatts,
and there is no reason why still larger machines could not be
built. No other prime mover can achieve the shaft output capa-
bility that is easily attained by large steam turbines.
Rotational speeds vary from approximately 1,800 to
14,000 rpm; this speed can be modulated over a wide range.
A 10% %
B 6% %
C 4% %
D % %
FIG. 8.38a
The throughput of a compressor with a steam turbine drive is higher
than those of gas turbine or electric motor-driven units.

2137

2006 by Bla Liptk

2138 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Entropy, (B.T.U. per LB. deg. fahr.)

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
1650 1650
ture deg. fahr, 1200 10
Constant tempera 00

1600 1100 1600

90
0
1550 1550
1000
80
0
1500 1500
70 900
0
1450 1450
60 800
0
1400 1400
50 700
0
1350 1350

e
P4 600

her
40
0

o sp
tm
Enthalpy, B.T.U per LB.

1300 Con 500 1300

30

da
sta 0
nt

Enthalpy, B.T.U. per LB.

dar
su pe

n
0

rhe
500
1000

1250 400 1250

Sta
150

20
300

at
200 0
0

,d 0
200
300

P1
100 eg .
0

Fah
400

1200 50 r. 300 1200

30
10
0

6
14 20
550

.69
Cons Sat

10
t ant ura
tion 200

5
1150 mo line 1150

2.5
istu
re

.0
p

0.5
.1
erc

0.2
ent

BS
100
1100 5 1100 h = 325

.A
.in
45
h12 = 185 so
h45 = 73%
er

h12 = 67%
.p

1050 10 1050
LB

h13 = 325
,

P2
re
su

P5
s
re

1000 15 1000
p
nt
ta
ns
Co

950 950 h45 = 445

20

900 900
25 P3 P6
850 850
30
40

800 800
35
50

750 750
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
Entropy, (B.T.U. per LB. deg. fahr.)

FIG. 8.38b
Mollier diagram showing performance of a steam turbine.

reciprocating or rubbing components (except, of course, for and pressure, one can use a Mollier diagram as a graphic tool
the bearings). to determine the amount of energy available under a partic-
ular set of conditions (Figure 8.38b).
As an example, one might consider the case where the
OPERATING PRINCIPLES turbine inlet conditions correspond to point P1 and the outlet
conditions to point P2 in Figure 8.38b. A line drawn between
The amount of energy that the steam turbine extracts from the these two points is called the expansion line and repre-
steam depends on the enthalpy drop across the machine. The sents the operation of the turbine as it is extracting energy
enthalpy of the steam is a function of its temperature and from the steam. In actual operation, this line is not straight,
pressure. Because the operating conditions of steam turbines and its shape does depend on the internal operation of the
are generally known in terms of inlet and outlet temperature turbine.

2006 by Bla Liptk


In an ideal turbine, the steam would expand at a constant
entropy (isentropically). The condition of the exhaust steam
from an ideal machine that has no losses would correspond
to point P3 on Figure 8.38b. This P3 point is found by drawing
a vertical line from the inlet point P1, down to the same
exhaust pressure as the actual machine is operating at.
Steam Turbine Efficiency
If one refers to the change in enthalpy from P1 to P2 as h12
and to the change in enthalpy between P1 and P3 as h13 ,
one can use these quantities to calculate the turbines effi-
ciency and steam rate. The efficiency of the turbine, neglect-
ing mechanical losses, is found by
h1 2
= 8.38(1)
h1 3
The steam rate that an ideal machine would require to
operate as theoretically predicted is called the theoretical
steam rate, QT , and may be found as
2545 lbm
QT = 8.38(2)
h1 3 HP hr larger sizes, steam turbines are physically smaller than most
The actual steam rate, QA, is calculated by dividing the
theoretical steam rate with the efficiency, hence,
lbm
QA = QT / 8.38(3)
HP hr
This somewhat simplified perspective of steam turbine
performance can help the control engineer in both under-
standing and optimizing steam turbines.
In order to operate the turbine at maximum efficiency,
the steam should leave the nozzles and impact on the turbine
blades at sonic velocity. In order to maintain the nozzle jets at
sonic velocity at partial loads, it is necessary to shut off some
blocks of nozzles so that the active ones will receive approx-
imately the same amount of steam all the time. The efficiency
of steam turbines increases with size, with the superheat tem-
perature of the steam, and with the level of vacuum at the
turbine exhaust.
Example As shown in Figure 8.38b, if saturated steam
enters the turbine at 300 psia and is exhausted at 2 psia, then
from each pound of steam, 325 BTUs of energy can theoret-
ically be recovered in an ideal turbine. If the actual expan-
sion line is P1 P2, the actual energy recovery is 185 BTUs
per pound of steam, and therefore the efficiency of the instal-
lation is 67%.
In actual practice, turbines are not supplied with saturated
steam. This is because condensation could cause turbine
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2139
blade erosion due to the presence of water droplets at the
high jet velocities, and also because much more energy can
be recovered if the steam supply is superheated and if the
exhaust pressure is reduced.
If, for example, the same 300 psia steam enters the tur-
bine with 200F superheat and is exhausted at 0.5 psia
(instead of 2 psia), the theoretical energy recovery will rise
to 445 BTUs per pound (P4 P6). Under these operating
conditions, the actual energy recovery will rise to 325 (from
185) BTUs per pound. This obviously represents a major
improvement in the performance of the machine.
This improvement can also be expressed in terms of steam-
ing rate. The steam rate of the turbine is the amount of steam
needed to provide one horsepower-hour (hp-hr) of work, which
is the equivalent of 2545 BTUs. If the actual operation of
the steam turbine corresponds to P1 P2 on Figure 8.38b, the
steaming rate is 13.8 lb of steam per horsepower-hour, while
if it corresponds to P4 P5 it is only 7.8 lb of steam per
horsepower-hour.
Advantages and Limitations
Even though the initial cost of steam turbines is usually
higher than that of alternative prime movers, there are some
benefits that can mitigate this cost difference. Especially in
other prime movers, consequently, they require less floor
space. This can decrease the cost of the building in which
they are to be installed.
Because the inherently balanced design of steam turbines
produces considerably less vibration than do reciprocating
machines, equipment foundations can also be considerably
lighter. Because steam turbines are less likely to cause fires
than are other prime movers, they also have an advantage in
applications in locations where flammable materials are
present.
In applications where the prime mover has to endure sub-
stantial overloads, the steam turbine also has an advantage. It
can tolerate, without damage, such overloads that would
severely shorten the service life of alternative prime movers,
if they could tolerate them at all.
The optimization of steam turbine systems is well under-
stood and more widely practiced than the power consumption
optimization of alternatives such as electric motors and gas
turbines. Less energy will usually be required for a steam
turbine prime mover to drive a load than would be necessary
if the size of a turbine driving an electrical generator were
increased to provide the electric power to drive the same load
with an electric motor.
Besides initial cost, the major disadvantage of steam
turbines is their low tolerance for wet or contaminated steam.
Wet steam can cause rapid erosion, and contaminants can
cause fouling. Both will reduce the turbines efficiency and
will shorten its life. Steam quality monitoring is therefore an
important requirement to maintain the reliability and to
reduce the operating cost of steam turbines.
2140 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

TABLE 8.38c
Performance Data for Condensing and Noncondensing Steam Turbines
Technical Data Units Condensation Turbine Back-Pressure Turbine

Output MW 5120 5120

-1
rpm min Up to 14,000 Up to 14,000
Inlet pressure bar (psi) Up to 130 (1,885) Up to 130 (1,885)
Inlet temperature C (F) Up to 570 (1,058) Up to 570 (1,058)
Discharge pressure bar (psi) Up to min. 0.02 (0.29) Up to 40 (580)
3 3
Exhaust flow M /s (ft /s) Up to 1,300 (45,930)

TURBINE DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS
The energy source for steam turbines is the pressure differ-
ence between the supply and exhaust steam. The higher this
pressure difference and the higher the superheat of the steam,
the more work the turbine can do.
The two main categories are the condensing and the back-
pressure turbines (Figure 8.38d). Table 8.38c provides a range
of operating conditions and electrical power production rates
for both types of steam turbines.
The exhaust pressure of a condensing turbine is usually
subatmospheric, while that of a noncondensing or back-
pressure turbine is greater than atmospheric. Condensing tur-
bines are most often used for electric power generation, while
back-pressure turbines are utilized in cogeneration power
plants (Section 8.33), which simultaneously supply steam and
electricity for the users.
Steam turbine installations can also be configured with
more than one exhaust steam streams. A second, and sometimes
even a third, outlet may be provided to allow the extraction
of steam at different pressures (Figure 8.38e).
A rare combination of a mixed input and an extraction
turbine is one in which steam can be removed when load
conditions permit, or steam can be inducted when additional
energy is necessary. This unit is usually referred to as induction
extraction turbine.
Application Configurations
A back-pressure turbine with its inlet connected to the plants
high-pressure header and its outlet supplying steam to an
intermediate header is called a topping turbine, because it is
High
pressure
SC

High
pressure Stage Stage
1 2

SC SC

Non-
Condensing condensing
(backpressure)

Intermediate Intermediate PC
pressure pressure

Condensate

Condensate FIG. 8.38e

The extraction turbine generates as much intermediate pressure
FIG. 8.38d steam as required by the plant, while taking as much high-pressure
Typical installation of condensing- and backpressure-type steam steam from its supply header to meet the load by maintaining its
turbines. shaft speed constant.

2006 by Bla Liptk


Steam HPS
HPS
1st
T T
MPS
PC
Condensate
Condensing Non-condensing
Extraction
(back-pressure)
FIG. 8.38f
Terminology used to describe various steam turbine installations.
using steam from the top of the plants thermodynamic
cycle.
Similarly, a turbine installed between the noncondensed
exhaust of another turbine and the condensate system of the
plant is called a bottoming turbine. A topping turbine could
also be described as a noncondensing or back-pressure
unit, and a bottoming turbine as merely a condensing tur-
bine. Figure 8.38f describes the main variations of turbine
configurations.
The terms topping and bottoming as generally used
describe turbines that are designed to work over unusual
ranges of pressures. For example, a bottoming turbine is
unusual in that it is generally designed for operating at a very
low inlet pressure, and hence the term bottoming is more
descriptive than the more generic term of condensing.
Steam turbines can also be classified according to the
purpose of their installation. If a turbines purpose is to gen-
erate electricity, it might be called a generator drive, while
if its purpose is to drive a pump or compressor, it can be
called a mechanical drive.
Internal Design Configurations
From an internal design perspective, the steam turbine is either
an impulse- or a reaction-type design. In the United
States, almost all turbine designs are of the axial flow variety,
and only a small number are the tangential flow variety. In
Europe, a significant number of turbines are the radial flow
design.
The steam turbine can also be single-stage or multistage;
if multistage and as a function of the number of parallel exhaust
stages, one would refer to the turbines as single-flow, double-
flow, and so forth.
The casing and shaft arrangement is also an important
way of categorizing turbines. In a single casing machine,
there is a single casing and one shaft. In a tandem design,
there are two or more casings connected end to end by a
shaft. In cross-compound configurations, there are two or
more casings connected by multiple shafts.
As can be seen from the above, a turbine can be described
on the basis of at least three methods of classification.
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2141
HPS Exhaust of
2nd PC other turbine
T
Condensate T
MPS
Condensate
Bottoming
Topping
STEAM TURBINE GOVERNORS
There are two broad categories of steam turbine controls:
safety systems and process systems. Both will be
described in the paragraphs that follow. Safety systems are
intended to eliminate or, at least, to minimize the possibility
of damage to the machine or the hazard to operators. Process
control systems serve to control the operation of the machine,
so as to follow the load in a stable and efficient manner.
The Governor Valve
One valve, the governor valve, is common to all turbine
applications. This is the valve between the main steam supply
and the turbine. This valve is the primary means of control-
ling the unit. When the demand for energy from the turbine
is changed, it is the opening of this valve that changes to
match the new demand by introducing a new supply of steam
energy. The energy supply and demand is matched when the
turbine speed is constant.
If the supply valve is too far open, the turbine will run
at a speed above that desired. If the valve is too far closed,
the turbine will slow down. In essence, the governor valve
controls the flow of steam, generally measured in pounds per
hour, into the turbine with the assumption that inlet and outlet
conditions are constant. When that is the case and the shaft
speed is constant, there is a balance between the steam flow
and the shaft horsepower.
Some of the steam turbines can only be operated at con-
stant speed because the characteristics of their steam supply
valves (the governor valves) are not suited for throttling,
because of their quick-opening characteristics. A quick-opening
valve plug (Figures 6.19a and 6.19f) is like the plug of a
bathtub in which a slight lift results in nearly maximum
flow.
By changing that characteristic, a constant-speed turbine
can be changed into a variable-speed one. Figure 8.38g illus-
trates how, by welding into the governor seat a characterizing
ring, the initially quick-opening characteristic can be altered
and the turbine can be changed to operate at variable speed.
2142 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

B with a hinge in the center to allow vertical motion of each.

C
Part B By gearing to the shaft of the turbine, the assembly was made
to rotate. As the shaft speed increased, the weights lifted up
Part A toward horizontal.
A linkage controlled the throttling valve by admitting
Quick
opening less steam as the weights rose and more as they fell. This
plug system was the beginning of automatic machine control and
A
is still used almost unchanged in some modern mechanical
governors.
Part A Part B

Hydraulic Droop Governors

A + 0.03" B + 0.03"
In hydraulic governors, the shaft speed is generally detected
C + 0.1" by a flyball, but instead of a direct mechanical linkage
30 30
0.2" 0.1" 0.2" between the position of the flyballs and the control valve, a
0.5" C + 0.5" hydraulic system is used to amplify the force generated by
the flyball position. The amplification feature improves con-
trol sensitivity, because very small changes in flyball position,
FIG. 8.38g
corresponding to small changes in shaft speed, are sufficient
A double-seated steam governor valve can be rebuilt for optimized
variable-speed service. The notched rings provide the necessary
to produce effective control actions. In addition to amplifi-
rangeability. cation, the signal can also be characterized as needed for
stability.
Two types of governors are distinguished: In the isoch-
The Early Speed Governors ronous design, the objective is to maintain the speed of shaft
rotation constant regardless of load, while in the droop
The speed of the turbine is controlled by the governor. design, the speed of the machine is deliberately decreased as
Governors can be mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical. They load increases (Figure 8.38i). The droop governor is a propor-
all include a pilot valve, or a more sophisticated controller, tional-only controller, which cannot change its output control
which modulates the turbines inlet valve in order to keep the signal without first developing an error. This offset phenom-
shaft speed on set point. ena was explained in connection with Figure 2.2e in Chapter 2.
Mechanical governors have been developed from James The terms offset and droop are interchangeable.
Watts original flyball governor shown in Figure 8.38h. The On an increase in speed, the flyballs of a droop governor
assembly consisted of two weights on the end of short arms, move out, which raises the stem on the pilot valve. This
movement is opposed by the spring. Pressure is applied from
the pilot valve to the top of the actuator; the bottom of the
actuator drains to the sump through the pilot valve. This
decreases the throttle setting. As the linkage moves down,
the spring force increases and the force provided by the
flyballs is exactly opposed. This moves the pilot valve back
to the null position, which maintains the new lower speed.
Steam Droop governors can be an advantage in some applica-
supply
tions. For example, if two steam turbines are used to drive
two electric generators that are electrically connected in par-
allel, the droop characteristic will allow the generators to share
the total load, whereas isochronous governors would not.
If both generators were to run at exactly the same speed,
the division of load between them would depend only on the
electrical characteristics of the generators. If they were not
precisely identical, which is always the case, the division of
FIG. 8.38h
load between them would be unequal. If the speeds were not
Schematic representation of flyball governor. As shaft changes
perfectly matched, one might carry all of the load.
speed, rotating fly balls move up and down. Linkage then controls
steam supply valve to regulate steam rate. If shaft speed is too fast, A droop governor, however, would cause the one turbine
balls move up, raising linkage, which then closes down the inlet with the heavier load to tend to slow down. When the load
valve. If shaft speed is too slow, balls drop, lowering collar and carried by the first generator matched that of the other unit
opening the inlet valve. and began to surpass it, the first unit would slow down. An

2006 by Bla Liptk


Pressure
Pressure
relief lines
Sump Pilot valve
FIG. 8.38i
The design of a droop governor.
equilibrium would be quickly established with each unit car-
rying a share of the load.
The problems requiring compensation generally include
instability that occurs during speed changes. In high-gain
control systems, buffering is used to minimize instability. In
this case, the governor introduces droop on all speed changes
and controls the rate at which the temporary droop charac-
teristic is removed. In this way, speed transitions can
smoothly be made. The droop due to buffering can be built
into a governor whether the device is a droop type or not.
Electronic Governors
Electronic governors perform the same functions as their
mechanical-hydraulic counterparts, but in a somewhat differ-
ent way. The flyballs are replaced by an electronic tachometer
input that is usually generated by a magnetic sensor. The
sensor can be triggered when the teeth of a gear connected
to the machines shaft pass by it (Figure 8.38j).
The varying reluctance of the magnetic circuit is used to
generate a periodic function with a frequency proportional
to the rotational speed of the shaft. The control valve is most
often throttled hydraulically, although its actuator can also
Permanent
magnet Output
signal
Sensor winding
Toothed wheel
Rotation (magnetic material)
driven by
rotating member
FIG. 8.38j
Schematic of an induction-type speed sensor.
2006 by Bla Liptk
8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2143
Increasing
Throttle
setting
Decreasing
Actuator
be electronic or pneumatic. The characteristics of the con-
troller are determined by its transfer function, which usually
provides similar performance as that of the earlier designs.
The main difference is that a wider range of features can
be built into a single unit, and the same design can be easily
adapted to a variety of applications. For example, in addition
to speed control, the governor can maintain either the inlet
or the exhaust pressure or can control or manipulate other
process conditions. Further, it can automatically parallel gen-
erator sets, provide overspeed protection, and monitor other
machine safety devices so a shutdown can be effected in the
event of an unsafe condition. Electronic governors provide
versatility rather than improved performance.
Advanced Governors
Advanced control systems perform speed control, load con-
trol, steam pressure control, valve testing, remote control, and
turbine protection. Normal operation, in addition to speed,
load, and steam pressure modulating control, also includes
valve testing and remote control (autodispatch, autosynchro-
nizer, and so on). Even the advanced controls usually operate
the high-pressure and low-pressure valves through the existing
electrohydraulic controls of the turbine.
Further information on steam turbine performance and
speed control can be found in API Standard 611, General-
Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services, API Standard
612, Special-Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services,
NEMA Standard SM21, Multistage Steam Turbines for
Mechanical Drive Service (Table 8.38k), and NEMA Stan-
dard SM22, Single-Stage Turbines for Mechanical Drive
Systems. Performance objectives of governors are covered
in NEMA Standard SM22-3.13.
Governor systems are classified as A, B, C, or D, depend-
ing on performance objectives. Table 8.38k summarizes the
basis for these classifications.
2144 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

TABLE 8.38k
Governor Classification and Performance per NEMA SM21
Speed, Maximum Speed Maximum Speed Maximum Speed Trip Speed
a b c d e
Class Range, % Regulation, % Variation, % Rise, % Setting, %

A 10, 20, 30, 50, 65 10 0.75 13 115

B 10, 20, 30, 50, 65, 80 6 0.50 7 110
C 10, 20, 30, 50, 65, 80 4 0.25 7 110
D 10, 30, 50, 65, 80, 85, 90 0.5 0.25 7 110
a
Governor may be adjusted to produce any speed within this percentage of rate speed.
b
Maximum speed regulation from no load to full load.
c
Maximum speed variation when operation is at constant load.
d
Maximum overspeed that can occur under any operating conditions.
e
Proper overspeed trip setting to coordinate with governor maximum speed rise.

CONTROLS AND OPTIMIZATION
A number of control systems will be described here in an order
of increasing sophistication. These will include the controls
for pressure let-down and extraction turbine controls. Controls
systems will also be described for the decoupling of interaction
between control loops and for optimization purposes.
ernor will detect this increase in speed and act to eliminate it.
Its means of doing so is to reduce the energy supplied to the
turbine by closing the supply valve.
If the net change in the energy balance were negative,
the shaft would slow down and the governor would respond
by opening the supply valve.
Pressure Let-Down Control

The Basic Turbine Controller A noncondensing turbine is generally less expensive to buy
and to operate than a condensing one, because the energy is
The simplest application is one in which a turbine is used to extracted from the steam while it has a higher enthalpy, and
operate a mechanical load at constant speed. Here, steam is hence, it has a smaller volume per unit of energy. This has
supplied from a header and is condensed in the turbine the desirable effect of reducing the size of the turbine and,
(Figure 8.38l). In this case, the speed controller (governor) frequently, also increasing its efficiency.
senses the shaft speed and manipulates the steam supply Because plants usually have a requirement for low-pressure
valve to keep the speed on set point. steam for various loads, such as heating, the low-pressure
Variations in load, caused by either shaft loading or vari- steam generated by noncondensing turbines can often be used
ations in supply header pressure, affect the balance between to advantage. (Figure 8.33b illustrated the control system to
the energy supplied to the turbine from the steam system and be used if the plant also has a requirement for high-pressure
the work removed from the turbines shaft. If more energy is steam, and therefore total HP steam must be shared between
available than is being used, the shaft will speed up. The gov- the HP steam users and the steam turbine.)
In designing any let-down steam turbine controls, it is
important to evaluate the relative amounts of the exhaust
steam flow from the turbine and the demand for low pressure
High steam in the plant and make sure that one has considered all
pressure header
possible combinations.
Speed Speed control
controller valve
(governor)
SC Optimized Electricity Recovery For example, if the plants
demand for low-pressure steam is variable, it is desirable to
Shaft
speed
send that variable amount of steam through a let-down turbine
sensing Load and to recover its energy content in the form of electricity.
On the other hand, one should not send more high-pressure
Cooling steam to the turbine than the amount of low-pressure steam
water demanded by the process. These two goals can be converted
into two control loops as shown in Figure 8.38m.
Condensate In this control configuration, the pressure controller (PC)
FIG. 8.38l serves to make sure that all low-pressure steam users in the
Simple mechanical drive. plant are always satisfied, because if the LP steam pressure

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2145

High pressure steam HP steam
users
FT FC
PC
Electricity
PT
LP steam
users
FIG. 8.38m
This control system will follow the variable low-pressure steam
demand, while sending most of the HP steam through the turbine
to convert its energy content into electricity.
drops, it opens up the turbine bypass to the HP steam header.
If the LP steam users cannot tolerate superheating of their steam
supply, the bypass has to be provided with a desuperheater.
The task of the flow controller (FC) is to make sure that
whatever happens to be the LP steam demand of the plant,
it is satisfied mostly by exhaust steam, from which the excess
energy has already been recovered in the form of electricity.
The flow controller does that by keeping the flow in the
bypass at some minimum rate and increasing the HP flow to
the turbine as soon as the bypass flow starts to increase.
The control configuration in Figure 8.38m can only
be used when the load on the turbine is not determined by the
process, but is freely variable, such as in plants where the
excess steam energy is utilized for the cogeneration of elec-
tricity. While energy conservation dictates that the flow
through pressure let-down line be minimized, control dynam-
ics suggest that it should not be completely eliminated. This
is because the speed of response of a let-down valve is much
faster than that of a turbine. Therefore, the sensitive control
of the LP steam pressure is provided by the let-down pressure
controller, while the bulk of the steam passes through the
turbine and is used to make electricity.
Under the discussion of extraction turbine controls in a later
paragraph, Figure 8.38r describes the control configuration
required if the LP load of the plant can exceed the full capacity
of the turbine or when the demand for LP steam can drop
below the steam flow from the let-down section of the turbine.
Valve Position-Based Optimization It was noted in con-
nection with Figure 8.38m that if the low-pressure header is
supplied by just throttling the high-pressure steam through a
control valve, a considerable amount of energy is lost. It was
shown that if the LP steam is supplied by a noncondensing
turbine, much less energy is lost. In that configuration, the
low-pressure header is supplied preferentially by the steam
turbine.
Figure 8.38n illustrates the control system for an instal-
lation where the flow controller (FC) sets the turbines speed
controller and the objective is to maintain shaft speed rela-
tively constant. In such a case, the amount of LP steam
available from the turbine depends on its load. Therefore, if
LP demand exceeds the turbines ability to supply it, addi-
tional steam has to be supplied through the pressure let-down
valve in the turbines bypass. This bypass valve is controlled
by the LP header pressure controller (PC).

Resets the HPS

pressure
controller
setpoint

High pressure steam (HPS)

Set for Pressure
VPC 90% min. ow letdown
valve PC Pressure controller
SC FC FT
SP Load
(electric
generator)
Low pressure header
PT pressure transmitter

Low pressure steam (LPS)

Low pressure loads

Condensate

FIG. 8.38n
Back-pressure turbine control system for the generation of LP steam, provided with valve position-based optimizer.

2006 by Bla Liptk

2146 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
If the only user of high-pressure steam in the plant is the
turbine shown in Figure 8.38n, then the HPS pressure con-
troller (not shown) set point can be adjusted to keep the steam
governor valve always nearly open (90%). This is done by
an integral-only valve position controller (VPC) that reduces
the HPS pressure controller set point whenever the governor
valve is less than, say, 90% open.
As the HPS supply pressure is reduced, more HP steam
will be needed to meet the same electric load on the turbine,
and therefore, the governor valve will open. This control strat-
egy, which keeps the governor valve nearly open, is an optimi-
zation strategy, because the same load is being met with less
pressure drop through the governor valve, and therefore it is
being met at a higher efficiency.
The flow controller in the turbine bypass, as was explained
in connection with Figure 8.38m, serves to make sure that
most of the steam is sent through the turbine. Therefore, when-
ever excessive amounts of steam pass through the let-down
valve, the flow controller (FC) increases the speed set point
and thereby increases the amount of steam passing through
the turbine.
Extraction Turbine Control
In addition to the governor valve, in extraction turbines, a
second valve is required. It controls the steam flow rate
that is extracted from the first stage of the turbine and is sent
to the second stage. The extraction rate can be controlled to
keep the pressure of the LP header constant, but it can also
be a function of shaft speed, or a combination of the two.
If the turbine incorporates the controls as a built-in fea-
ture, the turbine is referred to as an automatic-extraction
type. Such turbines are generally designed to deliver 100%
shaft power and to provide extraction steam only if the load
requirements permit. This is the most common type of extrac-
tion machine.
Extraction turbines may be visualized as two-stage units
from which steam can be removed at a pressure between that
of the supply and that of the exhaust. When the demand for
work (load) on the turbine is small, the high-pressure stage
may be adequate to meet the work load, and consequently,
a large amount of extraction steam may be available to supply
the low-pressure header. As work load increases, the second
stage becomes necessary to meet the demand for added work
and begins to compete for the steam previously being
extracted. The control system must allow for this to occur, if
meeting the work load is the first priority.
At least a minimal amount of steam must be maintained
through the second stage to prevent overheating. This require-
ment may necessitate limiting extraction, but it can also
require the maintaining of a specific second-stage discharge
pressure. These requirements are given in the manufacturers
operating specifications.
LPS Demand Exceeding First-Stage Exhaust Figure 8.38o
shows an extraction turbine in a pressure let-down application.
2006 by Bla Liptk
High pressure
header
PC
SC Inlet valve
1 st 2 nd
Load
Stage Stage
Extraction
valve
(Generally
built into
PT the turbine)
Low
pressure
header
Condensate
Condensate
FIG. 8.38o
The controls of an extraction turbine in a pressure let-down appli-
cation, where the demand for LPS always exceeds the steam avail-
able from the interstage of the turbine.
In this example, the exhaust of the first stage is used to supply
a low-pressure header, while the second stage is condensing.
The speed controller (governor) is arranged by hydraulic or
mechanical linkage to close (or nearly close) the extraction
valve, if the turbine speed can be maintained by the governor
throttling the HP steam supply valve to the first stage (the
steam inlet valve).
If speed cannot be maintained by the first stage alone,
the extraction valve starts to open, admitting more steam to
the second (condensing) stage and, consequently, starving the
low-pressure header. When the available extraction steam is
insufficient, similarly to the arrangement in the previous fig-
ures, a pressure-controlled bypass valve is used to maintain
the pressure in the low-pressure header.
LPS Demand Less Than First-Stage Exhaust So far, it has
been assumed that the low-pressure header can use all the
steam that is available from the turbine. If this is not the
case if the interstage steam supply is in excess of the low-
pressure headers requirements the excess steam must be
condensed or vented to protect from overpressuring the LPS
header. Figure 8.38p illustrates the controls that will protect
against either unnecessary condensing or wasting treated
water by venting the steam.
In this control configuration, if the low-pressure header
does not need the steam, the HP steam supply flow to the
first stage of the turbine is reduced. Because this reduces
the energy available from the first stage, the extraction valve
is opened to the condensing stage to supply the additional
horsepower required to maintain shaft speed. The main
 8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2147

High pressure High pressure

(HPS) Set for Supply 2nd (HPS)
D/A R/A
Supply minimum FC PY valve Condensing
PC PY valve ow + FC stage
+ FC 1st Loads
Stage
2nd SC R/A
1st Loads FC
Condensing
Stage FC PC
stage Nonautomatic
R/A extraction
SC R/A PT valve Low
FC pressure
Automatic (LPS)
extraction
valve
PT Condensate

Low pressure FIG. 8.38q

(LPS) The addition of a pressure-controlled let-down line increases the
speed of response, while the flow controller minimizes the energy
waste through that line.
Condensate

FIG. 8.38p dynamics of the turbines extraction control system. The

The controls of an extraction turbine in a pressure let-down appli-
cation, where the demand for LPS is always less than the steam
available from the interstage of the turbine.
difference with the controls in Figure 8.38o is that the pres-
sure controller (PC) that maintains the pressure in the LPS
header does not modulate a bypass valve, because there is
no bypass. Instead, it reduces the HP steam supply to the
turbine if the LPS pressure rises, by sending a negative bias
to the summing relay (PY).
The speed controller (SC) in this configuration controls
the extraction valve to maintain the shaft speed. The speed
controllers output to the HPS supply valve is sent to the
positive input of a summing relay (PY). In the absence of a
signal from the PC to the negative input of PY, this scheme
would operate the same way as the controls in Figure 8.38o.
The pressure controller on the LPS header in Figure 8.38p
is direct-acting, so its output will increase when the LPS
header pressure rises. This increasing control signal will be sub-
tracted from the speed controllers output and will cause the
FC inlet valve to close slightly. This, in turn, will cause the
turbine to slow down.
As the shaft speed drops, the speed controller will attempt
to open the inlet valve by increasing its output signal, but the
change will again be resisted by the pressure controller. As
speed falls off, the reverse-acting speed controller will open
the extraction valve. As a consequence, the pressure in the
LPS header will decrease. This will cause the pressure con-
troller to reduce its output, which in turn will slightly open
the HPS supply valve, which will increase the shaft speed,
and therefore, the speed controller will close the extraction
valve somewhat. Eventually, after much interaction, a new
equilibrium will be achieved.
Improving the Control Dynamics The dynamics of the pres-
sure control system in Figure 8.38p is dependent on the
characteristic of the extraction valve is often not suitable for
throttling control and can be improved by use of a charac-
terizing positioner.
Another method of improving the dynamic response of
the control system in Figure 8.38p is to provide a pressure
let-down bypass line, as shown in Figure 8.38q. Here, the
pressure controller (PC) provides the sensitivity required for
quick response, while the flow controller (FC) keeps the flow
in the bypass line at a minimum, as it slowly opens the HPS
supply valve to the turbine whenever the flow in the bypass
line exceeds its set point.
Flexibility by Controller Sequencing If the relative sizes of
the work load on the turbine and the users demand for LPS
are unpredictable, the previously described control systems
will not work. Figure 8.38r illustrates a control strategy that
utilizes controller set-point sequencing to allow optimized
and stable operation under any combination of relative load
sizes.
If the demand for LPS exceeds the amount of exhaust
steam available, the control system shown in Figure 8.38r
will operate in a similar manner as did the control system in
Figure 8.38o, by the pressure controller (PC) providing the
additional steam through the pressure let-down bypass line.
The main difference between the two control systems is the
addition of the optimizing controller FC-3, which is set at a
bypass flow rate slightly exceeding the set point of FC-1.
Therefore, if the pressure controller (PC) opens the
bypass and the let-down flow rate exceeds the set point of
FC-1, the previously inactive (saturated) FC-3 becomes
active and starts cutting back the LPS steam flow to the boiler
feed water preheater and, thereby, reduces the plants demand
for LPS. This is an energy-efficient response because the
energy recovered from the LPS supplied to the feedwater
preheater is less than the energy content of the HP steam that
is needed to produce that LPS.

2006 by Bla Liptk

2148 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

High pressure steam HP steam

users
SP = A
FC CV1
FT
1
SP = A + 1%
SP = A 1%
FC FC
3 2

PC 1st 2nd
Load
stage stage

Condensate
PT
Feed water CV3 CV2 LP steam
preheater users

FIG. 8.38r
This control system is both flexible and optimized: FC-1 keeps the bypass flow to a minimum, while FC-3 reduces the LPS demand if it
exceeds the work load on the turbine, and FC-3 makes more steam energy available to the turbine if the LPS demand is below the work load.

If the relative loads are reversed and the LPS availability Therefore, if the control model is properly tuned and the
exceeds the demand for LPS, this will cause the pressure in gains of the summers PY-1 and PY-2 are properly set, there
the LPS header to rise and the pressure controller (PC) to will be no interaction between speed and pressure control,
reduce down the bypass flow. When this let-down flow drops
below the set point of FC-1, the previously inactive (satu-
rated) FC-2 becomes active and admits that part of the LP High pressure header
steam that is not needed in the LPS header into the second, Supply
condensing stage of the turbine. valve
FC
Any number of such bypass flow controllers can be used
to sequentially respond to changes in the relative sizes of the
work and LP steam loads. These controllers should be provided
by integral action only, so that they will be saturated (and their 1st 2nd
Loads
control valves closed) until their set points are reached. Stage Stage

SC R/A
Decoupling the Interaction If the turbine is a nonautomatic FC
extraction type, and therefore one can send a control signal Nonautomatic
to the extraction valve (as was the case in Figure 8.38r), the extraction valve
interaction between the pressure and turbine speed control-
lers can be decoupled. In the control system configuration + PY
2
shown in Figure 8.38s, a drop in the speed of the shaft opens + +
both the inlet and the extraction valves, and an increase in PY
1
shaft speed closes both of them. D/A
PC
In this control system, when the LPS header pressure
rises, the pressure controller (PC) output rises, and therefore
the PY-1 output drops and the supply valve closes. At the PT
same time, the increase in the PC output increases the output
Low pressure
of PY-2, which opens the extraction valve. When the LPS
header
header pressure drops, the opposite is the response: The sup-
ply valve opens and the extraction valve closes.
Condensate
If the weighing of the combining algorithms (PY-1 and
PY-2) is correct (if they properly consider features of the FIG. 8.38s
valves and the time constants of the loop components), the One way to eliminate interaction between flow and pressure loops
response to changing pressure conditions, the supply, and is to allow the pressure controller to throttle both the supply and
extraction valves will complement each other. the extraction valves.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2149

and the speed control will not be adversely affected by the
responses to pressure disturbances, and vice versa. The speed
of the response of this system can also improved by the
addition of bypass let-down controls be shown in Figure 8.38q.
On the other hand, if the speed of response of the turbine is
sufficient to respond to pressure variations, the let-down sta-
tion (shown in Figure 8.38q) can be eliminated.
An intriguing aspect of this control configuration is the
possibility of eliminating the need to throttle steam com-
pletely, if the turbines operating capacity sufficiently matches
the low-pressure headers demand for LPS. In that case the
supply valve is kept fully open, as was the case in the control
configuration shown in Figure 8.38n, and the pressure controls
of the LPS header determine the distribution of the extracted
steam between the turbines second stage and the LPS header.
Obviously, this configuration is only viable if the size and
characteristics of the turbine are properly selected.
SAFETY CONTROLS
The turbine protection system protects the turbine from over-
speeding, monitors all critical turbine parameters, and trips
the turbine if a condition exists that could cause equipment
damage. Thermal stress monitoring performs the calculations
needed to determine thermal conditions of the turbine and
safe parameters for control operation. It also provides the
operator with information on rotor thermal stress (acceleration
and load rates, and maximum allowable initial load pick-up).
The main safety control element on a turbine is the steam
supply valve. This safety valve can be a separate on/off valve,
or the shut-off function can be incorporated into the controls
of the steam supply valve that is used for speed control.
Taking the turbine off-line is accomplished by closing this
valve. Consequently, the safety control system should be so
designed as to require that all interlocks be satisfied before
this valve is allowed to open.
As shown in Figure 8.38t, the safety interlocks usually
include the safety response to lube oil failure, high bearing
temperature, overspeed, and vibration. Lube oil is generally
monitored by a pressure switch in the case of pressure lubri-
cation systems or by a level switch in nonpressure systems.
If the lube oil failure switch is not satisfied, the turbine shut-
off valve is closed.
The sudden loss of load will cause the turbine to over-
speed. This can happen in mechanical drive applications, but
it is a more common occurrence in electrical generator drives.
Abnormal electrical conditions in a distribution system can

Coupling

PD

RTD
Lube oil

PSL R PD

3Y 4X PD

Power Radial Radial

Axial
supply RPM (thrust) Bearing vibration vibration
Turbine alarm tachometer temp high low
shuto position
Turbine module pressure pressure
valve
Active Steam Turbine
thrust alarm Monitoring
Annunciator
PD equipment

5Y 6X PD

R RTD

T
1
PD
End of shaft
2
PD

FIG. 8.38t
Turbine health-monitoring system. PD: Position detector, proximity sensor. (Adapted from Figure C-1 of American Petroleum Institute
Standard 670, Noncontacting Vibration and Axial Position Monitoring System.)

2006 by Bla Liptk

2150 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
cause protective devices to separate the generator from the
system. In that case, a generator that may have been supply-
ing megawatts of power and, consequently, megawatts of load
to its prime mover can suddenly disappear, leaving only a
small demand for energy that will serve to overcome the
friction of its bearing and the windage on its moving parts.
When this occurs, if the control system is not fast enough
to reduce the steam supply to the turbine, it will overspeed.
This condition can be detected by a variety of devices, such
as centrifugal switches, electronic tachometers, or strain-
detecting devices installed on or near such components of the
machine that are affected by the overspeed condition.
Bearing temperature is an additional indication if lubri-
cation is functioning properly. It is also a way of detecting
the deterioration in bearings before complete mechanical fail-
ure. Mechanical wear accelerates as a result of improper
lubrication or because of mechanical stresses that cause
deformation of the bearings component parts. In either case,
the bearing begins to dissipate abnormally large amounts of
energy, which in turn results in heating.
Consequently, a sudden rise in bearing temperature is
generally an indication of incipient failure. It is important to
quickly stop the machine when a potential bearing failure is
detected. This is because some turbine designs maintain very
small clearances between stationary and rotating parts. If the
bearing deforms, it may mean the total destruction of the
machine.
Especially on larger machines, a stationary vibration-
monitoring system is usually installed. Such a system gen-
erally consists of accelerometers or proximity sensors located
radially in each bearing and axially on the end of the shaft
or the thrust collar. Two sensors positioned at right angles
are typically used in bearings.
Electronic monitoring equipment is used to measure the
acceleration or displacement that occurs at each monitoring
point. The monitoring equipment generally incorporates an
alarm setting, which is intended to warn an operator of an
impending problem, and a danger setting, which is
intended to shut the machine down. In many instances, a
vibration-initiated shutdown can prevent major damage in
situations in which, without prompt action, equipment could
be lost.
Sequential Controls
In power generating installations, the monitoring and sequen-
tial controls serve to automatically bring the turbine from
turning gear to generator grid synchronization. These con-
trols evaluate such parameters as bearing temperatures and
vibration, water detection, and differential expansion. The
control package advises the operator on current turbine status
and provides recommended actions.
Vibration monitoring equipment is covered extensively
in Section 7.22 in Chapter 7 of the first volume of this
handbook.
2006 by Bla Liptk
CONCLUSIONS
Steam turbines are versatile energy conversion devices that,
in addition to powering a variety of mechanical loads, can
do an excellent job of extracting energy that might otherwise
be wasted from a plants thermodynamic cycle. They provide
opportunities for process improvements and energy savings.
Therefore, their application should be carefully and insight-
fully considered. The controls of the high-pressure and low-
pressure steam admission valves most often are implemented
through the existing (furnished electrohydraulic) turbine
controls.
Advanced controls include the features of redundant con-
trol, on-line tuning, field-proven hardware, and remote oper-
ator displays, including custom graphics, report generation,
and on-line, systemwide integration. There usually are four
separate and redundant control packages, which perform
operator automatic control (OAC), thermal stress monitoring,
sequential control, and turbine protection functions.
As has been discussed in this section, OAC control
includes speed, load, and steam pressure modulating control,
as well as valve testing and remote control operation (auto-
dispatch, autosynchronizer, and process interface).
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