10.
2 The Theory of Equations (10-9)
In this
section
The Number of Roots to a
Polynomial Equation
The Conjugate Pairs
Theorem
Descartes Rule of Signs
Bounds on the Roots
E X A M P L E 1 Finding all roots to a polynomial equation
537
10.2 T H E T H E O R Y O F E Q U A T I O N S
The zeros of a polynomial function P(x) are the same as the roots of the polynomial
equation P(x)  0. Remember that one of our main goals in algebra is to keep
expanding our knowledge of solving equations. In this section we will learn several
facts that are useful in solving polynomial equations.
The Number of Roots to a Polynomial Equation
In solving a polynomial equation by factoring, we find that a factor may occur more
than once.
Multiplicity
If the factor x  c occurs n times in the complete factorization of the
polynomial P(x), then we say that c is a root of the equation P(x)  0 with
multiplicity n.
For example, the equation x2  10x  25  0 is equivalent to (x  5)(x  5)  0.
The only root to this equation is 5. Since the factor x  5 occurs twice, we say that
5 is a root with multiplicity 2. Counting multiplicity, every quadratic equation has
two roots.
Consider a polynomial equation P(x)  0 of positive degree n. By the funda-
mental theorem of algebra there is at least one complex root c1 to this equation. By
the factor theorem P(x)  0 is equivalent to (x  c1)Q1(x)  0, where Q1(x) is a
polynomial with degree n  1 (the quotient when P(x) is divided by x  c1). By the
fundamental theorem of algebra there is at least one complex root c2 to Q1(x)  0.
By the factor theorem P(x)  0 can be written as (x  c1)(x  c2)Q2(x)  0, where
Q2(x) is a polynomial with degree n  2. Continuing this reasoning n times, we get
a quotient polynomial that has 0 degree, n factors for P(x), and n complex roots, not
necessarily all different. We have just proved the following theorem.
n-Root Theorem
If P(x)  0 is a polynomial equation with real or complex coefficients and
positive degree n, then counting multiplicities, P(x)  0 has n roots.
Note that the n-root theorem also means that a polynomial function of positive
degree n has n zeros, counting multiplicities.
State the degree of each polynomial equation. Find all of the real and imaginary
roots to each equation, stating multiplicity when it is greater than 1.
a) 6x5  24x3  0 b) (x  3)2(x  4)5  0
Solution
a) The equation is a fifth-degree equation. We can solve it by factoring:
6x3(x2  4)  0
6x  0
3
or x2  4  0
x3  0 or x2  4
x0 or x  2i
538 (10-10) Chapter 10 Polynomial and Rational Functions

calculator The roots are 2i and 0. Since 0 is a root with multiplicity 3, counting multi-
plicities there are five roots.
b) If we would multiply the factors in this polynomial equation, then the highest
close-up power of x would be 7. So the degree of the equation is 7. There are only two dis-
tinct roots to the equation, 3 and 4. We say that 3 is a root with multiplicity
You can check Example 1 by 2 and 4 is a root with multiplicity 5. So counting multiplicities, there are seven
examining the graphs shown roots to the equation.
here.
50
The Conjugate Pairs Theorem
5 5 The solutions to the quadratic equation x 2  2x  5  0 are the complex numbers
1  2i and 1  2i. These numbers are conjugates of one another. The quadratic
formula guarantees that complex solutions of quadratic equations with real coeffi-
50 cients occur in conjugate pairs. This situation also occurs for polynomial equations
The roots to the equations cor- of higher degree.
respond to the x-intercepts.
15,000
Conjugate Pairs Theorem
If P(x)  0 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients and the complex
10 5 number a  bi (b  0) is a root, then the complex number a  bi is also a
root.
6000

E X A M P L E 2 Finding an equation with given roots

calculator
close-up
You can check Example 2 by
examining the graph shown
here. The graph should cross
the x-axis only once because
the function has only one real
root.
50
5 5
50
Find a polynomial equation with real coefficients that has 2 and 1  i as roots.
Solution
Since the polynomial is to have real coefficients, the imaginary roots occur in con-
jugate pairs. So a polynomial with these two roots actually must have at least three
roots: 2, 1  i, and 1  i. Since each root of the equation comes from a factor of the
polynomial, we can write the following equation:
(x  2)(x  [1  i])(x  [1  i])  0
(x  2)(x2  2x  2)  0 (1  i)(1  i)  1  i2  2
x3  4x2  6x  4  0
This equation has the required solutions and the smallest degree. Any multiple of this
equation would also have the required solutions but would not be as simple.
Descartes Rule of Signs
None of the theorems in this chapter tells us how to find all of the n roots to a poly-
nomial equation of degree n. The theorems and rules presented here add to our
knowledge of polynomial equations and help us to solve more equations. Descartes
rule of signs is a method for looking at a polynomial equation and estimating the
number of positive, negative, and imaginary solutions.
When a polynomial is written in descending order, a variation of sign occurs
when the signs of consecutive terms change. For example, if P(x)  3x 5  7x4 
8x3  x2  3x  9, there are sign changes in going from the first to the second
terms, from the fourth to the fifth terms, and from the fifth to the sixth terms. So

E X A M P L E 3 Discussing the possibilities for the roots
calculator
close-up
The following graph shows us
that there are actually two
positive roots, one negative
root, and no imaginary roots
to the equation in Example 3.
50
5 5
50
E X A M P L E 4 Discussing the possibilities for the roots
10.2 The Theory of Equations (10-11) 539
there are three variations in sign for P(x). Descartes rule requires that we also count
the variations in sign for P(x) after it is simplified:
P(x)  3(x)5  7(x)4  8(x)3  (x)2  3(x)  9
 3x5  7x 4  8x3  x2  3x  9
In the polynomial P(x) the signs of the terms change from the second to the third
terms, and then the signs change again from the third to the fourth terms. So there
are two variations in sign for P(x).
Descartes Rule of Signs
If P(x)  0 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then the number
of positive roots of the equation is either equal to the number of variations of
sign of P(x) or less than that by an even number. The number of negative
roots of the equation is either equal to the number of variations in sign of
P(x) or less than that by an even number.
Discuss the possibilities for the roots to 2x3  5x2  6x  4  0.
Solution
The number of variations of sign in P(x)  2x3  5x2  6x  4 is 2. According to
Descartes rule, the number of positive roots is either 2 or 0. Since P(x) 
2(x)3  5(x)2  6(x)  4  2x3  5x2  6x  4, there is only one varia-
tion of sign in P(x). So there is exactly one negative root. If only one negative root
exists, then the other two roots must be positive or imaginary. The number of imag-
inary roots is determined by the number of positive and negative roots because the
total number of roots must be three. The following table summarizes these two
possibilities.
Number of Number of Number of
Positive Roots Negative Roots Imaginary Roots
2 1 0
0 1 2
Discuss the possibilities for the roots to 3x4  5x3  x2  8x  4  0.
Solution
The number of variations of sign in P(x)  3x4  5x3  x2  8x  4 is two.
According to Descartes rule, there are either two or no positive roots to the equa-
tion. Since P(x)  3(x)4  5(x)3  (x)2  8(x)  4  3x4  5x3 
x2  8x  4, there are two variations of sign in P(x). So the number of negative
roots is either two or zero. Each line of the following table gives a possible distrib-
ution of the type of roots to the equation.
540 (10-12) Chapter 10 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Number of Number of Number of

calculator
close-up
From the graph it appears that
there are actually two positive
roots, no negative roots, and
two imaginary roots to the
equation in Example 4.
50
Positive Roots Negative Roots Imaginary Roots
2 2 0
2 0 2
0 2 2
0 0 4
Descartes rule of signs adds to our knowledge of the roots of an equation. It
is especially helpful when the number of variations of sign is zero or one. If there
are no variations in sign for P(x), then there are no positive roots. If there is one
variation of sign in P(x), then we know that one positive root exists.

5
Bounds on the Roots
5
The next theorem on roots has to do with determining the size of the roots.

50
Theorem on Bounds
Suppose P(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients and a positive leading
coefficient, and synthetic division with c is performed.
If c
0 and all terms in the bottom row are nonnegative, then no number
greater than c can be a root of P(x)  0.
If c  0 and the terms in the bottom row alternate in sign, then no number
less than c can be a root of P(x)  0.

If there are no roots greater than c, then c is called an upper bound for the roots.
If there are no roots less than c, then c is called a lower bound for the roots. If 0 ap-
pears in the bottom row of the synthetic division, we may consider it as positive or
negative term in determining whether the signs alternate.

E X A M P L E 5 Integral bounds for the roots

Use the theorem on bounds to establish the best integral bounds for the roots of
2x3  5x2  6x  4  0.
Solution
Try synthetic division with the integers 1, 2, 3, and so on. The first integer for
which all terms on the bottom row are nonnegative is the best upper bound for the
study tip roots:

2
When studying for a big test,
such as a midterm or final
exam, review the material in
1 5
2
6
3
4
9
2
2 5 6
4 2
4
16
the order it was originally pre- 2 3 9 5 2 1 8 12
sented. This strategy will help
you to see connections be-
tween the ideas and will give
top priority to material that
you might have forgotten.
3
2 5
6
6 4
3 9
4
2 5
8
6
12
4
24
2 1 3 5 2 3 6 28

By the theorem on bounds no number greater than 4 can be a root to the equation.
Now try synthetic division with the integers 1, 2, 3, and so on. The first
 10.2 The Theory of Equations (10-13) 541

negative integer for which the terms on the bottom row alternate in sign is the best
lower bound for the roots:
1
2 5
2
6
7
4
1
2
2 5
2
6
14
4
16
2 7 1 3 2 7 8 12
By the theorem on bounds no number less than 2 can be a root to the equation. So
all of the real roots to this equation are between 2 and 4.

In the next example we will use all of the information available to find all of the
solutions to a polynomial equation.

E X A M P L E 6 Finding all solutions to a polynomial equation

calculator
close-up
Because all x-intercepts are
between 2 and 4, the graph
supports the conclusion that
Find all of the solutions to 2x3  5x2  6x  4  0.
Solution
In Example 3 we saw that this equation has either two positive roots and one
negative root or one negative root and two imaginary roots. In Example 5 we saw
that all of the real roots to this equation are between 2 and 4. From the rational
root theorem we have 1, 2, 4, and 1 as the possible rational roots. Since
2
there must be one negative root and it must be greater than 2, the only possible
numbers from the list are 1 and 1. So start by checking 1 and 1 with syn-
2 2
thetic division:

 5 6
1
2 1
2 5 6
all of the roots to the equation 2 4 4
are between 2 and 4. 1 3 3
 2 7 1
2
25
2 6 3
11

2 7 1 3
2

2 4 Since neither 1 nor 1 is a root, the negative root must be irrational. Since there
2
might be two positive roots smaller than 4, we check 1, 1, and 2:
2

 5 6
1
25  2 4
2
1 2 4
2 4 8 0

Since 1 is a root of the equation, x  1 is a factor of the polynomial:

2 2

 
1
x   (2x2  4x  8)  0
2
(2x  1)(x2  2x  4)  0
2x  1  0 or x2  2x  4  0
1 2  4
(1
4)(
4)
x   or x    1  5 
2 2
There are two positive roots, 1 and 1  5
. The negative root is 1  5
. Note that
2
the roots guaranteed by Descartes rule of signs are real numbers but not necessar-
ily rational numbers.
542 (10-14) Chapter 10 Polynomial and Rational Functions

WARM-UPS
True or false? Explain your answer.
1. The number 3 is a root of x2  9  0 with multiplicity 2. False
2. Counting multiplicities, the equation x8  1 has eight solutions in the set of
complex numbers. True
3. The number 2 is a root of multiplicity 4 for the equation
3
(3x  2)4(x2  2x  1)  0. True
4. The number 2 is a root of multiplicity 3 for the equation
(x  2)3(x2  x  6)  0. False
5. If 2  3i is a solution to a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then
2  3i is also a solution to the equation. False
6. If P(x)  0 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients and 5  4i and
3  6i are solutions to P(x)  0, then the degree of P(x) is at least 4. True
7. Both 1  i2  and 1  i2 are solutions to 7x3  5x2  6x  8  0.
False
8. If P(x)  x3  6x2  3x  2, then P(x)  x3  6x2  3x  2. False
9. The equation x3  5x2  6x  1  0 has no positive solutions. True
10. The equation x3  5  0 has two imaginary solutions. True

10. 2 EXERCISES
Reading and Writing After reading this section, write out the State the degree of each polynomial equation. Find all of the
answers to these questions. Use complete sentences. real and imaginary roots to each equation. State the multiplicity
1. What is multiplicity? of a root when it is greater than 1. See Example 1.
Multiplicity of a root c is the number of times that x  c 7. x 5  4x 3  0
occurs as a factor. Degree 5, 2, 2, 0 multiplicity 3
2. What is the n-root theorem? 8. x6  9x4  0
The n-root theorem states that a polynomial with real or Degree 6, 3i, 3i, 0 multiplicity 4
complex coefficients and positive degree n has n roots 9. x4  2x3  x 2  0
counting multiplicities. Degree 4, 0 multiplicity 2, 1 multiplicity 2
3. What is the conjugate pairs theorem? 10. x 5  4x4  4x 3  0
The conjugate pairs theorem states that for a polynomial Degree 5, 0 multiplicity 3, 2 multiplicity 2
equation with real coefficients if a  bi (b  0) is a root, 11. x4  6x2  9  0
then a  bi is also a root.
Degree 4, 3 multiplicity 2, 3  multiplicity 2
4. What is Descartes rule of signs?
12. x4  8x 2  16  0
Descartes rule of signs states that for P(x)  0 the number
Degree 4, 2 multiplicity 2, 2 multiplicity 2
of positive roots is either equal to the number of variations
of sign of P(x) or less than that by an even number. The 13. (x  1)2(x  2)2  0
number of negative roots is either equal to the number of Degree 4, 1 multiplicity 2, 2 multiplicity 2
variations in sign of P(x) or less than that by an even 14. (2x  1)2(3x  5)4  0
number. 1 5
Degree 6,  multiplicity 2,  multiplicity 4
5. What is an upper bound for the roots of a polynomial? 2 3
If there are no roots greater than c, then c is an upper bound 15. x4  2x 2  1  0
for the roots. Degree 4, 1 multiplicity 2, 1 multiplicity 2
6. What is a lower bound for the roots? 16. 4x4  4x 2  1  0
If there are no roots less than c, then c is a lower bound for 2  2
Degree 4,  multiplicity 2,  multiplicity 2
the roots. 2 2
 10.2 The Theory of Equations (10-15) 543

Find a polynomial equation with real coefficients that has the Use the rational root theorem, Descartes rule of signs, and
given roots. See Example 2. the theorem on bounds as aids in finding all solutions to each
17. 3, 2  i x 3  7x 2  17x  15  0 equation. See Example 6.
18. 4, 3  i x3  2x 2  14x  40  0 49. x 3  x  10  0 2, 1  2i
19. 2, i x3  2x 2  x  2  0 50. x 3  7x2  17x  15  0 3, 2  i
20. 4, i x3  4x 2  x  4  0 1
51. 2x3  5x2  6x  4  0 , 1  5
2
21. 0, i2 x3  2x  0 1
22. 3, i3 x3  3x 2  3x  9  0 52. 3x3  17x2  12x  6  0 , 3  3
3
23. i, 1  i x4  2x3  3x2  2x  2  0 1 2  2
53. 4x  6x  2x  1  0 , 
3 2
24. 2i, i x4  5x2  4  0 2 2
25. 1, 2 x2  3x  2  0 54. x  5x  20x  42  0 7, 1  7
3 2

1
26. , 1 2x2  x  1  0
2 56. x4  2x3  5x 2  8x  4  0 1, 2i
27. 1, 2, 3 x 3  4x2  x  6  0
28. 2, 3, 2 x3  3x2  4x  12  0
Discuss the possibilities for the roots to each equation. Do not
solve the equation. See Examples 3 and 4.
29. x 3  3x 2  5x  7  0
3 negative, or 1 negative and 2 imaginary
30. 2x 3  3x 2  5x  6  0
3 positive, or 1 positive and 2 imaginary
31. 2x 3  x2  3x  2  0
1 positive and 2 negative, or 1 positive and 2 imaginary
32. x 3  x 2  5x  1  0
1 positive and 2 negative, or 1 positive and 2 imaginary
33. x4  x 3  x 2  x  1  0
4 positive, or 2 positive and 2 imaginary, or 4 imaginary
34. x4  1  0
1 positive, 1 negative, and 2 imaginary
55. x4  5x3  5x 2  5x  6  0 1, 1, 2, 3
57. x4  7x3  17x 2  17x  6  0 1, 2, 3
58. x4  7x3  17x 2  17x  6  0 1, 2, 3
59. x6  x5  2x 4  2x3  15x 2  15x  0
0, 1, i5, 3
60. 2x6  4x 5  x 4  2x3  x2  2x  0
2
0, 2, , i
2
Solve each problem.
61. Willard is designing a cylindrical tank with cone-shaped
ends. The length of the cylinder is to be 20 feet (ft) larger
than the radius of the cylinder, and the height of the cone is
2 ft. If the volume of the tank is 984 cubic feet (ft3), then
what is the radius of the cylinder?
6 ft
x + 20

35. x4  x 2  1  0
no positive, no negative, 4 imaginary
2
36. x6  3x4  2x2  6  0 x
no positive, no negative, 6 imaginary
37. x3  x  1  0
1 positive and 2 imaginary
38. x4  3x3  5x  5  0
1 positive, 1 negative, and 2 imaginary FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 61
39. x 5  x 3  3x  0 62. Dr. Hu is designing a chemical storage tank in the shape of
4 imaginary and 0 a cylinder with hemispherical ends. If the length of the
40. x 3  5x 2  6x  0 cylinder is to be 20 ft larger than its radius and the volume
2 positive and 0, 2 imaginary and 0 is to be 3,321 ft3, then what is the radius?
9 ft
Establish the best integral bounds for the roots of each equation
according to the theorem on bounds. See Example 5. x + 20
41. x4  5x2  7  0 Between 3 and 3
42. 2x3  x 2  7x  7  0 Between 3 and 3
43. 2x3  5x 2  9x  18  0 Between 1 and 3
x
44. x2  7x  16  0 Between 2 and 9
45. x2  x  13  0 Between 5 and 4
46. x3  15x  25  0 Between 5 and 4
47. 2x 3  13x2  25x  14  0 Between 1 and 7
48. x 3  6x2  11x  6  0 Between 1 and 6 FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 62
544 (10-16) Chapter 10 Polynomial and Rational Functions

63. A box of frozen specimens measures 4 inches by 5 inches GR APHING C ALCUL ATOR
by 3 inches. It is wrapped in an insulating material of uni- EXERCISES
form thickness for shipment. The volume of the box in-
cluding the insulating material is 120 cubic inches (in.3). Find all real roots to each polynomial equation by graphing the
How thick is the insulation? corresponding function and locating the x-intercepts.
1
 in. 65. x4  12x 2  10  0
2 3.3315, 0.9492, 0.9492, 3.3315
64. An independent marketing research agency has determined 66. x 5  x4  7x 3  7x 2  12x  12  0
that the best box for breakfast cereal has a height that is 2, 1.7321, 1, 1.7321, 2
6 inches (in.) larger than its thickness and a width that is
5 in. larger than its thickness. If such a box is to have a 67. x6  9x4  20x 2  12  0
volume of 112 in.3, then what should the thickness be? 2.4495, 1.4142, 1, 1, 1.4142, 2.4495
2 in. 68. 4x 5  16 x4  5x3  20x2  x  8  0 4.0042

10.3 G R A P H S O F P O L Y N O M I A L F U N C T I O N S
In Chapter 3 we learned that the graph of a polynomial function of degree 0 or 1 is
In this a straight line and that the graph of a second-degree polynomial function is a
section parabola. In this section we will concentrate on graphs of polynomial functions of
degree larger than 2.
Symmetry
Behavior at the x-Intercepts
Symmetry y
Sketching Some Graphs
Consider the graph of the quadratic function 5
f (x)  x 2 shown in Fig. 10.1. Notice that both (2, 4) 4 f (x) = x 2
and (2, 4) are on the graph. In fact, f (x)  f (x) 3
2
for any value of x. We get the same y-coordinate
y 1
whether we evaluate the function at a number or
its opposite. This fact causes the graph to be 4 3 21 1 2 3 4 x
9 1
8 (2, 8) symmetric about the y-axis. If we folded the paper 2
7 along the y-axis, the two halves of the graph would
6 f (x) = x 3 FIGURE 10.1
5
coincide.
4
3
2 Symmetric about the y-Axis
1
If f (x) is a function such that f (x)  f (x) for any value of x in its domain,
4 3 2 1 2 3 4 x
then the graph of the function is said to be symmetric about the y-axis.

4 Consider the graph of f (x)  x 3 shown in Fig. 10.2. It is not symmetric about
5 the y-axis like the graph of f (x)  x 2, but it has a different kind of symmetry. On the
6
7
graph of f (x)  x 3 we find the points (2, 8) and (2, 8). In this case f (x) and
(2, 8) 8 f (x) are not equal, but f (x)  f (x). Notice that the points (2, 8) and (2, 8)
are the same distance from the origin and lie on a line through the origin.
FIGURE 10.2
Symmetric about the Origin
If f (x) is a function such that f (x)  f (x) for any value of x in its domain,
then the graph of the function is said to be symmetric about the origin.