The string bass instrument

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Contents
Articles
Introduction 1
Bass (instrument) 1
Clef 2

The stringed bass instrument 13

Double bass 13
Bass guitar 37
Acoustic bass guitar 55
Washtub bass 58
Piccolo bass 61
Extended-range bass 62
Electric upright bass 65

Other bass instruments 70

Serpent (instrument) 70
Keyboard bass 73
Pedal keyboard 75

The Fender story 85

Leo Fender 85
Fender Precision Bass 89
Fender Jazz Bass 94
Fender Bassman 100
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 105
Music Man (company) 111
G&L Musical Instruments 119

The bass guitar parts 125

Solid body 125
Sound box 129
Bridge (instrument) 130
Pickup (music technology) 134
Single coil 141
Humbucker 147
 Piezoelectricity 151
Neck (music) 163
Fingerboard 165
Fret 172
Fretless guitar 175
Scale (string instruments) 180
Strings (music) 187
Nut (string instrument) 193
Machine head 195
Detuner 198

Playing techniques 199

Pizzicato 199
Guitar pick 202
Palm mute 207
Slapping 210
Tapping 212
Double stop 216

Bass amplification 218

Bass instrument amplification 218
Preamplifier 224
Effects unit 225

Who is a bassist? 238

Bassist 238

References
Article Sources and Contributors 240
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 246

Article Licenses
License 252
 1

Introduction

Bass (instrument)
Bass (pronounced "base") describes musical instruments that produce tones in the low-pitched range. They belong to
different families of instruments and can cover a wide range of musical roles. Since producing low pitches usually
requires a long air column or string, the string and wind bass instruments are usually the largest instruments in their
families or instrument classes.
As seen in the musical instrument classification article, categorizing instruments can be difficult. For example, some
instruments fall into more than one category. The cello is considered a tenor instrument in some orchestral settings,
but in a string quartet it is the bass instrument.
Examples grouped by general form and playing technique include:
Double bass from the viol or violin family (usually the instrument referred to as a "bass" in European classical
music and jazz. Sometimes called a "string bass" to differentiate it from a "brass bass" or "bass horn" or "upright
bass" to differentiate it from a "bass guitar")
Bass guitar and acoustic bass guitar, instruments shaped, constructed and held (or worn) like guitars, that play
in the bass range. The electric bass guitar is usually the instrument referred to as a "bass" in pop and rock music.
A bass horn, such as a tuba, serpent, and sousaphone from the wind family and low-tuned versions of specific
types of brass and woodwind instruments, such as bassoon, bass clarinet, bass trombone and bass saxophone, etc.
(less common usage)
Keyboard bass, a keyboard alternative to the bass guitar or double bass (e.g. the Fender Rhodes piano bass in the
1960s or 13-note MIDI keyboard controllers in the 2000s)
Washtub bass, a simple folk instrument
Bass drum
A musician playing one of these instruments is often known as a bassist. Other more specific terms such as 'bass
guitarist', 'double bassist', 'bass player', etc. may also be used.

References
Apel, Willi (1969, 2000). Harvard Dictionary of Music [1] (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
ISBN0-674-37501-7. Retrieved 12 February 2011.

References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TMdf1SioFk4C
Clef 2

Clef
A clef (French: clef; key) is a musical
symbol used to indicate the pitch of
written notes.[1] Placed on one of the
lines at the beginning of the stave, it
indicates the name and pitch of the
notes on that line. This line serves as a
reference point by which the names of
the notes on any other line or space of
the stave may be determined. Only one
clef that references a note in a space
rather than on a line has ever been
used.
Treble and bass clefs shown with names of the notes.

There are three types of clef used in

modern music notation: F, C, and G. Each type of clef assigns a different reference note to the line on which it is
placed.

Clef Name Note Line

G-clef G4 passes through the curl of the clef.

C-clef Middle C (C4) passes through the centre of the clef.

F-clef F3 passes between the two dots of the clef.

Once one of these clefs has been placed on one of the lines of the stave, the other lines and spaces can be read in
relation to it.
The use of three different clefs makes it possible to write music for all instruments and voices, even though they may
have very different tessituras (that is, even though some sound much higher or lower than others). This would be
difficult to do with only one clef, since the modern stave has only five lines, and the number of pitches that can be
represented on the stave, even with ledger lines, is not nearly equal to the number of notes the orchestra can produce.
The use of different clefs for different instruments and voices allows each part to be written comfortably on the stave
with a minimum of ledger lines. To this end, the G-clef is used for high parts, the C-clef for middle parts, and the
F-clef for low partswith the important exception of transposing parts, which are written at a different pitch than
they sound, often even in a different octave.
Clef 3

Placement on the stave

In order to facilitate writing for different tessituras, any of the clefs may theoretically be placed on any of the lines of
the stave. The further down on the stave a clef is placed, the higher the tessitura it is for; conversely, the higher up
the clef, the lower the tessitura.
Since there are five lines on the stave, and three clefs, it might seem that there would be fifteen possible clefs. Six of
these, however, are redundant clefs (for example, a G-clef on the third line would be exactly the same as a C-clef on
the first line). That leaves nine possible distinct clefs, all of which have been used historically: the G-clef on the two
bottom lines, the F-clef on the three top lines, and the C-clef on any line of the stave except the topmost, earning the
name of "movable C-clef". (The C-clef on the topmost line is redundant because it is exactly equivalent to the F-clef
on the third line; both options have been used.)
Each of these clefs has a different name based on the tessitura for which it is best suited.

In modern music, only four clefs are used regularly: the treble clef, the bass clef, the alto clef, and the tenor clef. Of
these, the treble and bass clefs are by far the most common.

Individual clefs
Here follows a complete list of the clefs, along with a list of instruments and voice parts notated with them. Each clef
is shown in its proper position on the stave, followed by its reference note.
An obelisk () after the name of a clef indicates that that clef is no longer in common use.

G-clefs
Clef 4

Treble clef

When the G-clef is placed on the second line of the stave, it is called
the treble clef. This is the most common clef used today, and the only
G-clef still in use. For this reason, the terms G-clef and treble clef are
often seen as synonymous. It was formerly also known as the violin
clef. The treble clef was historically used to mark a treble, or
pre-pubescent, voice part.
Among the instruments that use treble clef are the violin, flute, oboe,
English horn, all clarinets, all saxophones, horn, trumpet, cornet,
euphonium (and occasionally baritone), vibraphone, xylophone,
Mandolin, recorder and guitar. Treble clef is the upper stave of the
grand stave used for harp and keyboard instruments. It is also
sometimes used, along with tenor clef, for the highest notes played by
bass-clef instruments such as the cello, double bass (which sounds an
Diatonic scale on C, treble clef. Play octave lower), bassoon, and trombone. The viola also sometimes uses
treble clef for very high notes. Treble clef is used for the soprano,
mezzo-soprano, alto, contralto and tenor voices. The tenor voice sounds an octave lower, and is often written using
an octave clef (see below) or double-treble clef.

French violin clef

When the G-clef is placed on the first line of the stave, it is called the
French clef or French violin clef.
This clef is no longer used. Formerly, it was used by the flute and
violin, especially in parts published in France in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. It is identical to the bass clef transposed up 2
octaves.

Diatonic scale on C, French violin clef. Play

F-clefs
Clef 5

Bass clef

When the F-clef is placed on the fourth line, it is called the bass clef.
This is the only F-clef used today, so that the terms "F-clef" and "bass
clef" are often regarded as synonymous.
This clef is used for the cello, euphonium, double bass, bass guitar,
bassoon, contrabassoon, trombone, baritone, tuba, and timpani. It is
also used for the lowest notes of the horn, and for the baritone and bass
voices. Tenor voice is notated in bass clef when the tenor and bass are
written on the same stave. Bass clef is the bottom clef in the grand
stave for harp and keyboard instruments. The contrabassoon, double
bass, and electric bass sound an octave lower than the written pitch.

Diatonic scale on C, bass clef. Play

Baritone clef

When the F-clef is placed on the third line, it is called the baritone clef.
This clef was used for the left hand of keyboard music (particularly in
France; see Bauyn manuscript) as well as the baritone part in vocal
music.

Diatonic scale on C, baritone F-clef. Play

Sub-bass clef

When the F-clef is placed on the fifth line, it is called the sub-bass clef. It is identical to the
treble clef transposed down 2 octaves.
This clef was used by Ockeghem and Heinrich Schtz to write low bass parts, making a
late appearance in Bach's Musical Offering.
Clef 6

C-clefs

Alto clef

When the C-clef is placed on the third line of the stave, it is called the
alto clef. As with all C-clefs, this line indicates the position of middle
C.
This clef (sometimes called the viola clef) is currently used for the
viola, the viola da gamba, the alto trombone, and the mandola.[2] It is
also associated with the countertenor voice and therefore called the
counter-tenor (or countertenor) clef,[3] and is used also for the alto
voice and for instruments playing a middle part (such as oboes and
recorders). A vestige of this survives in Sergei Prokofiev's use of the
clef for the English horn, as in his symphonies. It occasionally turns up
in keyboard music to the present day (Brahms's Organ chorales, John
Cage's Dream for piano).

Diatonic scale on C, alto clef. Play

Tenor clef

When the C-clef is placed on the fourth line of the stave, it is called the
tenor clef.
This clef is used for the upper ranges of the bassoon, cello, euphonium,
double bass, and trombone (which all use the bass clef in their lower
and middle ranges, and in their extreme high ranges, the treble clef as
well). Formerly, it was used by the tenor part in vocal music but its use
has been largely supplanted either with an octave version of the treble
clef when written alone or the bass clef when combined on one stave
with the bass part. The double bass sounds an octave lower than the
written pitch.

Diatonic scale on C, tenor clef. Play

Clef 7

Baritone clef

Because it is equivalent to the F-clef on the third line, the C-clef on the
fifth line version of the baritone clef is a rarity.

Diatonic scale on C, baritone C-clef. Play

Mezzo-soprano clef

When the C-clef is placed on the second line of the stave, it is called
the mezzo-soprano clef.
This clef was used in vocal music to write mezzo-soprano parts.

Diatonic scale on C, mezzo-soprano clef. Play

Soprano clef

When the C-clef occurs on the first line of the stave, it is called the soprano clef.
This clef was used for the right hand of keyboard music (particularly in France; see Bauyn
manuscript) as well as in vocal music for sopranos; it is useful for reading concert-pitch
scores actually notated in treble clef, when playing transposing instruments like the clarinet
in A.

Other clefs
Clef 8

Diatonic scale on C, soprano clef. Play

Octave clefs
Starting in the 18th Century treble clef has been used for
transposing instruments that sound an octave lower, such as the
guitar; it has also been used for the tenor voice. To avoid
ambiguity, modified clefs are sometimes used, especially in the
context of choral writing; of those shown, the C clef on the third
space, easily confused with the tenor clef, is the rarest.

This is most often found in tenor parts in SATB settings, in which

a treble clef is written with an eight below it, indicating that the
Three types of suboctave treble clef showing middle C pitches sound an octave below the written value. As the true tenor
clef has generally fallen into disuse in vocal writings, this
"octave-dropped" treble clef is often called the tenor clef. The
same clef is sometimes used for the baritone horn. In some scores,
the same concept is construed by using a double cleftwo G-clefs
overlapping one another.
Diatonic scale on C, suboctave clef. Play
At the other end of the spectrum, treble clefs with an 8 positioned
above the clef may be used in piccolo, penny whistle, soprano
recorder, and other high woodwind parts and is sometimes known
(informally) as the "sopranino clef".
The F clef can also be notated with an octave marker. The F clef
Diatonic scale on C, "sopranino" clef. Play (this notated to sound an octave lower is used for contrabass
is one octave higher than the treble clef without
instruments such as the double bass and contrabassoon and, as the
an 8)
traditional subbass clef has fallen into disuse, that term is
sometimes used to describe this clef. The F clef notated to sound
an higher is used for bass recorder and sometimes, though seldom, used for countertenor parts and called the
countertenor clef, as it is easy for a bass or baritone to read while singing the part in falsetto. However, both of these
are extremely rare (and in fact the countertenor clef is largely intended to be humorous as with the works of P.D.Q.
Bach). In Italian scores up to Gioachino Rossini's Overture to William Tell, the English horn was written in bass clef
an octave lower than sounding.[4] The unmodified bass clef is so common that performers of instruments and voice
parts whose ranges lie below the stave simply learn the number of ledger lines for each note through common use,
and if a line's true notes lie significantly above the bass clef the composer or publisher will often simply write the
part in either the true treble clef or notated an octave down.
Clef 9

Neutral clef
The neutral or percussion clef is not a clef in the same sense that the F,
C, and G clefs are. It is simply a convention that indicates that the lines
and spaces of the stave are each assigned to a percussion instrument
with no precise pitch. With the exception of some common drum-kit
and marching percussion layouts, the keying of lines and spaces to
instruments is not standardized, so a legend or indications above the
stave are necessary to indicate what is to be played. Percussion
instruments with identifiable pitches do not use the neutral clef, and
timpani (notated in bass clef) and mallet percussion (noted in treble
clef or on a grand stave) are usually notated on different staves than
unpitched percussion.

Simple quadruple drum pattern on a rock drum Staves with a neutral clef do not always have five lines. Commonly,
kit. Play percussion staves only have one line, although other configurations can
be used.
The neutral clef is sometimes used when non-percussion instruments play non-pitched extended techniques, such as
hitting the body of a violin, violoncello or acoustic guitar, or when a vocal choir is instructed to clap, stomp, or snap,
but more often the rhythms are written with X marks in the instrument's normal stave with a comment placed above
as to the appropriate rhythmic action.

Tablature
For guitars and other fretted instruments, it is possible to notate
tablature in place of ordinary notes. In this case, a TAB-sign is often
written instead of a clef. The number of lines of the stave is not
necessarily five: one line is used for each string of the instrument (so,
for standard six-stringed guitars, six lines would be used, four lines for
the traditional bass guitar). Numbers on the lines show on which fret
the string should be played. This Tab-sign, like the Percussion clef, is
not a clef in the true sense, but rather a symbol employed instead of a
clef.

History
The clefs developed at the same time as the stave, in the 10th century.
Diatonic scale on C, guitar tablature and staff Originally, instead of a special clef symbol, the reference line of the
notation (suboctave is assumed). Play stave was simply labeled with the name of the note it was intended to
bear: F and c (written as a small letter, since the capital C represented a
note an octave lower) and, more rarely, g. These were the most often-used 'clefs', or litter-clavis (key-letters), in
Gregorian chant notation. Over time the shapes of these letters became stylized, leading to their current versions.

Many other clefs were used, particularly in the early period of chant notation, including most of the notes from the
low (gamma, the note written today on the bottom line of the bass clef) up to the G above middle C, written with a
small letter g, and including two forms of lowercase b (for the note just below middle C): round for B, and square
for B. In order of frequency of use, these clefs were: F, c, f, C, D, a, g, e, , B, and the round/square b.[5]
Clef 10

In the polyphonic period up to 1600, unusual clefs were used

occasionally for parts with extremely high or low written tessituras.
For very low bass parts, the clef is found on the middle, fourth, or
fifth lines of the stave (e.g., in Pierre de La Rues Requiem and in a
mid-16th-century dance book published by the Hessen brothers); for Early forms of the G clefthe third combines the
G and D clefs vertically
very high parts, the high-D clef (d), and the even higher ff clef (e.g., in
the Mulliner Book) were used to represent the notes written on the
fourth and top lines of the treble clef, respectively.[6]

Varying shapes of different clefs persisted until very recent times. The F-clef was, until as late as the 1970s in some

cases (such as hymnals), written like this: .

In printed music from the 16th and 17th centuries, the C clef often assumed a square form, like this 1639 tenor clef

(the written note is a low E): .

The C-clef was formerly written in a more angular way, sometimes still used, or an even more simplified K-shape,

when writing the clef by hand.

In modern Gregorian chant notation, the C clef is written (on a four-line stave) in the form and the F clef as

.
The flourish at the top of the G-clef probably derives from a cursive S for "sol", the name for "G" in solfege.[7]
C-clefs were formerly used to notate vocal
music, a practice that dwindled away in the
late 19th century. The soprano voice was
written in first-line C clef (soprano clef), the
alto voice in third-line C clef (alto clef), the
tenor voice in fourth-line C clef (tenor clef)
and the bass voice in fourth-line F clef (bass
clef).
Vocal music can be contracted into two staves, using the treble and bass clefs. Play
In more modern publications, four-part
harmony on parallel staves is usually written
more simply as:
Soprano = treble clef (second-line G clef)
Alto = treble clef
Tenor = treble clef with an "8" below or a double treble clef
Bass = bass clef (fourth-line F clef)
This may be reduced to two staves, the soprano/alto stave with a treble clef, and tenor/bass stave marked with the
bass clef.
Clef 11

Further uses
Clef combinations played a role in the modal system toward the end of the 16th century, and it has been suggested
certain clef combinations in the polyphonic music of 16th-century vocal polyphony are reserved for authentic
(odd-numbered) modes, and others for plagal (even-numbered) modes,[8][9] but the precise implications have been
the subject of much scholarly debate.[10][11][12][13]
Music can be transposed at sight if a different clef is mentally substituted for the written one. For example, to play an
A-clarinet part, a B-clarinet player may mentally substitute tenor clef for the written treble clef. Concert-pitch music
in bass clef can be read on a E instrument as if it were in treble clef. (Notes will not always sound in the correct
octave). The written key signature must always be adjusted to the correct key for the instrument being played.

Notes
[1] Strictly speaking, the clef does not indicate the 'pitch' of the notes, but their 'names'; the actual pitch may vary according to the tuning system
or pitch standard employed.
[2] Although Russian composers frequently wrote the first trombone parts of their works in alto clef well into the twentieth century.
[3] Moore 1876, 176; Dolmetsch Organisation 2011.
[4] Del Mar 1981, 143.
[5] Smits van Wasberghe 1951, 33.
[6] Hiley 2001; P. and B. Hessen 1555.
[7] Kidson
[8] Powers, Harold S. (1981). "Tonal Types and Modal Categories in Renaissance Polyphony". Journal of the American Musicological Society
34: 428470.
[9] Kurtzman, J.G. (1994). "Tones, Modes, Clefs, and Pitch in Roman Cyclic Magnificats of the 16th Century". Early Music 22: 641664.
[10] Hermelink, S. (1956). "Zur Chiavettenfrage". Musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress (Vienna): 264271.
[11] Smith, A. (1982). "ber modus und Transposition um 1600". Balsler Jahrbuh fr historiche Musikpraxis: 943.
[12] Parrott, Andrew (1984). "Transposition in Monteverdi's Vespers of 1610: an "Aberration" Defended". Early Music 7: 490516.
[13] Wiering, F. (1992). "The Waning of the Modal Ages: Polyphonic Modality in Italy, 1542-1619". Ruggiero Giovannelli: Palestrina and
Velletri: 389419.

References
Dandelot, Georges. 1999. Manuel pratique pour l'tude des clefs, revised by Bruno Giner and Armelle Choquard.
Paris: Max Eschig.
Del Mar, Norman. 1981. Anatomy of the Orchestra. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520045009
(cloth); ISBN 0520050622.
Dolmetsch Organisation. 2011. " Counter-tenor clef (http://www.dolmetsch.com/defsc2a.htm)". In Music
Dictionary Online (http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheorydefs.htm) Dolmetsch Online (Accessed 23 March
2012).
Hessen, Paul, and Bartholomeus Hessen. 1555. Viel feiner lieblicher Stucklein, spanischer, welscher, englischer,
frantzsischer Composition und Tentz, uber drey hundert, mit sechsen, fnffen, und vieren, auff alle Instrument
zusamen bracht. Breslau: Crispin Scharffenberg.
Hiley, David. 2001. "Clef (i)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Kidson, Frank. 1908. The Evolution of Clef Signatures. The Musical Times 49, no. 785 (1 July), pp.44344.
Kidson, Frank. 1909. The Evolution of Clef Signatures (Second Article). In The Musical Times 50, no. 793 (1
March), pp.15960.
Moore, John Weeks. 1876. A Dictionary of Musical Information: Containing also a Vocabulary of Musical
Terms, and a List of Modern Musical Works Published in the United States From 1640 To 1875. Boston: Oliver
Ditson.
Morris, R. O., and Howard Ferguson. 1931. Preparatory Exercises in Score-Reading. London: Oxford University
Press.
Clef 12

Smits van Waesberghe, Jos. 1951. "The Musical Notation of Guido of Arezzo". Musica Disciplina 5:1553.

Further reading
Read, Gardner. 1964. Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice. Boston: Alleyn and Bacon, Inc. Second
edition, Boston: Alleyn and Bacon, Inc., 1969., reprinted as A Crescendo Book, New York: Taplinger Pub. Co.,
1979. ISBN 0-8008-5459-4 (cloth), ISBN 0-8008-5453-5 (pbk).
 13

The stringed bass instrument

Double bass
Double bass

Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French-style bow
String instrument

Other names Bass, string bass, upright bass, acoustic bass, contrabass, bass violin, bass viol, bass fiddle, bull fiddle, doghouse
bass, standup bass

Classification String instrument (bowed or plucked)

HornbostelSachs 321.322-71
classification (Composite chordophone sounded by a bow)

Developed 15th century

Playing range

Related instruments

Viol
Viola
Cello
Violin
Bass guitar
Acoustic bass guitar
Electric upright bass
Diyingehu
Bazantar
Musicians

List of double bassists

Double bass 14

The double bass, also called the string bass, upright bass, bass fiddle, bass violin, doghouse bass, contrabass,
bass viol, or stand-up bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed string instrument in the modern symphony
orchestra, with strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2 and G2 (see standard tuning). The double bass is a standard
member of the string section of the symphony orchestra[1] and smaller string ensembles[2] in Western classical
music. In addition, it is used in other genres such as jazz, 1950s-style blues and rock and roll, rockabilly/psychobilly,
traditional country music, bluegrass, tango and many types of folk music. A person who plays the double bass is
usually referred to as a bassist.
The double bass stands around 180cm (six feet) from scroll to endpin,[3] and is typically constructed from several
types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard. It is uncertain
whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the
violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family instruments, it also
embodies features found in the older viol family.
Like many other string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings
(pizzicato). In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, pizzicato is the
norm, except for some solos and also occasional written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing. In other genres,
such as blues and rockabilly, the bass is plucked.
When playing the double bass, the bassist either stands or sits on a high stool and leans the instrument against the
bassist's body with the bass turned slightly inwards in order to more easily reach the strings. This stance is also a key
reason for the bass's sloped shoulders, which mark it apart from the other members of the violin family, as the
narrower shoulders facilitate playing of the strings in their higher registers.
The double bass is a transposing instrument and sounds one octave lower than notated.

History
The double bass is generally regarded as a modern descendant of the string family of instruments that originated in
Europe in the 15th century, and as such has been described as a bass Violin.[4] Before the 20th century many double
basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the string family or the
four strings of instruments in the violin family. Some existing instruments, such as those by Gasparo da Sal, were
converted from 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni.[5]
The double bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it is deeper (the distance
from top to back is proportionally much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders,
most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viol family. Many very old
double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques. Before these
modifications, the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.
The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol), rather than fifths
(see Tuning, below). The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition
that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol family is one that has not been entirely resolved.
In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts, with many references, that the double bass has origins as
the true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da
gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to instruments in the violin family, and very
different from the internal structure of viols.[6]
Double bass 15

Terminology
A person who plays this instrument is called a bassist, double bassist, double bass player, contrabassist, contrabass
player, or bass player. The names contrabass and double bass refer to the instrument's range and use in the contra
octave below the cello, also called the 16' octave relative to the church organ.[7] The terms for the instrument among
classical performers are contrabass (which comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabbasso), string bass (to
distinguish it from a brass bass instrument in a concert band), or simply bass.
In jazz and other genres outside of classical music, this instrument is commonly called the upright bass or acoustic
bass to distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, the instrument is also referred to as a
bass fiddle or bass violin (or more rarely as doghouse bass or bull fiddle). Other colourful nicknames are found in
other languages; in Hungarian, for instance, the double bass is sometimes called nagy bg, which roughly translates
as "big crier," referring to its large voice.

Design
In general there are two major approaches to the design outline shape of the
double bass, these being the violin form (shown in the labelled picture to the
right), and the viol da gamba form (shown in the header picture). A third less
common design called the busetto shape can also be found, as can the even more
rare guitar or pear shape. The back of the instrument can vary from being a
round, carved back similar to that of the violin, or a flat and angled back similar
to the viol family.
The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the violin
family including a bridge, f-holes, a tailpiece, a scroll and a sound post. Unlike
the rest of the violin family, the double bass still reflects influence and can be
considered partly derived from the viol family of instruments, in particular the
violone, the bass member of the viol family.
The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that the
shoulders are typically sloped, the back is often angled (both to allow easier
access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range), and machine tuners are
always fitted. Lack of standardization in design means that one double bass can
sound and look very different from another. Example of a Busetto-shaped double
bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz
(1700) by Rumano Solano
Double bass 16

Construction
The double bass is closest in construction to violins,
but has some notable similarities to the violone
(literally "large viol"), the largest and lowest
member of the viola da gamba family. Unlike the
violone, however, the fingerboard of the double
bass is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer
strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had
six strings, although some specimens had five or
four).

An important distinction between the double bass

and other members of the violin family is the
construction of the pegbox. While the violin, viola,
and cello all use friction pegs for gross tuning
adjustments, the double bass has metal machine
heads. The key on the tuning machine turns a metal
worm, which drives a worm gear that winds the
string. While this development makes fine tuners
unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use
them nevertheless. At the base of the double bass is
a metal rod with a spiked end called the endpin,
which rests on the floor. This endpin is generally
Principal parts of the double bass
more robust than that of a cello, because of the
greater mass of the double bass.

The materials most often used in double-bass construction are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony
(fingerboard, tailpiece). Exceptions to this include less-expensive basses that have laminated (plywood) tops, backs,
and ribs, and some newer mid-range basses made of willow. These basses are resistant to changes in heat and
humidity, which can cause cracks in spruce tops. Plywood laminate basses, which are used in music schools, youth
orchestras, and in popular and folk music settings, are very resistant to humidity and heat, as well to the physical
abuse they are apt to encounter in a school environment (or, for blues and folk musicians, to the hazards of touring
and performing in bars).
The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction. All the parts of a double bass are glued
together, except the soundpost, bridge and tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension, although the
soundpost usually remains in place when the instrument's strings are loosened or removed. The metal tuning
machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws. While tuning mechanisms generally differ from
the higher-pitched orchestral stringed instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs
projecting from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin.
Famous double bass makers come from around the world and often represent varied national characteristics. The
most highly sought (and expensive) instruments come from Italy and include basses made by Giovanni Paolo
Maggini, Gaspar da Salo, the Testore family (Carlo Antonio, Carlo Giuseppe, Gennaro, Giovanni, Paulo Antonio),
Celestino Puolotti, and Matteo Gofriller. French and English basses are also sought by players of the highest caliber.
Double bass 17

Strings
The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of string
technology, as it was the advent[7] of overwound gut strings, which first rendered
the instrument more generally practicable, as wound strings attain low notes
within a smaller overall string diameter than unwound strings.[8]
Prior to the mid-20th century, double bass strings were usually made of gut, but
since that time, steel strings have largely replaced gut strings, because steel
strings hold their pitch better and yield more volume when played with the
bow.[9] Gut strings are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and
temperature, and they break much more easily than steel strings. Gut strings are
nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque ensembles, rockabilly
bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands. Gut strings provide the dark,
"thumpy" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a blues Detail of the bridge and strings
upright bassist, said that, "Starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the necks on
basses for steel strings."[10] Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also prefer gut
because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright bass style (in which
the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut
strings than with steel strings. (For more information on slapping, see the
sections below on Modern playing styles, Double bass in bluegrass music,
Double bass in jazz, and Double bass in popular music).

The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique
over the last hundred years, because playing with steel strings allows the strings
to be set up closer to the fingerboard, and, additionally, steel strings can be Gut strings
played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The
classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not utilize the low E string in higher positions because with older
gut strings set up high over the fingerboard, the tone was not clear in these higher positions. However, with modern
steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when
modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings are used.

Bows
The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or "overhand" bow is similar in
shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the
"German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a "hand shake" position.
These two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and
distributing force on the strings. Proponents of the French bow argue
that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds
the bow. Advocates of the German bow claim that it allows the player
to apply more arm weight on the strings. The differences between the
two, however, are minute for a proficient player, and modern players in
major orchestras use both bows.

French and German bows compared

Double bass 18

German bow

The German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the
two designs. The design of the bow and the manner of holding it
descend from the older viol instrument family. With older viols, before
screw threads were used to tighten the bow, players held the bow with
two fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain tension of the
hair.[11] Proponents of the use of German bow claim that the German
bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a lot of power.

In comparison with the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog,
and it is held with the palm angled upwards, as is done for the upright
members of the viol family. When held in correct manner, the thumb
German-style bow applies the necessary power to generate the desired sound. The index
finger meets the bow at the point where the frog meets the stick. The
index finger is also used to apply an upward torque to the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky")
supports the frog from underneath, while the ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between the hair and the
shaft.

French bow

The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by
19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar to
the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments. It is held
as if the hand is resting by the side of the performer with the palm
facing toward the bass. The thumb rests on the shaft of the bow, next to
the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the bow.
Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the
style of piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is
used for virtuoso or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and
sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices some power for easier control in
strokes such as detach, spiccato, and staccato.
French-style bow

Bow construction and materials

Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60cm (24") to 75cm
(30"). Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an
excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense,
other materials are increasingly being used. Less expensive student
bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, or of less valuable
varieties of brazilwood. Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in
bows of a variety of different qualities. The frog of the double bass
bow is usually made out of ebony, although snakewood and buffalo
A bassist holding a French bow; note how the
horn are used by some luthiers. The wire wrapping is gold or silver in
thumb rests on the shaft of the bow next to the
many quality bows, and the hair is usually horsehair. frog.
Double bass 19

The double bass bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a combination of the two (known as "salt and
pepper"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments. Some bassists
argue that the slightly rougher black hair "grabs" the heavier, lower strings better. As well, some bassists and luthiers
believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white variety. Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some
bassists. Some of the lowest-quality student bows are made with synthetic hair.

Rosin
String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it will "grip" the string and make it vibrate. Double bass rosin is
generally softer and stickier than violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but players use a
wide variety of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the
humidity, and the preference of the player. The amount used generally depends on the type of music being
performed as well as the personal preferences of the player. Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large
orchestra (e.g., Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works. Some brands of rosin, such as Pop's double
bass rosin, are softer and more prone to melting in hot weather. Other brands, such as Carlsson or Nyman Harts
double bass rosin, are harder and less prone to melting.

Pitch
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at
approximately 41Hz or a B0 (when five strings are used) at approximately
31Hz, within about an octave above the lowest frequency that the average
human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch. The top of the instrument's
fingerboard range is typically near the D two octaves and a fifth above the open
pitch of the G string (G4) as shown in the range illustration found at the head of
this article. Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be accomplished by
pulling the string slightly to the side.

Many double bass symphony parts and virtuoso concertos employ harmonics
(also called flageolet tones). Both natural harmonics and artificial harmonics,
The bass (or F) clef is used for most
where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by
orchestral double bass music.
lightly touching the string at the relative node point, extend the instrument's
range considerably.
Orchestral parts rarely demand the double bass exceed a two-octave range (an example of an exception to this rule is
Orff's Carmina Burana, which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth). However, there is no hard limit to the
upper range a virtuoso solo player can achieve using natural and artificial harmonics. The high harmonic in the range
illustration found at the head of this article may be taken as representative rather than normative.
Five-string instruments have an additional string typically tuned to a low B below the E string. Occasionally, a
higher string is added instead, tuned to the C above the G string.
Four-string instruments may feature the C extension extending the range of the E string downwards to C.
Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of the double bass's range lies below the
standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher than it sounds. This transposition applies even when reading the
tenor and treble clef, which are used to avoid excessive ledger lines when notating the instrument's upper range.
Other notational traditions do exist; Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding pitch, and the "old"
German method sounded an octave below where notation except in the treble clef, where the music was written at
pitch.
Double bass 20

Tuning
The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members of the orchestral string family, which are
tuned in fifths. The standard tuning (low to high) is E-A-D-G, starting from E below second low C (concert pitch).
This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings
of standard guitar tuning.
Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass. Notes below low
E appear regularly in the double bass parts found in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque music. These
parts are transpositions of parts written for other bass instruments used before the modern double bass became
common and may actually lower the part an octave.
In the Classical era, the double bass typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally requiring descent
to C below the E of the four-string double bass. In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers such as
Wagner, Mahler, Beethoven, Busoni, and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E. There are two common
methods for making these notes available to the player. Major European orchestras generally use basses with a fifth
string, tuned to B three octaves and a semitone below middle C.[12] Players with standard double basses (E-A-D-G)
typically play the notes below "E" an octave higher.
In the United States, Canada and United Kingdom, most professional
orchestral players use four-string double basses with a C extension,
which extends the lowest string down as far as low C, an octave below
the lowest note on the cello (more rarely, this string may be tuned to a
low B[13]). The extension is an extra section of fingerboard mounted
up over the head of the bass. There are several varieties of extensions.

In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are no mechanical aids

attached to the fingerboard extension except a locking nut for the "E"
note. To play the extension notes, the player reaches back over the A low-C extension with wooden mechanical
pegs to press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of this "fingers" that can be used to stop the string at C,
"fingered" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of D, Eb, or E.

the stopped notes on the extension, and there are no mechanical noises
from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid
alternations between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly
alternates between "G" and the low D.

The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" that can be closed to press the string down and
fret the C, D, Eb, or E notes. This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such
as a low D, because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical "finger," the lowest string sounds a
different note when played open (e.g., a low D).
The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions are mechanical lever systems nicknamed machines.
These lever systems, which superficially resemble the mechanisms of reed instruments such as the bassoon, include
levers mounted beside the regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the "E" string side), which remotely activate metal
"fingers" on the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever systems also give the player the ability to
"lock" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system. One criticism of these devices
is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises.
A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C-G-D-A low to high).
This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is increasingly used by classical players, notably the
Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher
(F-B-E-A). This higher tuning is called solo tuning, whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning."
String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is often employed that
Double bass 21

has a lighter gauge. Strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning, and published solo music is
arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some popular solos and concerti, such as the Koussevitsky Concerto are
available in both solo and orchestral tuning arrangements.
Many contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura. Berio, for example, asks the player to tune his
strings E-G-D-G in Sequenza XIVb and Scelsi asks for both F-A-D-E and F-A-F-E in Nuits.
A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is
(A-D-G-C), which uses three of the strings from orchestral tuning (A-D-G) and then adds a high "C" string. Some
bassists with five-string basses use a high "C" string as the fifth string, instead of a low "B" string. Adding the high
"C" string facilitates the performance of solo repertoire with a high tessitura (range). Another option is to utilize both
a low C (or B) extension and a high C string.
When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player must decide between adding a higher or lower-tuned string.
Six-stringed instruments are generally regarded as impractical. To accommodate the additional string, the
fingerboard is usually slightly wider, and the top slightly thicker to handle the increased tension. Some five-stringed
instruments are converted four-string instruments. Because these don't have wider fingerboards, some players find
them more difficult to finger and bow. Converted four-string basses usually require either a new, thicker top, or
lighter strings to compensate for the increased tension.

Playing and performance considerations

Body and hand position

Double bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument. The instrument height is set by adjusting the endpin such
that the player can reach the desired playing zones of the strings with bow or plucking hand.
Bassists who stand and bow sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger in either first or half position with
eye level, although there is little standardization in this regard.
Players who sit generally use a stool about the height of the player's pants inseam length.
Traditionally, double bassists stood when playing solo and sat when they played in the orchestra or opera pit. Now,
playing styles have become specialized to the point where one player rarely can satisfactorily perform both standing
and sitting. Consequently, now many soloists sit (as with Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry Barb and others)
and orchestras often employ standing bassists.
When playing in the instrument's upper range (above the G below middle C), the player shifts their hand out from
behind the neck and flattens it out, using the side of the thumb to press down the string. This techniquealso used
on the cellois called thumb position. While playing in thumb position, few players use the fourth (little) finger, as
it is too weak to produce a reliable tone (this is also true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended
techniques, especially in contemporary music, may necessitate its use.

Physical considerations
Performing on bass can be physically demanding because the strings are large and thick. Also, the space between
notes on the fingerboard is large due to the scale length and string spacing, so players have to shift positions
frequently. The bass is usually discouraged for people with shorter arms and smaller hands due to the big note gaps
and the thick strings. The increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and modifications to the bass,
such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument. Bass
parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in range. These parts are usually given to the
cello section because it is a smaller instrument and are typically tuned together.
As with all non-fretted string instruments, performers must learn to place their fingers precisely to produce the
correct pitch. The more frequent hand movement required by the instrument's size increases the likelihood of
Double bass 22

intonation errors. For bassists with smaller hands, the large spaces between pitches may present a significant
challenge, especially in the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest.
Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available, and the large size of the bass meant that
children were not able to start playing the instrument until their hand size and height would allow them to play a
3/4-size model (the most commonly available size). Starting in the 1990s, smaller half, quarter, eighth and even
sixteenth-sized instruments became more widely available, which meant that children could start at a younger age.

Volume
Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments due to its low range. In a large
orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists play in unison. In the largest orchestras, bass sections may have as
many as ten or twelve players, but modern budget constraints make bass sections this large unusual.
When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers typically ensure the
orchestration is light so it doesn't obscure the bass. While amplification is rarely used in classical music, in some
cases where a bass soloist performs a concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called acoustic
enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical setting has led to debate within the
classical community, as "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a
given hall should not be altered."[14]
In many non-orchestral settings, such as jazz and blues, amplification via a specialized amplifier and loudspeakers is
employed. Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players.
In the latter cases, the high overall volume due to other amplifiers and instruments may lead to acoustic feedback, a
problem exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume. The feedback problem has led to the
development of instruments like the electric upright bass, whose playing characteristics mimic that of the double
bass.

Transportation
The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it cumbersome to handle and transport. Most bassists use soft
cases, referred to as gig bags, to protect the instrument during transport. Basic, unpadded gig bags used by students
cost under 100 USD, while thickly padded gig bags for professional players typically cost as much as 500 USD.
Some more feature-filled examples with backpack straps retail for over 1000 USD. Some bassists carry their bow in
a hard bow case. Players also may use a small cart or gig bag and end pin-attached wheels to move the bass.
Hard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar. The
cost of good hard casesUSD500 to over USD2500tends to limit their use to touring professionals.

Classical repertoire

Solo works for double bass

1700s
The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and many of the most
popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass. The double bass, then often referred to as the
Violone used different tunings from region to region. The "Viennese tuning" (A1-D-F-A) was popular, and in some
cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added (F1-A1-D-F-A).[15] The popularity of the instrument is
documented in Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschule, where he writes "One can bring forth difficult
passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful performances of concertos, trios, solos,
etc."
Double bass 23

The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn ca.1763, and is presumed lost in a fire at
the Eisenstadt library. The earliest known existing concertos are by Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed two
concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers that have
written concertos from this period include Johann Baptist Vanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold
Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18
concertos). While many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally
unknown by contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, Per Questa Bella Mano, K.612 for
bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains impressive writing for solo double bass of that period. It remains
popular among both singers and double bassists today.
The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a louder sound. The
leading double bassists from the mid-to-late 18th century, such as Josef Kmpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and
Johannes Mathias Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle (17921862), who composed a
concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double bass
and its role in solo works. Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of
Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. His playing was known all the way from his homeland Italy to the Tsardom of
Russia and he found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London.
Beethoven's friendship with Dragonetti may have inspired him to write
difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies, such as the
impressive passages in the third movement of the Fifth Symphony, the
second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and last movement of the
Ninth Symphony. These parts do not double the cello part. Dragonetti
wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and
piano. During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of 1824, he
composed his Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the
cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti frequently played on a three string
double bass tuned G-D-A from top to bottom. The use of only the top three
strings was popular for bass soloists and Principal bassists in orchestras in
the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden top of the
bass, which was thought to create a more resonant sound. As well, the low
"E" strings used during the 19th century were thick cords made of gut,
which were difficult to tune and play.
The Italian bass virtuoso Domenico
1800s Dragonetti helped to encourage composers
to give more difficult parts for his
In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni instrument.
Bottesini was considered the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time. His
compositions were written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the double bass in a
way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs and great leaps to the highest registers of the
instrument, even into the realm of harmonics. These compositions were considered to be unplayable by many
bassists in the early part of the 20th century, but are now frequently performed. During the same time, a prominent
school of bass players in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin Findeisen, Josef
Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Miek. Simandl and Hrabe were also pedagogues whose method books and
studies continue to be used in modern times.
Double bass 24

1900spresent
The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of
the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument. Because of
improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is now played at a more advanced
level than ever before and more and more composers have written works for the double bass. In the mid-century and
in the following decades, many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos Skalkottas's Concerto
(1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto
(1962), and Hans Werner Henze's Concerto (1966).
From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading proponent of the double bass as a solo
instrument and was active in commissioning or having hundreds of new works and concerti written especially for
him. Karr was given Koussevitzky's famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and played it in concerts around
the world for 40 years before, in turn, giving the instrument to the International Society of Bassists for talented
soloists to use in concert. Another important performer in this period, Bertram Turetzky, commissioned and
premiered more than 300 double bass works.
In the 1970s and 1980s, new concerti included Nino
Rota's Divertimento for Double Bass and Orchestra
(1973), Jean Franaix's Concerto (1975), Einojuhani
Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980), Gian Carlo Menotti's
Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985),
and Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988). In the first decade
of the 21st century, new concerti include Kalevi Aho's
Concerto (2005), John Harbison's Concerto for Bass Viol
(2006), and Andr Previn's Double Concerto for violin,
double bass, and orchestra (2007).

Reinhold Glire wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for

double bass and piano, Op. 9, No. 1 and No. 2 and a
Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op.
32 No.1 and No.2. Paul Hindemith wrote a rhythmically
challenging Double Bass Sonata in 1949. In the Soviet
Union, Mieczysaw Weinberg wrote his Sonata No. 1 for
double bass solo in 1971. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two
double bass pieces called Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976,
he wrote Maknongan, a piece for any low-voiced
instrument, such as double bass, contrabassoon, or tuba.
Vincent Persichetti wrote solo workswhich he called Serge Koussevitzky popularized the double bass in modern times
"Parables"for many instruments. He wrote Parable as a solo instrument

XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in 1974. Sofia

Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975. In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid
wrote a set of variations on The Elephant from Saint-Sans' Le Carnaval des Animaux for scordatura Double Bass
and string orchestra. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and Piano Op.24. Fernando Grillo
wrote the "Suite No.1" for double bass (1983/2005). Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled
Valentine. US double bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded more
than 300 pieces written by and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque music, classical, jazz, renaissance music,
improvisational music and world music

US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register that he scored for timpani and
double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans from the 1930s to the first decade of
Double bass 25

the 21st century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled Naked Angel Face per contrabbasso. Fellow Italian
composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called Lem for contrabbasso in the same year. In 1989, French composer
Pascal Dusapin (born 1955) wrote a solo piece called In et Out for double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained
Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacre ("He who sleeps in the sacred
shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French double-bass player and
composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings of his pieces like Oriental Bass (1997).
Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms No.11 for double bass
and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass. The German composer Gerhard Stbler
wrote Co-wie Kobalt (198990), "...a music for double bass solo and grand orchestra." Charles Wuorinen added
several important works to the repertoire, Spinoff trio for double bass, violin and conga drums, and Trio for Bass
Instruments doublebass, tuba and bass trombone, and in 2007 Synaxis for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with
timpani and strings. The newest position in the repertoire is a suite "Seven Screen Shots" for double bass and piano
(2005) by Ukrainian composer Alexander Shchetynsky with solo part that includes many unconventional methods of
playing the double bass.

Chamber music with double bass

Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in chamber music has not
been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet or piano trio. Despite this, there is a
substantial number of chamber works that incorporate the double bass in both small and large ensembles.
There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin, viola, cello, and
double bass. The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as "The Trout Quintet" for its set
of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's Die Forelle. Other works for this instrumentation written from
roughly the same period include those by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise
Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote
chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank Proto, and John
Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for piano, string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix
Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, Richard Wernick, and Charles Ives.
In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass. Antonn Dvok's String
Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 ("Eine kleine
Nachtmusik") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini
(3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith.
Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioachino Rossini, for two violins,
cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in 1804. These remain his most
famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet. Franz Anton Hoffmeister wrote four String
Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola, and Cello in D Major.
Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E-flat major, Op.20, one of his most
famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. When the
clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he added one more violin
for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul Hindemith used the same instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet. In the
realm of even larger works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his "Gran
Partita" Serenade, K.361 and Martin used the double bass in his nonet for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello and
double bass.
Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Serge Prokofiev's Quintet in
G minor, Op.39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo,
viola, and double bass; Fred Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany
for double bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and Iannis
Double bass 26

Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello, and double bass. There are also new music ensembles that
utilize the double bass such as Time for Three and PROJECT Trio.

Orchestral passages and solos

The double bass in the baroque and classical periods would typically double the cello part in orchestral passages. A
notable exception would be Haydn, who composed solo passages for the double bass in his Symphonies No.6 Le
Matin, No.7 Le midi, No.8 Le Soir, No. 31 Horn Signal, and No. 45 Farewell, but who otherwise would group the
bass and cello parts together. Beethoven paved the way for separate double bass parts, which became more common
in the romantic era. The scherzo and trio from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are famous orchestral excerpts, as is the
recitative at the beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples. Johannes Brahms, whose father
was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double bass in his symphonies. Richard
Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the instrument to its
limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Sans' The Carnival of the Animals is a satirical portrait of the double
bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made his televised debut playing "The Swan" (originally written for the
cello) with the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav Mahler's
first symphony features a solo for the double bass that quotes the children's song Frere Jacques, transposed into a
minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kij Suite features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the
"Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra contains a prominent passage
for the double bass section.

Double bass ensembles

Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several composers have written
or arranged for such ensembles. Compositions for four double basses exist by Gunther Schuller, Jacob Druckman,
James Tenney, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm [16], Bernhard Alt, Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph Lauber, Erich
Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and Theodore Albin Findeisen. Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia
piccola [17] for eight double basses. Larger ensemble works include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, "Dies
Irae" (1973), for eight double basses, piano, and wooden cube, Jose Serebrier's George and Muriel (1986), for solo
bass, double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979), for soprano, percussion,
and 30 double basses.
Active double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members),[18] Bass Instinct (6 members),[19]
Bassiona Amorosa (6 members),[20] the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members),[21] The Bass Gang (4 members),[22]
the London Double Bass Ensemble (6 members) founded by members of the Philharmonia Orchestra of London who
produced the LP[23] Music Interludes by London Double Bass Ensemble [24] on Bruton Music records, Brno Double
Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded by the double bass professor at Janek Academy of Music and Performing
Arts and principal double bass player at Brno Philharmonic Orchestra - Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball
State University (12 members), Shenandoah Conservatory, and the Hartt School of Music. The Amarillo Bass Base
of Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists,[25][26] and The London Double Bass Sound, who have released
a CD on Cala Records, have 10 players.[27]
In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the Chicago Symphony
Orchestra's Wacker Consort.[28] There is an increasing number of published compositions and arrangements for
double bass ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features double bass ensembles (both
smaller ensembles as well as very large "mass bass" ensembles) at its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David
Walter Composition Competition, which includes a division for double bass ensemble works.
Double bass 27

Use in jazz
Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches, ragtime, and
Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone) supplying the
bass line. As the music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments.
Many early bassists doubled on both the brass bass and string bass, as the instruments were then often referred to.
Bassists played "walking" bass linesscale-based lines that outlined the harmony.
Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s
and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the
fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and allowed the
bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low
frequencies.[29] For more about the slap style, see Modern playing styles, below.
Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples
include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke
Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop. Paul
Chambers (who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album)
achieved renown for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with
the bow. Terry Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos,
achieving horn-like technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while
Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role
of the bass in Free Jazz.

A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and Niels-Henning
rsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz. Notably, Charles Mingus
was a highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his technical
Jazz bassist Charles Mingus was also
virtuosity and powerful sound.[30] Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of
an influential bandleader and musicians by liberating the bass from contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists
composer whose musical interests instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies.[31]
spanned from bebop to free jazz.
While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951,
beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny
Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly substitute the bass guitar for the
upright bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the upright bass is still the
dominant bass instrument in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is distinct from that of the fretted
bass guitar. The upright bass produces a different sound than the bass guitar, because its strings are not stopped by
metal frets, instead having a continuous tonal range on the uninterrupted fingerboard. As well, bass guitars usually
have a solid wood body, which means that their sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the
strings, instead of the upright bass's acoustic reverberation.

Use in bluegrass and related genres

The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always plucked, though
some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, and is
responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4/4 time, 2/4 or 3/4 time. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly
Kay) brands of laminate basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use
the 3/4 size bass, but the full-size and 5/8 size basses are also used.
Double bass 28

Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the

cello. The cellist Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find
"...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands
with cello." However, "The cello dropped out of sight in folk music,
and became associated with the orchestra."[32] The cello did not
reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the 21st
century. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass,
because it is easier to transport than the large and somewhat fragile
upright bass. However, the bass guitar has a different musical sound.
Many musicians feel the slower attack and percussive, woody tone of
the upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or "natural" sound than an
electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used.

Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some

exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2/4
time, and on the downbeat in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass
Upright bass used by a bluegrass group; the cable
for a piezoelectric pickup can be seen extending lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each
from the bridge. chord throughout most of a song. There are two main exceptions to this
rule. Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic walkup or walkdown, in
which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a chord change. In addition, if a bass
player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic
scale-influenced bassline.

An early bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts

(also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue
Grass Boys beginning in 1944.[33] The classical bassist Edgar Meyer
has frequently branched out into newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other
genres. "My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips," proclaimed Union
Station bassist Barry Bales in April 2005. "He brought a completely
different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass."

An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country Country music bassist "Too Slim" (Fred LaBour
western music. While the upright bass is still occasionally used in of Riders in the Sky) performing in Ponca City,
country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin Oklahoma in 2008.

in country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of

the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.

Slap-style bass
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass players slap the string by pulling it
until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched percussive "clack" or
"slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap dancer. Slapping is a subject of
minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, "Don't slap on every gig," or
in songs where it is not appropriate. As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on
records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap bass on recordings. While bassists such as Jack Cook slap
bass on the occasional faster "Clinch Mountain Boys song," bassists such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel,
and Barry Bales [rarely] slap bass.[34]
Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD acknowledges that
slap bass "...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded." He notes that "Even in
Double bass 29

traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has been on the more
contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)." Schatz states that he would be "... more likely to use it [slap]
in a live situation than on a recordingfor a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't
be obliterating someone's solo."[35] Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl Gately, also
teaches bluegrass slap bass technique.

Use in popular music

In 1952, the upright bass was a standard instrument in rock and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His
Comets being but one example. In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed,
incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing. Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured
an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.[36] The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups
throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with
strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players using their
instruments in these contexts faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments
(and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in
loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback howls. The upright bass is large and awkward to
transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was utilized as
band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to
the Comets), which did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late 1952; prior to this the slap
bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings such as Haley's versions of Rock the Joint and Rocket
88.[37]
In 1951, Leo Fender independently released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass
guitar.[38] The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than
an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at
louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly amplified
stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the upright bass receded from the
limelight of the popular music scene.
The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed
interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for
electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an
acoustic instrument. Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric
bass. A trend for "unplugged" performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and
acoustic bass guitars.
Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon Burchell, of the Australian
folk-rock group The John Butler Trio,[39] makes extensive use of upright basses, performing extended live solos in
songs such as Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed
upright bass is featured quite prominently on the songs Teenagers and In Ear Park. Norwegian ompa-rock band
Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass exclusively both live and on their recordings.[40]
Hank Williams III's bass players (Joe Buck and Zach Shedd, most notably) have used upright basses for recording as
well as during the country and Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to electric bass for the
Assjack set.
Double bass 30

Modern playing styles

In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with the
fingers, pizzicato style. The pizzicato style varies between different players and genres. Some players perform with
the sides of one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this is
purported to create a stronger and more solid tone. Some players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play
fast-moving solo passages or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes.The use of amplification allows the player to have more
control over the tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls that allow the bassist to
accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high
frequencies, so that there is less finger noise).
An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body,
which means that the very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher pitches. With an amplifier and equalization
devices, a bass player can boost the low frequencies, which evens out the frequency response. In addition, the use of
an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads
and for melodic solos with held notes.
In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is sometimes played in the slap style. This is a
vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the
bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive sound. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the
string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive
percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, whose use of the technique was
often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the
bass line.
"Slap style" may have influenced electric bass guitar players who, from the mid-sixties (particularly Larry Graham
of Sly and the Family Stone), developed a technique called slap and pop that used the thumb of the plucking hand to
hit the string, making a slapping sound but still letting the note ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking
hand to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above.

Double bassists

Historical
Domenico Dragonetti (17631846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Giovanni Bottesini (18211889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Franz Simandl (18401912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue
Edouard Nanny (18721943) Virtuoso, composer
Serge Koussevitzky (18741951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Double bass 31

Contemporary (1900spresent)

Classical

Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass

players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy as for
their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman
(19101987), known for his teaching at the Eastman School of Music
and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in
Michigan and French bassist Franois Rabbath (b. 1931) who
developed a new bass method that divided the entire fingerboard into
six positions. Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include
Canadian player Gary Karr (b. 1941), Finnish composer Teppo
Double bass soloist Gary Karr
Hauta-Aho (b. 1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and US
player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of
contemporary classical double bass players.

Jazz
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (19181942) whose short tenure
in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic and harmonic
solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown (19262002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar
Peterson, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born
1937), who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including LPs
by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and Paul Chambers (19351969), a
member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark modal jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other
1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known for his virtuosic improvisations.
In the experimental post 1960s eras, which saw the development of free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, some of the
influential bassists included Charles Mingus (19221979), who was also a composer and bandleader whose music
fused hard bop with black gospel music, free jazz and classical music; free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden
(born 1937) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman and for his role in the
1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group; Eddie Gomez and George Mraz, who played with Bill
Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, and are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations of pizzicato
fluency and melodic phrasing, fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his dexterity on both the
upright bass and the electric bass, and Terry Plumeri, noted for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal tone. In the
1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new "young lions" was Christian McBride (born 1972), who
has performed with a range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick
Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is Esperanza
Spalding (born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, already won a Grammy for Best New Artist. For a longer list, see the
List of jazz bassists, which includes both double bass and electric bass players.
Double bass 32

Other popular genres

In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well known in

bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another prominent bluegrass
player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with
Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists
the Stray Cats). Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from
the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from the
Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend
Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), Geoff
Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon (19151992) was one of the most
notable figures in the history of rhythm and blues. In addition to being an upright
bassist, he wrote dozens of R&B hits and worked as a producer. He also plays
bass on numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll hits. Many other rockabilly bands Scott Owen, double bass player for
like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use this instrument in their work. Australian rock band The Living End

Pedagogy and training

The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and country. Classical double bass has a
history of pedagogy dating back several centuries, including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises
that help students to develop the endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing hand. Classical
training methods vary by country: many of the major European countries are associated with specific methods (e.g.,
the Edouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany). In classical training, the majority
of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of bowing tone; little time is spent studying the
varieties of pizzicato tone.

In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a great deal of time
and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different styles of tempi.
For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide range of pizzicato tones, including using
the sides of the fingers to create a full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking basslines
or solos, and performing a variety of percussive ghost notes by raking muted or partially muted strings.
Double bass 33

Formal training
Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and
comprehensive systems of instruction and training. In the classical milieu,
children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in
children's or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to becoming professional
classical bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training
settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Colleges offer
certificates and diplomas in bass performance.
Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in
Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for double
bass players. Universities offer a range of double bass programs, including
Bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts
degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical
summer camps and orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which
give students the opportunity to play a wide range of music.

Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M) are

four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra
experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal Esperanza Spalding performing on
10 December 2009 at the Nobel
arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded
Peace Prize Concert of 2009
education. Usually, bass performance students perform several recitals of solo
double bass music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites.
Master of music degrees in double bass performance consist of private lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in
playing orchestral double bass parts, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two
solo recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required credential for people
who wish to become a professor of double bass at a university or conservatory.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D)
degrees in double bass performance provide an opportunity for advanced study at
the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+
credit hours beyond a Master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a
Bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission to candidacy is highly selective.
Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, plus an
entrance examination/recital, are required to enter such a program of study. A
number of recitals (around six), including a lecture-recital for which an
accompanying doctoral dissertation is submitted, advanced coursework and a
Manhattan School of Music
professor Timothy Cobb teaching a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A program.
bass lesson in the late 2000s Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the
instrument informally, or from getting classical training early on, as in the case
of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce diplomas
and degrees in jazz performance. Students in jazz diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass
lessons, get experience in small jazz combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big bands.
As with classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom courses in music history and music
theory. In a jazz program, these courses focus on the different eras of jazz history. such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion.
The theory courses focus on the musical skills used in jazz improvisation and in jazz comping (accompanying) and
the composition of jazz tunes. There are also jazz summer camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer
students the chance to learn new skills and styles.
Double bass 34

Informal training
In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are not as
formalized and institutionalized. There are not degrees in blues bass performance, or conservatories offering
multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the
1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style slap bass). As such, performers in these other genres
tend to come from a variety of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking
private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs. In some cases, blues or rockabilly bassists may
have obtained some initial training through the classical or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g., youth orchestra or high
school big band). In genres such as tango, which use a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines. the
bassists tend to come from classical or jazz training routes.

Careers
Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists earn their living from a mixture
of performance and teaching jobs. The first step to getting most performance jobs is by playing at an audition. In
some styles of music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands, bassists may be asked to sight read printed music or perform
standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard such as Now's the Time) with an ensemble. Similarly, in a rock or blues band,
auditionees may be asked to play various rock or blues standards. An upright bassist auditioning for a blues band
might be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-style "slapping" bassline (in which the strings
are percussively struck against the fingerboard) and a 1950s ballad with long held notes. A person auditioning for a
role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock music may be expected to be able to demonstrate the ability to perform
harmony vocals as a backup singer.
In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras and for admission into university or Conservatory
programs or degrees. At a classical bass audition, the performer typically plays a movement from a Bach suite or a
movement from a bass concerto and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature. Orchestral bass auditions are
typically held in front of a panel that includes the conductor, the Concertmaster, the Principal bass player and
possibly other principal players such as the Principal cellist. The most promising candidates are invited to return for
a second or third round of auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates.
Performers may be asked to sight read orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is
a test week, in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and
principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual performance setting.
Performance jobs include playing as a freelancer in small groups, large
ensembles, or performing solo music, either live onstage or as a session player
for radio or TV broadcasts or for recordings; and working as the employee of an
orchestra, big band, or recording studio (as the studio's house bassist). Many bass
players find extra work by substituting ("subbing") for bassists who are
double-booked or ill. It is hard for bass players to be able to find full-time,
full-year work at a single job. About the closest that a bass player can come to
this is in the case of classical bass players who win an audition at a professional
orchestra or the tiny number of top session pros that are hired by recording
studios. Even full-time orchestra jobs do not usually last for the entire year.
When the orchestra stops playing (which is often in the summer), orchestral
bassists have to find other work, either as a teacher or coach, or in another group.
Teaching work for double bassist includes giving private lessons in the home or
Some bassists supplement their
income by working as luthiers.
at colleges and universities; coaching bass players who are preparing for
recordings or auditions; doing group coaching at music camps or for youth
ensembles; and working as a high school music teacher.
Double bass 35

In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres, most bassists cannot earn a living from playing in a single group (with the
exception of the small number of bassists in top touring bands or groups with recording contracts), so they work in
different bands and supplement their income with session playing and teaching. Due to the limited number of
full-time orchestral jobs, many classical bassists are similarly not able to find full-time work with a single orchestra.
Some bassists increase their employ-ability by learning several different styles, such as classical and jazz or
rockabilly and bluegrass.
In some cases, bassists supplement their performing and teaching income with other related music jobs, such as
working as a bass repairer (luthier); as a contractor who hires musicians for orchestras or big bands, composing
music (e.g., Dave Holland), songwriting, conducting (e.g., David Currie) or acting as a bandleader (e.g., Charles
Mingus). In some regions there may not be enough work in music to make a living, even if a bassist can play several
styles and he or she does recordings and teaching. As such, in some regions, bassists may have to supplement their
musical work with income from another field outside of music.

References
[1] The Orchestra: A User's Manual (http:/ / www. mti. dmu. ac. uk/ ~ahugill/ manual), Andrew Hugill with the Philharmonia Orchestra
[2] Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive (http:/ / www. earlybass. com/ chamber. htm), Alfred Planyavsky
[3] Double Bass Sizing FAQ (http:/ / www. gollihurmusic. com/ faq/ 2-SIZES_DOUBLE_BASS_SIZING_FAQ. html), Bob Gollihur
[4] The Double Bass (http:/ / www. contrabass. com/ pages/ stringbass. html), Jacob Head
[5] Planyavsky 1998
[6] "''A New History of the Double Bass''" (http:/ / paulbrun. com). Paulbrun.com. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[7] "A Brief History of the Double Bass, Lawrence Hurst, Professor of Double Bass, School of Music, Indiana University" (http:/ / web. archive.
org/ web/ 20091027140138/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Vienna/ 1187/ Music/ basshist. html). Web.archive.org. 2009-10-27. Archived from
the original (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Vienna/ 1187/ Music/ basshist. html) on 2009-10-27. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[8] Strings, standing waves and harmonics (http:/ / www. physics. unsw. edu. au/ jw/ strings. html#music), Prof. Joe Wolfe, University of New
South Wales
[9] Article on bass strings by the Double Bass Workshop (http:/ / doublebassworkshop. com/ double-bass-strings-articles-44)
[10] "Jeff Sarli" (http:/ / www. jeffsarli. com/ js/ default. asp). Jeff Sarli. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[11] "Viola da Gamba" (http:/ / www. musicolog. com/ violadagamba. asp). musicolog.com. . Retrieved 15 July 2012.
[12] "Bill Bentgen 5 String Basses" (http:/ / www. billbentgen. com/ bass/ 5_string-basses. htm). Billbentgen.com. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[13] A few works in the orchestral repertoire call for a low B, including Respighi's The Pines of Rome
[14] "Sound Systems- Why?!" (http:/ / harada-sound. com/ sound/ handbook/ intro2. html). Harada-sound.com. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[15] David Chapman. "Historical and Practical Considerations for the Tuning of Double Bass Instruments in Fourths" - p.228-229, The Galpin
Society Journal, Vol. 56, (Jun., 2003), pp. 224233.
[16] http:/ / www. janalm. se/
[17] "Bertold Hummel work commentaries" (http:/ / www. bertoldhummel. de/ english/ commentaries/ opus_66. html). Bertoldhummel.de. .
Retrieved 15 July 2012.
[18] Official website of L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (http:/ / www. musicaguild. com/ odbc/ index. php?page=9& langue=anglais)
[19] "Bass Instinct Live In Vienna by none on DVD" (http:/ / www. lovefilm. com/ visitor/ product/ 85313-Bass-Instinct-Live-In-Vienna.
html). LOVEFiLM.com. 2007-04-16. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[20] "bassiona-amorosa.de" (http:/ / www. bassiona-amorosa. de/ english. htm). bassiona-amorosa.de. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[21] "Chicago Bass Ensemble Home" (http:/ / www. chicagobassensemble. com/ ). Chicagobassensemble.com. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[22] Pighi Andrea. "The Bass Gang" (http:/ / www. thebassgang. org/ ). Thebassgang.org. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[23] Music Interludes
[24] http:/ / www. discogs. com/ London-Double-Bass-Ensemble-Jim-Lawless-Steve-Gray-Music-Interludes/ release/ 2008247
[25] (http:/ / home. mchsi. com/ ~donovan. stokes/ volumeone. html)
[26] "Bassgirls" (http:/ / www. bassgirls. com/ bass_wyrickinez. htm). Bassgirls. 21 August 1974. . Retrieved 15 July 2012.
[27] "The London Double Bass Sound: Gary Karr, Ernest Bloch, Paul Desmond, Edward "Duke" Ellington, Jerome Kern, John & Paul
McCartney Lennon, Niccolo Paganini, Cole Por" (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ B00003G1O5). Amazon.com. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[28] "Wacker Consort and Northwestern Music Faculty to Perform" (http:/ / www. northwestern. edu/ newscenter/ stories/ 2007/ 03/ concerts.
html). Northwestern University. 2007-03-27. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[29] "Historic Jazz Fotos" (http:/ / www. peterunbehauen. de/ jazz/ jazzfotos. html). Peterunbehauen.de. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[30] Hentoff, Nat (April 1999). "Charles Mingus -A musician beyond category" (http:/ / www. gadflyonline. com/ archive/ April99/
archive-mingus. html). Gadfly Online. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.
[31] Scott Yanow, AllMusic Guide, http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ artist/ p95770 retrieved 3 November 2009.
Double bass 36

[32] Looming Large: What's a cello got to do with a famous fiddler's tale? By Natalie Haas (http:/ / www. allthingsstrings. com/ article/ default.
aspx?articleid=21495)
[33] Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts (http:/ / doodah. net/ bgb/ HowardCedricRainwaterWatts. html), Stewart Evans
[34] The Low End, February-02-2001 2001 iBluegrass.com. By Kip Martin (http:/ / 72. 14. 205. 104/ search?q=cache:opbTh79jK-8J:www.
ibluegrass. com/ vi_posting3. CFM?p__i=1004& p__r=& p__a=bass+ bluegrass+ "slap+ bass"& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=2)
[35] http:/ / 72. 14. 205. 104/ search?q=cache:0bSxq7Zh3tYJ:www. rockabillybass. com/ markschatz. htm+ bluegrass+ %22slap+ bass%22&
hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=1
[36] Dallas Bartley Small town Boy: Playing in the bands (http:/ / library. missouristate. edu/ archives/ exhibits/ bartley/ index. htm), Special
Collections and Archives Department, Missouri State University
[37] BBC Radio 2, Just Keep on Rockin' , broadcast 17 April 2004. On this radio documentary, host Suzi Quatro expresses disbelief that no
drums were played on the recording of Rock the Joint.
[38] The Electric Guitar: How We Got From Andrs Segovia To Kurt Cobain (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ it/ 2004/
1/ 2004_1_12. shtml), Monica M. Smith
[39] "In Australia, the John Butler Trio has established itself as one of the most successful independent acts in recent history. Their U.S. debut,
Sunrise Over Sea, features gritty and soulful vocals, elements of hip-hop and Appalachian folk." The John Butler Trio's Fresh Blends (http:/ /
www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=4814948)
[40] "''Kaizers Orchestra official web page''" (http:/ / www. kaizers. no). Kaizers.no. . Retrieved 2012-07-21.

External links
Bass (http://www.dmoz.org//Arts/Music/Instruments/Stringed/Bowed_Strings/Bass//) at the Open
Directory Project
EarlyBass.com by Jerry Fuller (http://www.EarlyBass.com)
Bass guitar 37

Bass guitar
Bass guitar

A Music Man Stingray bass

String instrument

Other names Bass, electric bass guitar, electric bass.

Classification String instrument (fingered or picked; rarely strummed)

HornbostelSachs classification 321.322

(Composite chordophone)

Inventor(s) Paul Tutmarc, Leo Fender

Developed 1930s

Playing range

(a standard tuned 4-string bass guitar)

Related instruments

Electric guitar
Double bass
Acoustic bass guitar

Musicians

List of bass guitarists

The bass guitar[1] (also called electric bass,[2][3][4] or simply bass; /bes/) is a stringed instrument played
primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, tapping, thumping, or picking.
The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to an electric guitar, but with a longer neck and scale
length, and four, five, six, or eight strings. The four-string bassby far the most commonis usually tuned the same
as the double bass,[5] which corresponds to pitches one octave lower than the four lower strings of a guitar (E, A, D,
and G).[6] The bass guitar is a transposing instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds (as
is the double bass) to avoid excessive ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the bass guitar is plugged into an
amplifier and speaker for live performances.
Bass guitar 38

Since the 1960s, the bass guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the
rhythm section.[7] While the types of basslines performed by the bassist vary widely from one style of music to
another, the bassist fulfills a similar role in most types of music: anchoring the harmonic framework and laying down
the beat. The bass guitar is used in many styles of music including rock, metal, pop, punk rock, country, reggae,
gospel, blues, and jazz. It is used as a soloing instrument in jazz, fusion, Latin, funk, and in some rock and metal
styles.

History

1930s1940s
In the 1930s, musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc from Seattle, Washington,
developed the first electric string bass in its modern form, a fretted instrument
designed to be held and played horizontally. The 1935 sales catalog for
Tutmarc's electronic musical instrument company, Audiovox, featured his
"Model 736 Bass Fiddle", a four-stringed, solid-bodied, fretted electric bass
instrument with a 30-inch scale length.[8] The alteration to a "guitar" form
made the instrument easier to hold and transport, and the addition of frets
enabled bassists to play in tune more easily. Around 100 of these instruments
were made during this period.

Around 1947, Tutmarc's son, Bud, began marketing a similar bass under the
Serenader brand name, prominently advertised in the nationally distributed
L.D. Heater Co. wholesale jobber catalogue of '48. However, the Tutmarc
family inventions did not achieve market success.
Musical instrument inventor Paul
Tutmarc outside his music store in
Seattle, Washington

1950s
In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton,
developed the first mass-produced electric bass.[9] His Fender Precision Bass,
introduced in 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. The Precision
Bass (or "P-bass") evolved from a simple, uncontoured "slab" body design
similar to that of a Telecaster with a single coil pickup, to a contoured body
design with beveled edges for comfort and a single four-pole "single coil
pickup." This "split pickup", introduced in 1957, appears to have been two
mandolin pickups (Fender was marketing a four string solid body electric
mandolin at the time). Because the pole pieces of the coils were reversed with
respect to each other, and the leads were also reversed with respect to each
other, the two coils, wired in series, produced a humbucking effect (the same
effect is achieved if the coils are wired in parallel).

Design patent issued to Leo Fender for

the second-generation Precision Bass
Bass guitar 39

The "Fender Bass" was a revolutionary new instrument, one that could easily be played
by an electric guitarist, could be easily transported to a gig, and could be amplified to
just about any volume without feeding back".[10] Monk Montgomery was the first bass
player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, with Lionel Hampton's postwar big band.[11]
Roy Johnson, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other
early Fender bass pioneers.[9] Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, adopted the Fender
Precision Bass around 1957.[12]

Following Fender's lead, Gibson released the first short scale violin-shaped electric bass
with extendable end pin in 1953, allowing it to be played upright or horizontally. Gibson
renamed the Electric Bass in 1958 as the EB-1 [13] (The EB-1 was reissued around 1970,
A Fender Standard Jazz
but this time without the end pin.) Also in 1958 Gibson released the maple arched top
Bass (front and back
EB-2 described in the Gibson catalogue as A hollow-body electric bass that features a views)
Bass/Baritone pushbutton for two different tonal characteristics.[14] In 1959 these were
followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass. The EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance
(although the earliest examples have a slab-sided body shape closer to that of the double-cutaway Les Paul Special).

Whereas Fender basses had pickups mounted in positions in between the base of the
neck and the top of the bridge, many of Gibson's early basses featured one
humbucking pickup mounted directly against the neck pocket. The EB-3, introduced
in 1961, also had a "mini-humbucker" at the bridge position. Gibson basses also
tended to be smaller, sleeker instruments; Gibson did not produce a 34" scale bass
until 1963 with the release of the Thunderbird, which was also the first Gibson bass
to use dual-humbucking pickups in a more traditional position, about halfway
between the neck and bridge. A small number of other companies also began
manufacturing bass guitars during the 1950s: Kay in 1952, and Danelectro in
1956;[12]

1956 saw the appearance at the German trade fair "Musikmesse Frankfurt" of the
distinctive Hfner 500/1 violin bass made using violin construction techniques by
Walter Hfner, a second generation violin luthier.[15] The instrument is often known
as the "Beatle Bass", due to its endorsement by Paul McCartney.
In 1957 Rickenbacker introduced the model 4000 bass,[16] the first bass to feature a
neck-through-body design; the Fender and Gibson versions used bolt-on and
glued-on necks.

1960s
Gibson EB-3
With the explosion of the popularity of rock music in the 1960s, many more
manufacturers began making electric basses.
First introduced in 1960, the Fender Jazz Bass was known as the Deluxe Bass and was meant to accompany the
Jazzmaster guitar. The Jazz Bass (often referred to as a "J-bass") featured two single-coil pickups, one close to the
bridge and one in the Precision bass' split coil pickup position. The earliest production basses had a 'stacked' volume
and tone control for each pickup. This was soon changed to the familiar configuration of a volume control for each
pickup, and a single, passive tone control. The Jazz Bass' neck was narrower at the nut than the Precision bass (1"
versus 1").
Bass guitar 40

Another visual difference that set the Jazz Bass apart from the Precision is its
"offset-waist" body. Pickup shapes on electric basses are often referred to as "P" or "J"
pickups in reference to the visual and electrical differences between the Precision Bass
and Jazz Bass pickups. Significantly, Fender chose to label the headstock of this model
with a decal noting Jazz Bass Electric Bass.[17]
Fender also began production of the Mustang Bass; a 30" scale length instrument used by
bassists such as Tina Weymouth of Talking Heads and Bill Wyman of The Rolling
Stones ("P" and "J" basses have a scale length of 34", a design echoed on most current
production electric basses of all makes). In the 1950s and 1960s, the instrument was
often called the "Fender bass", due to Fender's early dominance in the market.
Gibson introduced the short-scale (30.5") bass the Gibson EB-3 in 1961, favoured by
Jack Bruce of Cream.

1970s Fender Jazz Bass

with maple fretboard

1970s
The 1970s saw the founding of Music Man Instruments by Tom Walker, Forrest White
and Leo Fender, which produced the StingRay, the first widely produced bass with
active (powered) electronics. This amounts to an impedance buffering pre-amplifier on
board the instrument to lower the output impedance of the bass's pickup circuit,
increasing low-end output, and overall frequency response (more lows and highs).
Specific models became identified with particular styles of music, such as the
Rickenbacker 4001 series, which became identified with progressive rock bassists like
Chris Squire of Yes, and Geddy Lee of Rush, while the StingRay was used by Louis
Johnson of the funk band The Brothers Johnson.

In 1971, Alembic established the template for what became known as "boutique" or
"high-end" electric bass guitars. These expensive, custom-tailored instruments, as used
by Phil Lesh, Jack Casady, and Stanley Clarke, featured unique designs, premium
hand-finished wood bodies, onboard electronics for preamplification and equalization,
and innovative construction techniques such as multi-laminate neck-through-body
construction and graphite necks. In the mid-1970s, Alembic and other boutique bass
manufacturers, such as Tobias, produced four-string and five-string basses with a low
"B" string. In 1975, bassist Anthony Jackson commissioned luthier Carl Thompson to
build a six-string bass tuned (low to high) B0, E1, A1, D2, G2, C3.

A Rickenbacker 4001 bass.

Bass guitar 41

1980s2000s
In the 1980s, bass designers continued to explore new approaches. Ned Steinberger
introduced a headless bass in 1979 and continued his innovations in the 1980s, using
graphite and other new materials and (in 1984) introducing the TransTrem tremolo bar. In
1987, the Guild Guitar Corporation launched the fretless Ashbory bass, which used silicone
rubber strings and a piezoelectric pickup to achieve a "double bass" sound with a short 18"
scale length. In the late 1980s, MTV's "Unplugged" show, which featured bands performing
with acoustic instruments, helped to popularize hollow-bodied acoustic bass guitars
amplified with pickups.

During the 1990s, as five-string basses became more widely available and more affordable,
an increasing number of bassists in genres ranging from metal to gospel began using
five-string instruments for added lower rangea low "B". As well, onboard
battery-powered electronics such as preamplifiers and equalizer circuits, which were
previously only available on expensive "boutique" instruments, became increasingly
available on modestly priced basses.

In the 2000s (decade), some bass manufacturers included digital modelling circuits inside
the instrument to recreate tones and sounds from many models of basses (e.g., Line 6's
Variax bass). Traditional bass designs such as the Fender Precision Bass and Fender Jazz
Bass remained popular in the 2000s (decade); in 2011, a 60th Anniversary P-bass was
introduced by Fender, along with the re-introduction of the short-scale Fender Jaguar Bass.

Design considerations
Bass bodies are typically made of wood, although other materials such as graphite (for An early 1980s-era
Steinberger headless
example, some of the Steinberger designs) have also been used. While a wide variety of
bass
woods are suitable for use in the body, neck, and fretboard of the bass guitar, the most
common type of wood used for the body is alder, for the neck is maple, and for the
fretboard is rosewood. Other commonly used woods include mahogany, maple, ash, walnut, and poplar for bodies,
mahogany for necks, and maple and ebony for fretboards.

Other design options include finishes, such as lacquer, wax and oil; flat and carved designs; Luthier-produced
custom-designed instruments; headless basses, which have tuning machines in the bridge of the instrument (e.g.,
Steinberger and Hohner designs) and several artificial materials such as luthite. The use of artificial materials (e.g.,
BassLab) allows for unique production techniques such as die-casting, to produce complex body shapes. While most
basses have solid bodies, they can also include hollow chambers to increase the resonance or reduce the weight of
the instrument. Some basses are built with entirely hollow bodies, which change the tone and resonance of the
instrument. Acoustic bass guitars are typically equipped with piezoelectric or magnetic pickups and amplified.
Instruments handmade by highly skilled luthiers are becoming increasingly available. Exotic materials include
woods such as bubinga, wenge, ovangkol, ebony and goncalo alves. Graphite composite is used to make lightweight
necks[18][19] Exotic woods are used on more expensive instruments: for example, Alembic uses cocobolo as a body
or top layer material because of its attractive grain. Warwick bass guitars are also well known for exotic hardwoods:
most of the necks are made of ovangkol, and the fingerboards wenge or ebony. Solid bubinga bodies are also used
for tonal and aesthetic qualities.
A common feature of more expensive basses is "neck-through" construction. Instead of milling the body from a
single piece of wood (or "bookmatched" halves) and then attaching the neck into a pocket (so-called "bolt-on"
design), neck-through bases are constructed first by assembling the neck, which may comprise one, three, five or
Bass guitar 42

more layers of wood in vertical stripes, which are longer than the length of the fretboard. To this elongated neck, the
body is attached as two wings, which may also be made up of several layers. The entire bass is then milled and
shaped. Many players believe neck-through construction provides better sustain and a mellower tone than bolt-on
neck construction. While neck-through construction is most common in handmade "boutique" basses, some models
of mass-produced basses such as Ibanez's BTB series also have neck-through construction. Bolt-on neck construction
doesn't necessarily imply a cheaply made instrument; virtually all traditional Fender designs still use bolt-on necks
for instruments costing thousands of dollars, and many boutique luthiers will build bolt-on basses as well as
neck-through.
The long scale necks on Leo Fender's basseswith a scale length (distance between nut and bridge) of 34
inchesset the standard for electric basses. However, 30 inch "short scale" instruments, such as the Hfner 500/1
"violin bass" played by Paul McCartney, and the Fender Mustang Bass are popular, especially for players with
smaller hands. While 35", 35.5" and 36" scale lengths were once only available in "boutique" instruments, in the
2000s (decade), many manufacturers began offering these "extra long" scale lengths. This extra long scale provides a
higher string tension, which may yield a more defined tone on the low "B" string of five- and six-stringed
instruments (or detuned four-string basses).

Fretted and fretless basses

Another design consideration for the bass is whether to use frets on the
fingerboard. On a fretted bass, the frets divide the fingerboard into
semitone divisions (as on a guitar). The original Fender basses had 20
frets, but modern basses may have 24 or more. Fretless basses have a
distinct sound, because the absence of frets means that the string must be
pressed down directly onto the wood of the fingerboard as with the
double bass. The string buzzes against the wood and is somewhat muted
because the sounding portion of the string is in direct contact with the A fretless bass with flatwound strings; markers
flesh of the player's finger. The fretless bass allows players to use the are inlaid into the side of the fingerboard, to
expressive devices of glissando, vibrato and microtonal intonations such aid the performer in finding the correct pitch.

as quarter tones and just intonation.

Some bassists use both fretted and fretless basses in performances, according to the type of material they are
performing, as with Pino Palladino, whose performance on the fretless bass during the 1980s made him a highly
desirable session player backing high profile musicians that included Eric Clapton and David Gilmour. However, the
late 1990s showed a shift toward fretted basses as well, as he branched out into a wide variety of genres. While
fretless basses are often associated with jazz and jazz fusion, bassists from other genres use fretless basses, such as
metal bassist Steve DiGiorgio and Colin Edwin of modern/progressive rock band Porcupine Tree as well as Tony
Levin, studio bassist & live bassist for Peter Gabriel throughout his post-Genesis solo career.
The first fretless bass guitar was made by Bill Wyman in 1961 when he converted an inexpensive Japanese fretted
bass by removing the frets.[20][21] The first production fretless bass was the Ampeg AUB-1 introduced in 1966, and
Fender introduced a fretless Precision Bass in 1970. Around 1970, Rick Danko from The Band began to use an
Ampeg fretless, which he modified with Fender pickupsas heard on the 1971 Cahoots studio album and the Rock
of Ages album recorded live in 1971.[22][23] Danko said, "It's a challenge to play fretless because you have to really
use your ear."[24]
In the early 1970s, fusion-jazz bassist Jaco Pastorius created his own fretless bass by removing the frets[25] from a
Fender Jazz Bass, filling the holes with wood putty, and coating the fretboard with epoxy resin.[26] Some fretless
basses have "fret line" markers inlaid in the fingerboard as a guide, while others only use guide marks on the side of
the neck.
Bass guitar 43

Tapewound (double bass type) and flatwound strings are sometimes used with the fretless bass so the metal string
windings do not wear down the fingerboard. Some fretless basses have epoxy coated fingerboards to increase the
fingerboard' durability, enhance sustain, and give a brighter tone. Although most fretless basses have four strings,
five-string and six-string fretless basses are also available. Fretless basses with more than six strings are also
available as "boutique" or custom-made instruments.

Strings and tuning

The standard design for the electric bass guitar has four strings,
tuned E, A, D and G, in fourths such that the open highest string,
G, is an eleventh (an octave and a fourth) below middle C, making
the tuning of all four strings the same as that of the double bass.
This tuning is also the same as the standard tuning on the lower
four strings on a six-string guitar, only an octave lower. String
types include all-metal strings (roundwound, flatwound,
halfwound, ground wound, and pressure wound); as well as metal
strings with different coverings, such as tapewound and
The tuning machines (with spiral metal worm gears)
plastic-coatings. The variety of materials used in the strings gives
are mounted on the back of the headstock on the bass
bass players a range of tonal options. In the 1950s and early 1960s, guitar neck.
bassists mostly used flatwound strings with a smooth surface,
which had a smooth, damped sound reminiscent of a double bass. In the late 1960s and 1970s, roundwound bass
strings similar to guitar strings became popular, though flatwounds also continue to be popular. Roundwounds have
a brighter timbre with longer sustain than flatwounds.

A number of other tuning options and bass types have been used to extend the range of the instrument. The most
common are four, five, or six strings:
Four strings with alternative tunings to obtain an extended lower
range.[27] Tuning in fifths e.g., CGDA gives an extended upper and lower
range.

Washburn XB600, a six string bass

Bass guitar 44

Five strings usually tuned

B0-E1-A1-D2-G2, which provides
extended lower range. Five string
basses tuned to B-E-A-D-G (and
sometimes A-D-G-C-F) are often
Note positions on a right-handed four-string bass in standard EADG tuning. The dots
used in contemporary rock and below the frets are often inlaid into the wood of bass necks, as a visual aid to help the
metal alongside seven string guitars, player find different positions.
baritone guitars, and otherwise
downtuned instruments. Another common tuning used on early five-string basses is E-A-D-G-C, known as "tenor
tuning". This is still a popular tuning for jazz and solo bass. Other tunings such as C-E-A-D-G are used though
rare. The fifth string provides a greater lower range (if a low B or A is used) or a greater upper range (if a high C
string is added) than the four-string bass, and gives access to more notes for any given hand position. The earliest
five string was created by Fender in 1965. The Fender Bass V had the E-A-D-G-C tuning, but was unpopular and
discontinued in 1970. The common low B five string was created by Jimmy Johnson as a custom instrument in
1975. He bought an EADGC 5-string Alembic bass, replaced the nut, and used a new, thick low B string from
GHS to accommodate the instrument accordingly. Steinberger made a 5-string headless instrument called the
L-2/5 in 1982, and later Yamaha offered the first production model as the BB5000 in 1984.

Six strings are usually tuned B0-E1-A1-D2-G2-C3like a four-string bass with an additional low "B" string and
a high "C" string. Some players prefer B0-E1-A1-D2-F2-B2, which preserves the intervals of standard guitar
tuning and makes the highest and lowest string the same note two octaves apart. While less common than four or
five-string basses, they appear in Latin, jazz, and other genres, as well as in studio work where a single instrument
must be highly versatile. Alternative tunings for six-string bass include B-E-A-D-G-B, matching the first five
strings of an acoustic or electric guitar, and EADGBE, completely matching the tuning of a six-string guitar but
one octave lower allowing the use of guitar chord fingerings. Rarer tunings such as EADGCF and F#BEADG
provide a lower or higher range in a given position while maintaining consistent string intervals. The original
six-string bass was the LongHorn6, created by Danelectro in 1958, as a guitar tuned down an octave (EADGBE).
In 1974, Anthony Jackson worked with Carl Thompson to create the Contrabass guitar (BEADGC). Later,
Jackson brought his ideas to Fodera in cooperation with Ken Smith to create a wider-spaced Contrabass guitar,
which evolved to the modern six-string bass.
Eight- and twelve-string models are both built on the same course string concept found on twelve-string guitar,
where sets of strings are spaced together in groups of two or three, to be played simultaneously.
Detuners, such as the Hipshot, are mechanical devices operated by the thumb on the fretting hand that allow one
or more strings to be quickly detuned to a pre-set lower pitch. Hipshots are typically used to drop the "E"-string
down to "D" on a four string bass.[28]

Alternative range approaches

Some bassists have used other types of tuning methods to obtain an extended
range or other benefits such as providing multiple octaves of notes at any
given position, as well as a significantly larger tonal range. Instrument types
or tunings used for this purpose include basses with fewer than four strings
(one-string bass guitars,[29] two-string bass guitars, three-string bass guitars
[tuned to E-A-D])[30] alternative tunings (e.g., tenor bass,[31] piccolo
bass,[32] and guitar-tuned basses)[33] and 8, 10, 12 and 15-string basses,
A seven-string fretless bass
which are built on the same principle as the 12-string guitar, where the strings
are grouped into "courses" tuned in unison or octaves, to be played
simultaneously.[34]
Bass guitar 45

Extended Range Basses (ERBs) are basses with six to twelve stringswith the additional strings used for range
rather than unison or octave pairs. A seven-string bass (B0-E1-A1-D2-G2-C3-F3) was built by luthier Michael
Tobias in 1987. This instrument, commissioned by bassist Garry Goodman, was an early example of a bass with
more than six single course strings. Conklin builds eight- and nine-string basses.[35] The Guitarbass is a ten-string
instrument with four bass strings (tuned E-A-D-G) and six guitar strings (tuned E-A-D-G-B-E).[36]
Luthier Michael Adler built the first 11-string bass in 2004 and completed the first single-course 12-string bass in
2005. Adler's 11- and 12-string instruments have the same range as a grand piano.[37] Sub-contra basses, such as
C#-F#-B-E ("C#" being at 17.32Hz (C0))[38] have been created. Ibanez had released SR7VIISC in 2009, featuring
a 30" scale and narrower width, and tuned as B-E-A-D-G-C-E; the company dubbed it a cross between bass and
guitar.[39] Yves Carbonne developed 10 and 12 string fretless sub-bass guitars.[40][41][42]

Pickups and amplification

For more information on pickups, see Pick up (music technology).

Magnetic pickups
Most electric bass guitars use magnetic pickups. The vibrations of the instrument's ferrous metal strings within the
magnetic field of the permanent magnets in magnetic pickups produce small variations in the magnetic flux
threading the coils of the pickups. This in turn produces small electrical voltages in the coils. These low-level signals
are then amplified and played through a speaker. Since the 1980s, basses are often available with battery-powered
"active" electronics that boost the signal, provide equalization controls to boost or cut bass and treble frequencies, or
both.
"Precision" pickups (which refers to the original
Fender Precision Bass), which are also referred to as "P
pickups", are two distinct single-coil pickups. Each is
offset a small amount along the length of the body so
that each half is underneath two strings. The pickups are
reverse-wound with reversed magnetic polarity to reduce
hum. This makes the 'P' pickup a humbucking single coil
pickup. Less common is the "single-coil P" pickup, used
on the original 1951 Fender Precision bass.[43] P-style
pickups are generally placed in the "neck" or "middle"
position, but some luthiers and performers have used P
pickups in the bridge position, or in between two jazz
Dual "J"-style pickups pickups.
"Jazz" pickups (referring to the original Fender Jazz
Bass), also referred to as "J pickups", are wider eight-pole pickups that lie underneath all four strings. J pickups
are typically single-coil designs, although there are a large number of humbucking designs. Traditionally, two of
them are used, one of them near the bridge and another closer to the neck. As with the halves of P-pickups, the
J-pickups are reverse-wound with reverse magnetic polarity. As a result they have hum canceling properties when
used at the same volume, with hum cancellation decreasing when the pickups are used at unequal volume and
altogether absent when each pickup is used individually. 'J' Style pickups tend to have a lower output and a
thinner sound than 'P' Style pickups making it perfect for most rock music. Many bassists choose to combine a 'J'
pickup at the bridge and a 'P' pickup at the neck, to be 'blended' together for a unique sound.
"Dual Coil" (Humbucker) pickups, also known as "DC pickups", have two signal producing coils that are
reverse wound around opposed polarity magnets (similar in principle to the two individual J-pickups). This
significantly reduces noise from interference compared to single coil pickups. Humbuckers also often produce a
Bass guitar 46

higher output level than single coil pickups. Dual coil pickups come in two main varieties; ceramic or ceramic
and steel. Ceramic only magnets have a relatively harsher sound than their ceramic and steel counterparts, and are
thus used more commonly in heavier rock styles.
A well-known bass humbucker is the pickup used on the Music Man series of basses; it has two coils, each
with four large polepieces. This style is known as the "MM" pickup for this reason, and many aftermarket
pickup manufacturers and custom builders incorporate these pickups in their designs. The most common
configurations are a single pickup at the bridge, two pickups similar in placement to a Jazz Bass, or an MM
pickup at the bridge with a single-coil pickup (often a "J") at the neck. These pickups can often be "tapped",
meaning one of the two coils can be essentially turned off, giving a sound similar to a single-coil pickup.
"Soapbar" Pickups are so-named due to their resemblance to a bar of soap and originally referred to the Gibson
P-90 guitar pickup. The term is also used to describe any pickup with a rectangular shape and no visible pole
pieces; most of the pickups falling into this category are humbucking. They are commonly found in basses
designed for the rock and metal genres, such as Gibson, ESP Guitars, and Schecter, however they are also found
on 5- and 6-string basses made popular by jazz and fusion music, such as Yamaha's TRB and various Peavey
model lines. 'Soapbar pickups' are also called 'extended housing pickups'.
Many basses have just one pickup, typically a "P" or soapbar pickup. Multiple pickups are also quite common, two
of the most common configurations being a "P" near the neck and a "J" near the bridge (e.g., Fender Precision Bass
Special, Fender Precision Bass Plus), or two "J" pickups (e.g., Fender Jazz). A two-"soapbar" configuration is also
very common, especially on basses by makes such as Ibanez and Yamaha. A combination of a J or other single-coil
pickup at the neck and a Music Man-style humbucker in the bridge has become popular among boutique builders,
giving a very bright, focused tone that is good for jazz, funk and thumbstyle.
Some basses use more unusual pickup configurations, such as a soapbar and a "P" pickup (found on some Fenders),
Stu Hamm's "Urge" basses, which have a "P" pickup sandwiched between two "J" pickups, and some of Bootsy
Collins' custom basses, which had as many as 5 J pickups. Another unusual pickup configuration is found on some of
the custom basses that Billy Sheehan uses, in which there is one humbucker at the neck and a split-coil pickup at the
middle position.
The placement of the pickup greatly affects the sound. A pickup near the neck joint emphasizes the fundamental and
low-order harmonics and thus produces a deeper, bassier sound, while a pickup near the bridge emphasizes
higher-order harmonics and makes a "tighter" or "sharper" sound. Usually basses with multiple pickups allow
blending of the output from the pickups, with electrical and acoustical interactions between the two pickups (such as
partial phase cancellations) allowing a range of tonal effects.

Non-magnetic pickups
The use of non-magnetic pickups allows bassists to use non-ferrous strings such as nylon, brass or even silicone
rubber, which create different tones.
Piezoelectric pickups (also called "piezo" pickups) are non-magnetic pickups that use a transducer to convert
vibrations in the instrument's body or bridge into an electrical signal. They are typically mounted under the bridge
saddle or near the bridge and produce a different tone from magnetic pickups, often similar to that of an acoustic
bass. Piezo pickups are often used in acoustic bass guitars to allow for amplification without a microphone.
Optical pickups are another type of non-magnetic pickup. They use an infrared LED to optically track the
movement of the string, which allows them to reproduce low-frequency tones at high volumes without the "hum"
or excessive resonance associated with conventional magnetic pickups. Since optical pickups do not pick up high
frequencies or percussive sounds well, they are commonly paired with piezoelectric pickups to fill in the missing
frequencies. LightWave Systems builds basses with optical pickups.
Bass guitar 47

Amplification and effects

Like the electric guitar, the electric bass guitar is often connected to an
amplifier and a speaker with a patch cord for live performances. Electric
bassists use either a "combo" amplifier, which combines an amplifier and a
speaker in a single cabinet, or an amplifier and a separate speaker cabinet (or
cabinets). In some cases, when the bass is used with large-scale PA
amplification, it is plugged into a "DI" or direct box, which routes the signal
directly into a mixing console, and thence to the main and monitor speakers.
Recording may use a microphone setup for the amplified signal, a direct box
that feeds the recording console, or a mix of both.

Various electronic bass effects such as preamplifiers, "stomp box"-style

pedals and signal processors and the configuration of the amplifier and
This amplification setup is a "bass stack"
speaker can be used to alter the basic sound of the instrument. In the 1990s
approach, in which an amplifier (in this
and early 2000s (decade), signal processors such as equalizers, overdrive case a Hartke 5000) is plugged into
devices, and compressors or limiters became increasingly popular. separate speaker cabinets.
Modulation effects like chorus, flanging, phase shifting, and time effects such
as delay and looping are less commonly used with bass than with electric guitar, but they are used in some styles of
music.

Playing techniques

Sitting or standing
Most bass players stand while playing, although sitting is also accepted, particularly in large ensemble settings, such
as jazz big bands or in acoustic genres such as folk music. Some bassists, such as Jah Wobble, will alternate between
standing or seated playing. It is a matter of the player's preference as to which position gives the greatest ease of
playing and what a bandleader expects. When sitting, right-handed players can balance the instrument on the right
thigh or like classical guitar players, the left. Balancing the bass on the left thigh usually positions it in such a way
that it mimics the standing position, allowing for less difference between the standing and sitting positions.
Balancing the bass on the right thigh provides better access to the neck and fretboard in its entirety, especially lower
frets.

Performing techniques
In contrast to the upright bass (or double bass), the electric bass guitar is played horizontally across the body, like an
electric guitar. When the strings are plucked with the fingers (pizzicato), the index and middle fingers (and
sometimes with the thumb, ring, and little fingers as well) are used. James Jamerson, an influential bassist from the
Motown era, played intricate bass lines using only his index finger, which he called "The Hook." There are also
variations in how a bassist chooses to rest the right-hand thumb (or left thumb in the case of left-handed players). A
player may rest his or her thumb on the top edge of one of the pickups or on the side of the fretboard, which is
especially common among bassists who have an upright bass influence. Some bassists anchor their thumbs on the
lowest string and move it off to play on the low string. Alternatively, the thumb can be rested loosely on the strings
to mute the unused strings.
The string can be plucked at any point between the bridge and the point where the fretting hand is holding down the
string; different timbres are produced depending on where along the string it is plucked. When plucked closer to the
bridge, the string produces more pronounced harmonics, giving a brighter tone. Closer to the middle of the string that
harmonics are less pronounced, giving a more mellow tone.
Bass guitar 48

Bassists trying to emulate the sound of a double bass sometimes pluck the strings with their thumb and use
palm-muting to create a short, "thumpy" tone. The late Monk Montgomery (who played in Lionel Hampton's band)
and Bruce Palmer (who performed with Buffalo Springfield) use thumb downstrokes. The use of the thumb was
acknowledged by early Fender models, which came with a "thumbrest" or "Tug Bar" attached to the pickguard
below the strings. Contrary to its name, this was not used to rest the thumb, but to provide leverage while using the
thumb to pluck the strings. The thumbrest was moved above the strings in 1970s models (as a true thumbrest) and
eliminated in the 1980s.

"Slap and pop"

The slap and pop method, or "thumbstyle", most associated with funk, uses tones and percussive sounds achieved by
striking, thumping, or "slapping" a string with the thumb and snapping (or "popping") a string or strings with the
index or middle fingers. Bassists often interpolate left hand-muted "dead notes" between the slaps and pops to
achieve a rapid percussive effect, and after a note is slapped or popped, the fretting hand may cause other notes to
sound by using "hammer ons", "pull offs", or a left-hand glissando (slide). Larry Graham of Sly and the Family
Stone and Graham Central Station was an early innovator of the slap style, and Louis Johnson of The Brothers
Johnson is also credited as an early slap bass player.
Slap and pop style is also used by many bassists in other genres, such as rock (e.g., J J Burnel and Les Claypool),
metal (e.g., Eric Langlois, Martin Mendez, Fieldy and Ryan Martinie), and fusion (e.g., Marcus Miller, Victor
Wooten and Alain Caron). Slap style playing was popularized throughout the 1980s and early 1990s by pop bass
players such as Mark King (from Level 42) and rock bassists such as with Pino Palladino (currently a member of the
John Mayer Trio and bassist for The Who),[44] Flea (from the Red Hot Chili Peppers) and Alex Katunich (from
Incubus). Spank bass developed from the slap and pop style and treats the electric bass as a percussion instrument,
striking the strings above the pickups with an open palmed hand. Wooten popularized the "double thump," in which
the string is slapped twice, on the upstroke and a downstroke (for more information, see Classical Thump). A rarely
used playing technique related to slapping is the use of wooden dowel "funk fingers", an approach popularized by
Tony Levin.

Picking techniques
The pick (or plectrum) is used to obtain a more articulate attack, for speed, or just personal preference. Although the
use of a pick is primarily associated with rock and punk rock, picks are also used in other styles. Jazz bassist Steve
Swallow only plays with a pick, while Pink Floyd bassist Roger Waters uses one for a heavier tone. Picks can be
used with alternating downstrokes and upstrokes, or with all downstrokes for a more consistent attack. The pick is
usually held with the index and thumb, with the up-and-down plucking motion supplied by the wrist.
There are many varieties of picks available, but due to the thicker, heavier strings of the electric bass, bassists tend to
use heavier picks than those used for electric guitar, typically ranging from 1.14mm3.00mm (3.00 is unusual).
Different materials are used for picks, including plastic, nylon, and felt, all of which produce different tones. Felt
picks are used to emulate a fingerstyle tone.

Palm-muting techniques
Palm-muting is a widely used bass technique. The outer edge of the palm of the picking hand is rested on the bridge
while picking, and mutes the strings, shortening the sustain time. The harder the palm presses, or the more string
area that is contacted by the palm, the shorter the strings sustain. The sustain of the picked note can be varied for
each note or phrase. The shorter sustain of a muted note on an electric bass can be used to imitate the shorter sustain
and character of an upright bass. Palm-muting is commonly done while using a pick, but can also be done without a
pick, as when doing down-strokes with the thumb.
One prominent example of the pick/palm-muting combination is Paul McCartney, who has consistently used this
technique for decades. Sting also uses palm-muting; but often does so without a pick, using the thumb and first
Bass guitar 49

finger to pluck.

Fretting techniques
The fretting handthe left hand for right-handed bass players and the right hand for left-handed bass playersis
used to press down the strings to play different notes and shape the tone or timbre of a plucked or picked note. The
fundamental technique used in the fretting hand is known as "a finger per fret", where each finger in the fretting hand
plays one fret in a given position.[45] The fretting hand can be used to change a sounded note, either by fully muting
it after it is plucked or picked to shorten its duration or by partially muting it near the bridge to reduce the volume of
the note, or make the note die away faster. The fretting hand is often used to mute strings that are not being played
and stop the sympathetic vibrations, particularly when the player wants a "dry" or "focused" sound. On the other
hand, the sympathetic resonance of harmonically related strings may be desired for some songs, such as ballads. In
these cases, a bassist can fret harmonically related notes. For example, while fretting a sustained "F" (on the third fret
of the "D" string), underneath an F major chord being played by a piano player, a bassist might hold down the "C"
and low "F" below this note so their harmonics sound sympathetically.
The fretting hand can add vibrato to a plucked or picked note, either a gentle, narrow vibrato or a more exaggerated,
wide vibrato with bigger pitch variations. For fretted basses, vibrato is always an alternation between the pitch of the
note and a slightly higher pitch. For fretless basses, the player can use this style of vibrato, or they can alternate
between the note and a slightly lower pitch. While vibrato is mostly done on "stopped" notesthat is, notes that are
pressed down on the fingerboardopen strings can also be vibratoed by pressing down on the string behind the nut.
As well, the fretting hand can be used to "bend" a plucked or picked note up in pitch. To create the opposite effect, a
"bend down", the string is pushed to a higher pitch before being plucked or picked and then allowed to fall to the
lower, regular pitch after it is sounded. Though rare, some bassists may use a tremolo bar-equipped bass to produce
the same effect.
In addition to pressing down one note at a time, bassists can also press down several notes at one time with their
fretting hand to perform a chord. While chords are used less often by bassists than by electric guitarists, a variety of
chords can be performed on the electric bass, especially with instruments with higher ranges such as six-string
basses. Another variation to fully pressing down a string is to gently graze the string with the finger at the harmonic
node points on the string, which creates chime-like upper partials. Glissando is an effect in which the fretting hand
slides up or down the neck. A subtle glissando can be performed by moving the fretting hand without plucking or
picking the string; for a more pronounced effect, the string is plucked or picked first, or, in a metal or hardcore punk
context, a pick may be scraped along the sides of the strings.
The fretting hand can also be used to sound notes, either by plucking an open string with the fretting hand, or, in the
case of a string that has already been plucked or picked, by "hammering on" a higher pitch or "pulling off" a finger to
pluck a lower fretted or open stringed note. Jazz bassists use a subtle form of fretting hand pizzicato by plucking a
very brief open string grace note with the fretting hand right before playing the string with the plucking hand. When
a string is rapidly hammered on, the note can be prolonged into a trill.
Bass guitar 50

Two-handed tapping

In the two-handed tapping styles, bassists use both hands to play notes on
the fretboard by rapidly pressing and holding the string to the fret.
Instead of plucking or picking the string to create a sound, in this
technique, the action of striking the string against the fret or the fretboard
creates the sound. Since two hands can be used to play on the fretboard,
this makes it possible to play interweaving contrapuntal lines, to
simultaneously play a bassline and a simple chord, or play chords and
arpeggios. Bassist John Entwistle of The Who tapped percussively on the
strings, causing them to strike the fretboard with a twangy sound to A bassist performing tapping, in which notes
create drum-style fills. Players noted for this technique include Cliff are sounded by striking the strings against the
Burton, Billy Sheehan, Stuart Hamm, John Myung, Victor Wooten, Les fretboard

Claypool, Mark King and Michael Manring. The Chapman Stick and
Warr Guitars are string instruments specifically designed to be played using two-handed tapping.

Uses

Popular music
Popular music bands and rock groups use the bass guitar as a member of the rhythm section, which provides the
chord sequence or "progression" and sets out the "beat" for the song. The rhythm section typically consists of a
rhythm guitarist or electric keyboard player, or both, a bass guitarist and a drummer; larger groups may add
additional guitarists, keyboardists, or percussionists. The types of basslines performed by the bass guitarist vary
widely from one style of music to another. Despite all of the differences in the styles of bassline, in most styles of
popular music, the bass guitarist fulfills a similar role: anchoring the harmonic framework (often by emphasizing the
roots of the chord progression) and laying down the beat (in collaboration with the drummer). The importance of the
bass guitarist and the bass line varies in different styles of music. In some pop styles, such as 1980s-era pop and
musical theater, the bass sometimes plays a relatively simple part, and the music forefronts the vocals and melody
instruments. In contrast, in reggae, funk, or hip-hop, entire songs may be centered on the bass groove, and the
bassline is usually very prominent in the mix.
In traditional country music, folk rock, and related styles, the bass often plays the roots and fifth of each chord in
alternation. In Chicago blues, the electric bass often performs a walking bassline made up of scales and arpeggios. In
blues rock bands, the bassist often plays blues scale-based riffs and chugging boogie-style lines. In metal, the bass
guitar may perform complex riffs along with the rhythm guitarist or play a low, rumbling pedal point to anchor the
group's sound.
The bass guitarist sometimes breaks out of the strict rhythm section role to perform bass breaks or bass solos. The
types of basslines used for bass breaks or bass solos vary by style. In a rock band, a bass break may consist of the
bassist playing a riff or lick during a pause in the song. In some styles of metal, a bass break may consist of "shred
guitar"-style tapping on the bass. In a funk or funk rock band, a bass solo may showcase the bassist's percussive slap
and pop playing. In genres such as progressive rock, art rock, or progressive metal, the bass guitar player may play
melody lines along with the lead guitar (or vocalist) and perform extended guitar solos. Other contemporary
musicians such as Edo Castro have taken the electric bass, including 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9 strings, into a new and evolving
genre centered entirely around the bass itself.
Bass guitar 51

Jazz and jazz fusion

The electric bass is a relative newcomer to the world of jazz. The big bands of the 1930s and 1940s Swing era and
the small combos of the 1950s Bebop and Hard Bop movements all used the double bass. The electric bass was
introduced during the late 1960s and early 1970s, when rock influences were blended with jazz to create jazz-rock
fusion. The introduction of the electric bass in jazz fusion, as in the rock world, enabled the bass to be used in
high-volume stadium concerts with powerful amplifiers, because it is much easier to amplify the electric bass than
the double bass (the latter is prone to feedback in high-volume settings). The electric bass has both an
accompaniment and a soloing role in jazz. In accompaniment, the bassist may perform walking basslines for
traditional tunes and "jazz standards", playing smooth quarter note lines that imitate the double bass. For latin or
salsa tunes and rock-infused jazz fusion tunes, the electric bass may play rapid, syncopated rhythmic figures in
coordination with the drummer, or lay down a low, heavy groove.
In a jazz setting, the electric bass tends to have a much more expansive solo role than in most popular styles. In most
rock settings, the bass guitarist may only have a few short bass breaks or brief solos during a concert. During a jazz
concert, a jazz bassist may have a number of lengthy improvised solos, which are called "blowing" in jazz parlance.
Whether a jazz bassist is comping (accompanying) or soloing, they usually aim to create a rhythmic drive and
"timefeel" that creates a sense of "swing" and "groove". For information on notable jazz bassists, see the List of jazz
bassists article.

Contemporary classical music

Contemporary classical music uses both the standard instruments of Western Art music (piano, violin, double bass,
etc.) and newer instruments or sound producing devices, ranging from electrically amplified instruments to tape
players and radios. The electric bass guitar has occasionally been used in contemporary classical music (art music)
since the late 1960s. Contemporary composers often obtained unusual sounds or instrumental timbres through the
use of non-traditional (or unconventional) instruments or playing techniques. As such, bass guitarists playing
contemporary classical music may be instructed to pluck or strum the instrument in unusual ways.
American composers using electric bass in the 1960s included experimental
classical music composer Christian Wolff (born 1934) (Electric Spring 1,
1966; Electric Spring 2, 1966/70; Electric Spring 3, 1967; and Untitled,
1996); Francis Thorne, a student of Paul Hindemith at Yale University (born
1922), who wrote (Liebesrock 196869); and Krzysztof Penderecki (Cello
Concerto no. 1, 1966/67, rev. 1971/72), The Devils of Loudun, 1969;
Kosmogonia, 1970; and Partita, 1971), Louis Andriessen (Spektakel, 1970;
De Staat, 197276; Hoketus, 1976; De Tijd, 198081 and De Materie,
19841988). European composers who began scoring for the bass guitar in
the 1960s included Danish composer Pelle Gudmundsen-Holmgreen (born
1932) (Symfoni p Rygmarven, 1966; Rerepriser, 1967; and Piece by Piece,
1968); Irwin Bazelon (Churchill Downs, 1970).

In the 1970s, electric bass was used by the American conductor-composer Russian and Soviet composer Alfred
Schnittke, pictured here in 1989, used
Leonard Bernstein (19181990) for his MASS (1971). American jazz pianist
electric bass for his Symphony no. 1
Dave Brubeck used bass guitar for his 1971 piece Truth Has Fallen. Russian (1972).
and Soviet composer Alfred Schnittke used the instrument for his Symphony
no. 1, 1972. In 1977, David Amram (born 1930) scored for electric bass in En memoria de Chano Pozo. Amram is an
American composer known for his eclectic use of jazz, ethnic and folk music.

In the 1980s and 1990s, electric bass was used in works by Hans Werner Henze (El Rey de Harlem, 1980; and Il
ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, 1981), Harold Shapero, On Green Mountain (Chaconne after Monteverdi), 1957,
Bass guitar 52

orchestrated 1981; Steve Reich's Electric Counterpoint (1987), Wolfgang Rihm (Die Eroberung von Mexico,
198791), Arvo Prt (Miserere, 1989/92), Steve Martland (Danceworks, 1993; and Horses of Instruction, 1994),
Sofia Gubaidulina (Aus dem Stundenbuch, 1991), Giya Kancheli (Wingless, 1993), John Adams (I Was Looking at
the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky, 1995; and Scratchband, 1996/97), and Michael Nyman (various works for the
Michael Nyman Band).

Pedagogy and training

The pedagogy and training for the electric bass varies widely by genre and country. Rock and pop bass has a history
of pedagogy dating back to the 1950s and 1960s, when method books were developed to help students learn the
instrument. One notable method book was Carol Kaye's How to Play the Electric Bass.
In the jazz scene, since the bass guitar takes on much of the same role as the double basslaying down the rhythm,
and outlining the harmonic foundationelectric bass players have long used both bass guitar methods and jazz
double bass method books. The use of jazz double bass method books by electric bass players in jazz is facilitated in
that jazz methods tend to emphasize improvisation techniques (e.g., how to improvise walking basslines) and
rhythmic exercises rather than specific ways of holding or plucking the instrument.

Formal training
Of all of the genres, jazz and the mainstream commercial genres (rock, R&B, etc.) have the most established and
comprehensive systems of instruction and training for electric bass. In the jazz scene, teens can begin taking private
lessons on the instrument and performing in amateur big bands at high schools or run by the community. Young
adults who aspire to becoming professional jazz bassists or studio rock bassists can continue their studies in a variety
of formal training settings, including colleges and some universities.
Several colleges offer electric bass training in the US. The Bass Institute of Technology (BIT) in Los Angeles was
founded in 1978, as part of the Musician's Institute. Chuck Rainey (electric bassist for Aretha Franklin and Marvin
Gaye) was BIT's first director. BIT was one of the earliest professional training program for electric bassists. The
program teaches a range of modern styles, including funk, rock, jazz, Latin, and R&B.
The Berklee College of Music in Boston offers training for electric bass players. Electric bass students get private
lessons and there is a choice of over 270 ensembles to play in. Specific electric bass courses include funk/fusion
styles for bass; slap techniques for electric bass; fingerstyle R&B; five- and six-string electric bass playing
(including performing chords); and how to read bass sheet music.[46] Berklee College alumni include Jeff Andrews,
Victor Bailey, Jeff Berlin, Michael Manring, and Neil Stubenhaus.[46] The Bass Department has two rooms with bass
amps for classes and ten private lesson studios equipped with audio recording gear. Berklee offers instruction for the
four-, five-, and six-string electric bass, the fretless bass, and double bass. "Students learn concepts in Latin, funk,
Motown, and hip-hop,...jazz, rock, and fusion."[46]
In Canada, the Humber College Institute of Technology & Advanced Learning offers an Advanced Diploma (a
three-year program) in jazz and commercial music. The program accepts performers who play bass, guitar, keyboard,
drums, melody instruments (e.g., saxophone, flute, violin) and who sing. Students get private lessons and perform in
40 student ensembles.[47]
Although there are far fewer university programs that offer electric bass instruction in jazz and popular music, some
universities offer Bachelor's degrees (B.Mus.) and Master of Music (M.Mus.) degrees in jazz performance or
"commercial music", where electric bass can be the main instrument. In the US, the Manhattan School of Music has
a jazz program leading to B.Mus. and M.Mus degrees that accepts students who play bass (double bass and electric
bass), guitar, piano, drums, and melody instruments (e.g., saxophone, trumpet, etc.).[48]
In the Australian state of Victoria, the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority has set out minimum
standards for its electric bass students doing their end-of-year Solo performance recital. To graduate, students must
Bass guitar 53

perform pieces and songs from a set list that includes Baroque suite movements that were originally written for cello,
1960s Motown tunes, 1970s fusion jazz solos, and 1980s slap bass tunes. A typical program may include a Prelude
by J.S. Bach; "Portrait of Tracy" by Jaco Pastorius; "Twisted" by Wardell Gray and Annie Ross; "Whats Going On"
by James Jamerson; and the funky Disco hit "Le Freak" by Chic.[49]
In addition to college and university diplomas and degrees, there are a variety of other training programs such as jazz
or funk summer camps and festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of contemporary
music, from 1970s-style jazz-rock fusion to 2000s-style R&B.

Informal training
In other less mainstream genres, such as hardcore punk or metal, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are
typically not formalized and institutionalized. As such, many players learn "by ear", by copying the basslines from
records and CDs, and by playing in a number of bands. Even in non-mainstream styles, though, students may be able
to take lessons from experts in these or other styles, adapting learned techniques to their own style. As well, there are
a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., how to play metal bass).

Footnotes and references

[1] According to the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, an "Electric bass guitar [bass guitar] [is] a Guitar, usually with four heavy
strings tuned E1'-A1'-D2-G2." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell
(London, 2001)
[2] The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians defines the term bass thus: "Bass (iv). A contraction of Double bass or Electric bass
guitar." Ibid.
[3] The proper term is "electric bass", and it is often misnamed "bass guitar", according to Tom Wheeler, The Guitar Book, pp 1012. Guitars by
Evans and Evans, page 342, agrees.
[4] Although "electric bass" is one of the common names for the instrument, "bass guitar" or "electric bass guitar" are commonly used and some
authors claim that they are historically accurate (e.g., "How The Fender Bass Changed The World" in the references section).
[5] Bass guitar/Double Bass tuning E1=41.20Hz, A1=55Hz, D2=73.42Hz, G2=98Hz + optional low B0=30.87Hz
[6] Standard guitar tuning E2=82.41Hz, A2=110Hz, D3=146.8Hz, G3=196Hz, B3=246.9Hz, E4=329.6Hz
[7] Roberts, Jim (2001). 'How The Fender Bass Changed the World' p. 56 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1m2kRBQscfoC& lpg=PA41&
pg=PA56#v=onepage& q& f=false) "The surf/instrumental rock genres of the early 1960s were crucial proving grounds of the
still-newfangled electric bass..."
[8] Model #736 Electric Bass Fiddle (http:/ / www. bassic. ch/ i_his_av. asp) (German text)
[9] Slog, John J.; Coryat, Karl [ed.] (1999). The Bass Player Book: Equipment, Technique, Styles and Artists. Backbeat Books. p. 154. ISBN
0-87930-573-8
[10] Book review of How The Fender Bass Changed The World. Available online at: http:/ / blogcritics. org/ books/ article/
how-the-fender-bass-changed-the/
[11] George, Nelson (1998). Hip Hop America. Viking Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-670-87153-7
[12] Bacon, Tony (2000). 50 Years of Fender. Backbeat Books. p. 24. ISBN 0-87930-621-1
[13] Gibson EB-1 (http:/ / homepage2. nifty. com/ eb-1/ top. html)
[14] Gibson EB2 Bass Guitar (http:/ / www. vintageguitars. org. uk/ EB2. php)
[15] history of the violin bass (http:/ / www. fuenfhunderteins. de/ history. htm)
[16] Rickenbacker Bass Models and Specifications: The 4000 Series (http:/ / www. rickresource. com/ rrp/ axtbassarticle2. html)
[17] Vintage Fender advertisement (1966). - The Name that Makes the Difference (http:/ / www. vintageguitars. org. uk/ adDetails/ 359)
[18] There is a potted summary and description of graphite neck construction at http:/ / wiki. basschat. co. uk/
info:tech:use_of_composites_graphite_necks_in_bass_guitar_design.
[19] e.g., Status brand basses, which are made from graphite.
[20] Roberts, Jim (2001). 'How The Fender Bass Changed the World' or Jon Sievert interview with Bill Wyman, guitar player magazine
December (1978)
[21] Wyman's early fretless bass can be heard on The Rolling Stones songs such as "Paint It, Black" and "Mother's Little Helper" from 1966. He
is seen recording with the instrument in the 1968 film One Plus One aka Sympathy for the Devil.
[22] Bacon, Tony (2010). 60 Years of Fender. Backbeat Books. p. 50. ISBN 0-87930-966-0
[23] Trynka, Paul (1996). Rock Hardware. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 113. ISBN 0-87930-428-6
[24] Bacon, Tony; Moorhouse, Barry. (2008). The bass book: a complete illustrated history of bass guitars. Hal Leonard Corporation, second
edition. p. 96. ISBN 0-87930-924-5
Bass guitar 54

[25] In interviews, Pastorius gave various versions of how he accomplished this; the versions mention the use of pliers, a putty knife, and, in at
least one interview (Guitar Player magazine, 1984) he states that he bought the instrument with the frets already removed, badly, with the
slots where the frets once were not yet filled in.
[26] Pastorius used epoxy rather than varnish to obtain a glass-like finish suitable for the use of roundwound strings, which are otherwise much
harder on the wood of the fingerboard.
[27] Tunings such as "BEAD" (this requires a low "B" string in addition to the other three "standard" strings), "D-A-D-G" (a "standard" set of
strings, with only the lowest string detuned), and D-G-C-F or C-G-C-F (a "standard" set of strings, all of which are detuned) give bassists an
extended lower range. A tenor bass tuning of "A-D-G-C" provides a higher range.
[28] Hipshots are similarly used to drop the "B"-string down to a "B" on five or six string basses where it is advantageous when accompanying
brass bands whose music is commonly in the key of "B". More rarely, some bassists (e.g., Michael Manring) add detuners to more than one
string, or even more than one detuner to each string, to enable them to detune strings during a performance and have access to a wider range of
chime-like harmonics.
[29] Japanese manufacturer Atlansia offers one-, two- and three-stringed instruments (http:/ / www. atlansia. jp/ BASS. NEW. HTML#P8)
[30] Session bassist Tony Levin commissioned Music Man to build a three-string version of his favorite Stingray bass
[31] Tuned A-D-G-C, like the top 4 strings of a six-string bass, or simply a standard four-string with the strings each tuned up an additional
perfect fourth. Tenor bass is a tuning used by Stanley Clarke, Victor Wooten, and Stu Hamm.
[32] Tuned "e-a-d-g" (an octave higher than standard bass tuningthe same as the bottom four strings of a guitar). This is used by jazz fusion
bassists such as Stanley Clarke.
[33] The D-G-B-E tuning matches the first four strings (from highest to lowest) of a guitar, pitched two octaves lower.
[34] For example, an eight-string bass is strung Ee-Aa-Dd-Gg, while a 12-string bass might be tuned Eee-Aaa-Ddd-Ggg (four courses of three
strings each). In the case of the 12-string, the standard pitch strings are augmented by two strings both an octave higher than the standard
pitched string. Ten-string basses have octave strings added to the low-B of a five-string bass. A 15-string bass (tuned Eee Aaa Ddd Ggg Ccc)
was developed by Jauqo III-X (http:/ / www. jauqoiii-x. com/ ) and produced by Warrior Guitars(the 15 string bass made for Jauqo III-X by
Warrior was the world's first 15-string bass guitar ever made. A 1998 video: http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=G6O0Lgyn6aE )
[35] These have a low "F#" string below the "B" string, and the nine-string bass adds a low "F#" and a high "B" string.
[36] The guitarbass has 10 strings on the same neck and body, but with separate scale lengths, bridges, fretboards, and pickups. It was created
(http:/ / www. microphoneheaven. com/ guitarbass) by John Woolley in 2005, based on a prototype built by David Minnieweather.
[37] The Adler 12-string has the same range as the Bsendorfer 290 grand piano with 97 notes. This was made possible by Goodman developing
an Ab4 string for the 32" scale.
[38] (e.g., the Jauqo III-X from 2000 or the sub-bass guitar, E-A-D-G one octave below standard ("E" being at 20.6Hz)
[39] "IBANEZ RULES!! NAMM 2009 SR7" (http:/ / www. ibanezrules. com/ namm/ 2009/ sr7. htm). Ibanezrules.com. . Retrieved 2010-02-07.
[40] These extended range sub-basses, Legend X YC and Legend XII YC, were built by luthier from Barcelona Jerzy Drozd (http:/ / www.
jerzydrozdbasses. com/ ). The 12 string Legend XII YC uses a new B string tuned at 15,4 hertz.
[41] Bass Musician Magazine: Yves Carbonne (http:/ / www. bass-musician-magazine. com/ General/ bass-musician-magazine-masthead-detail.
asp?directory-id=807599636)
[42] Bass Musician Magazine Article: "Why Fretless?" (http:/ / www. bass-musician-magazine. com/ General/ bass-musician-magazine-detail.
asp?year=2008& month=6& article-id=613057319)
[43] This is also known as the 'Vintage P' due to it being found on vintage basses before the invention of the split coil pickup. The "single-coil P"
pickup is also used in the reissue and the Sting signature model.
[44] Jisi, Chris (2006). "The Master Stylist" (http:/ / www. bassplayer. com/ article/ pino-palladino/ nov-06/ 23886). Bass Player Magazine
Online Edition. New Bay Media, LLC. . Retrieved 2008-12-27.
[45] Bass Lessons with Riley Hagan (http:/ / basslessonsunlimited. com/ Riley_Hagan. html)
[46] "BERKLEE | Bass Department" (http:/ / www. berklee. edu/ departments/ bass. html). Berklee.edu. . Retrieved 2010-02-07.
[47] "Humber College | Music" (http:/ / postsecondary. humber. ca/ music. htm). Postsecondary.humber.ca. . Retrieved 2010-02-07.
[48] "Manhattan School of Music: Undergraduate Studies" (http:/ / www. msmnyc. edu/ undergrad/ ). Msmnyc.edu. . Retrieved 2010-02-07.
[49] "Contemporary Double Bass" (http:/ / www. vcaa. vic. edu. au/ vce/ studies/ musicsolo/ units34soloworks/ sololist/ electricbass. pdf) (PDF).
. Retrieved 2010-02-07.

Roberts, Jim (2001). How The Fender Bass Changed the World. San Francisco, CA: Backbeat Books.
ISBN0-87930-630-0.
Wheeler, Tom (1978). The Guitar Book: A Handbook for Electric and Acoustic Guitarists. Harper & Row. ISBN
0-06-014579-X.
Bass guitar 55

Further reading
Evans, Tom; Evans, Mary Anne (1977). Guitars: From the Renaissance to Rock. Facts On File. ISBN
0-87196-636-0.
Filiberto, Roger (1963). The Electric Bass. Mel Bay Publications.
Black, J. W. (2001). The Fender Bass: An Illustrated History. Hal Leonard. ISBN 0-63402-640-2.

External links
Weird Bass Guitars (http://www.weirdomatic.com/weird-bass-guitars.html) (Images)
Bass fingering chart http://www.alfred.com/img/pdf/BOP/FingeringCharts/Electric_Bass.pdf

Acoustic bass guitar

The acoustic bass guitar (also called ABG or acoustic bass) is a bass instrument with a hollow wooden body
similar to, though usually somewhat larger than a steel-string acoustic guitar. Like the traditional electric bass guitar
and the double bass, the acoustic bass guitar commonly has four strings, which are normally tuned E-A-D-G, an
octave below the lowest four strings of the 6-string guitar, which is the same tuning pitch as an electric bass guitar.
Because it can be difficult to hear an acoustic bass
guitar without an amplifier, even in settings with other
acoustic instruments, most acoustic basses have
pickups, either magnetic or piezoelectric or both, so
that they can be amplified with a bass amp.
Traditional music of Mexico features several varieties
of acoustic bass guitars, such as the bajo sexto, with
six pairs of strings, and the guitarrn, a very large,
deep-bodied Mexican 6-string acoustic bass guitar
played in Mariachi bands.

An Acoustic bass Guitar.

Acoustic bass guitar 56

History
The first modern acoustic bass guitar was developed in the mid-1950s by Kay of
Chicago but the design did not show up again in a production instrument until the early
1960s when Ernie Ball of San Luis Obispo, California began producing a model. Ball's
aim was to provide bass guitarists with a more acoustic-sounding instrument that would
match better with the sound of acoustic guitars. Ball stated that "...if there were electric
bass guitars to go with electric guitars then you ought to have acoustic basses to go with
acoustic guitars." Ball notes that "...the closest thing to an acoustic bass was the Mexican
guitarron...in mariachi bands, so I bought one down in Tijuana and tinkered with it."[1]

Ball collaborated with George Fullerton, a former employee at Fender, to develop the
Earthwood acoustic bass guitar, which was introduced in 1972. Production of this
instrument ceased in 1974, resuming a few years later under the direction of Ernie Ball's
employee Dan Norton, who still works for Ernie Ball Inc., until production finally ended
again in 1985. The Earthwood acoustic bass guitar was quite large (and deep) in contrast
to most instruments in current production, which gave it more volume, especially in the
Eston acoustic bass guitar
low register. photo 1 [2] photo 2 [3] photo 3 [4] The Ernie Ball company describes Ball's design with no electric pickup,
as "an idea before its time"; the instrument was little-used in acoustic musical fretless but with fretlike
performances until the late 1980s, when the acoustic basses were used in performances markers, made in Italy in
the 1980s
on the MTV Unplugged television program.[1] The Earthwood was quickly supplanted by
the Washburn AB-40 designed by Mick Donner and Richard Siegle. The AB-40 and the
more affordable AB-20 became the instrument of choice for bass players appearing on Unplugged.

An early user of the acoustic bass guitar in rock was English multi-instrumentalist and composer Mike Oldfield, who
had one custom-built for him by luthier Tony Zemaitis in the mid-1970s. Mike used the bass on a number of his
recordings from that time onwards, a prominent example being his 1975 album Ommadawn. Brian Ritchie of Violent
Femmes was also an early user of acoustic bass guitars.

Construction and tuning

Unlike the electric bass guitar, which is generally a solid body instrument, the acoustic bass guitar usually has a
hollow wooden body similar to (though usually somewhat larger than) that of the steel-string acoustic guitar. The
majority of acoustic basses are fretted, but a significant number are fretless instead. Semi-fretted versions also exist,
although they are quite rare.
Like the traditional electric bass and the double bass, the acoustic bass guitar commonly has four strings, which are
normally tuned E-A-D-G, an octave below the lowest four strings of the 6-string guitar. Like the electric bass guitar,
models with five or more strings have been produced, although these are less common. In part, this is because the
body of an acoustic bass guitar is too small to produce a resonance of acceptable volume at lower pitches on the low
"B" string. One solution uses the five string acoustic bass to add an additional high string ("E-A-D-G-C") instead of
adding a low "B". Another solution is to rely on amplification to reproduce the low "B" string's notes.
Acoustic bass guitar 57

There are also semi-acoustic models fitted with pickups that are intended to be used with
an amplifier. The soundbox of these instruments is not large enough to amplify the
sound; instead, it is designed to produce a distinctive tone when amplified, similarly to
semi-acoustic electric guitars. Thin-body semi-acoustic basses such as the violin-shaped
Hfner made famous by the early Beatles and several Fender models are not normally
regarded as acoustic basses at all, but rather as hollow-bodied bass guitars. There are also
semi-acoustic basses such as Godin Guitars' "A-Series" that, once amplified, sound much
closer between acoustic bass guitars and upright basses, and have been used in
professional circles to "simulate" one when it would be impractical for transportation and
other reasons to use a full-sized upright bass. As with semi-acoustic electric guitars, the
line between acoustic instruments fitted with pickups and electric instruments with
tone-enhancing bodies is sometimes hard to draw, especially when some instruments can
also be equipped with a variety of pickups such as piezo pickups, the "standard" of
acoustic-electric instruments as well as synth pickups that can replay "virtual" upright
bass sounds and bring a semi-acoustic bass much closer to a double bass sonically. Saga
Musical Instruments produces a four-string bass resonator guitar under their Regal brand
name. videos [5] National Reso-Phonic Guitars also produce three models of resonator
bass guitar.[6] Washburn AB-10
Acoustic-Electric Bass
Guitar

Manufacturers
Other manufacturers of acoustic bass guitars (not mentioned above) include Alvarez, Ibanez, Breedlove, Cort,
Crafter, Jerzey, Dean, Eko, Epiphone, Eston, Furch, Gibson, Guild, Washburn, Maton, Ovation and its subsidiary
Applause, Michael Kelly, Prestige, Ribbecke Halfling Bass, Sunlite, Takamine, Tacoma, Tanglewood, Taylor,
Larrive, Warwick, Fender, Gibson and Martin.

Mexican bass guitars

Traditional music of Mexico features varieties of acoustic bass guitars.
The bajo sexto, with six pairs of strings, resembles a twelve-string
guitar tuned an octave lower. The heavy gauge strings generate a large
string tension, yet the guitar is built relatively lightly. The bajo sexto
began to be used in Texas in the 1920s with the rise of "Tex-Mex"
music, where it continues to be used to play the parts that would be
played by the piano in traditional American popular music. It matches
the standard tuning of a 12-string guitar, one octave lower. The tuning
of these instruments is (capital letters are an octave lower than small
letters):

BAJA SEXTO - Ee Aa Dd Gg Cc Ff
BAJO SEXTO - Ee Aa Dd Gg Bb ee
The guitarrn is a very large, deep-bodied Mexican 6-string acoustic Mexican guitarrn acoustic bass guitar
bass guitar played in Mariachi bands. Other Latin American acoustic
bass guitars exist as well, see: Bordonua.
Acoustic bass guitar 58

References
[1] History of Ernie Ball Strings and Music Man Guitars (http:/ / www. ernieball. com/ mmonline/ history/ ) - Ernie Ball
[2] http:/ / www. reyesaccordions. com/ Images/ Earthwood77. jpg
[3] http:/ / www. lisa-und-georg. de/ mediac/ 400_0/ media/ BME1. jpg
[4] http:/ / www. lisa-und-georg. de/ mediac/ 400_0/ media/ Me~$26~Ernie. jpg
[5] http:/ / www. folkofthewood. com/ page2517. htm
[6] http:/ / www. nationalguitars. com/ newinstruments. html#bass

External links
Acoustic bass guitars (http://www.cumpiano.com/Home/Articles/Special interest/Acbass/acbass.htm)
The Tinozza Acoustic Bass Guitar (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/instruments/Tinozza.htm) Description and
downloadable plans for a flattop ABG
The Uccello Grasso Acoustic Bass Guitar (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/instruments/uccello.htm)
Description and downloadable plans for an archtop ABG
The Bassola Acoustic Bass Guitar (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/PrevPubs/Bassola/Bassola.htm)
Description and summary assembly instructions for a large archtop ABG
Discover a Hobby: Online guide to learn Bass Guitar (http://www.discoverahobby.com/learnbassguitar.htm)
5 string ABG (http://www.banjo.com/shopping/shopexd.asp?id=780) tuned B-E-A-D-G
Ribbecke Guitar Co. - http://www.ribbeckehalfling.com
Play Bass (http://www.play-bass.com)
How To Play Bass (http://www.how-to-play-bass.com)
tubular.net (Mike Oldfield fan site): Discography - Ommadawn (http://tubular.net/discography/Ommadawn.
shtml)

Washtub bass
The washtub bass, or "gutbucket", is a stringed instrument used in
American folk music that uses a metal washtub as a resonator.
Although it is possible for a washtub bass to have four or more strings
and tuning pegs, traditional washtub basses have a single string whose
pitch is adjusted by pushing or pulling on a staff or stick to change the
tension.

The washtub bass was used in jug bands that were popular in some
African Americans communities in the early 1900s. In the 1950s,
British skiffle bands used a variant called a Tea chest bass, and during
the 1960s, US folk musicians used the washtub bass in jug
band-influenced music.
Variations on the basic design are found around the world, particularly
in the choice of resonator. As a result there are many different names
for the instrument including the "gas-tank bass", "barrel bass", "box
bass" (Trinidad), "bush bass" (Australia), "babatoni" (South Africa),
"tingotalango" (Cuba), "tuln" (Italy), "laundrophone" and others.

Fritz Richmond, professional washtub bassist and

jug player
Washtub bass 59

The hallmarks of the traditional design are simplicity, very low cost and
do-it-yourself construction, leading to its historical association with lower
economic classes. These factors also make it quite common for modern-day
builders to promote modifications to the basic design, such as adding a finger
board, pedal, electronic pickup, drum head, or making the staff immovable.

History
Ethnomusicologists trace the origins of the instrument to the 'ground harp' - a
version that uses a piece of bark or an animal skin stretched over a pit as a
resonator. The ang-bindi made by the Baka people of the Congo is but one
example of this instrument found among tribal societies in Africa and
Southeast Asia, and it lends its name to the generic term inbindi for all
related instruments. Evolution of design, including the use of more portable
resonators, has led to many variations, such as the dan bau (Vietnam) and
gopichand (India), and more recently, the "electric one-string", which
amplifies the sound using a pickup.

The washtub bass is sometimes used in a jug band, often accompanied by a

washboard as a percussion instrument. Jug bands, first known as "spasm
bands", were popular especially among African-Americans around 1900 in
Electric "inbindi" bass which is amplified
New Orleans and reached a height of popularity between 1925 and 1935 in
by a public address system
Memphis and Louisville.
At about the same time, European-Americans of Appalachia were using the instrument in "old-timey" folk music. A
musical style known as "gut-bucket blues" came out of the jug band scene, and was cited by Sam Phillips of Sun
Records as the type of music he was seeking when he first recorded Elvis Presley.
In English skiffle bands and Australian and New Zealand bush bands, the same sort of bass has a tea chest as a
resonator. Before the Beatles, John Lennon and Paul McCartney's band, The Quarrymen, featured a tea-chest bass, as
did many young bands around 1956.
A folk music revival in the U.S. in the early 1960s re-ignited interest in the washtub bass and jug band music. Bands
included Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions which later became The Grateful Dead, and, the Jim Kweskin
Jug Band featuring Fritz Richmond on bass.
According to Willie "The Lion" Smith's autobiography, the term "gutbucket" comes from "Negro families" who all
owned their own pail, or bucket, and will get it filled with the makings for chitterlings. The term "gutbucket" came
from playing a lowdown style of music.[1]

Notable Players
Will Shade vocalist and multi-instrumentalist member of the Memphis Jug Band who recorded from the 20s until
his death in 1966
Fritz Richmond (1939-2005) has performed on numerous recordings from America and Japan. One of his
washtub basses is in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
Brian Ritchie, of the band The Violent Femmes, plays a 'tubless electric washtub bass'.
Les Claypool, of Primus, often plays a variation called a whamola.
Len Garry, Ivan Vaughan, and Nigel Walley, tea-chest bass players of The Quarrymen.
That 1 Guy plays a variation of the washtub bass called the 'Magic Pipe' and a few other self-built instruments.
Terry Devine, of The Genuine Jug Band from Vancouver, B.C.
Washtub bass 60

The late Dennis Johnson from the Gutter Brothers.

Zakk Wylde from Black Label Society plays washtub bass on recordings with the band. These parts are often
performed live by the bands' bassist using an electric bass.

Tea chest bass

A tea chest bass is a variation of the washtub bass that uses a tea chest
as the resonator for an upright stringed bass. The instrument is made
from a pole, traditionally a broomstick, placed into or alongside the
chest. One or more strings are stretched along the pole and plucked.
In Europe, particularly England and Germany, the instrument is
associated with skiffle bands. In Australia it was traditionally used to
provide deep sounds for "bush bands", though most such groups today
use electric bass or double bass. It was commonly called a "bush bass".

Other variations
Other variations on the basic design are found around the world,
particularly in the choice of resonator, for example:
"gas-tank bass"
"barrel bass"
"box bass" (Trinidad)
"bush bass" (Australia)
"babatoni" (South Africa)
"dumdum" (Zimbabwe)
"dan bau" (Vietnam)
"sanduku" (Zanzibar)
Tea chest bass
"tingotalango" (Cuba)

"tuln" (Italy)
The ang-bindi made by the Baka people of the Congo is but one example of a traditional version of the instrument
found among tribal societies in Africa and Southeast Asia, and it lends its name to the generic term inbindi for all
related instruments.

External links
The Washtub Bass Page [2]
How to Build and Play the Washtub Bass [3]
Makers of bucket bass in London [4]
Inbindis Around the World [5] - related instruments old and new.
What is a Tea chest Bass? [6]
Washtub bass 61

References
[1] Smith, Willie the Lion (1964). Music on My Mind: The Memoirs of an American Pianist, Foreword by Duke Ellington. New York City:
Doubleday & Company Inc.. pp.11.
[2] http:/ / tubotonia. freehomepage. com/ Tublinks. html
[3] http:/ / www. jugstore. com/ washtub. html
[4] http:/ / bucketbass. com/
[5] http:/ / www. davidwalley. ca/ inbindi/ info. html
[6] http:/ / www. teachestbass. com/ whatisateachestbass. aspx

Piccolo bass
Piccolo bass can refer to two string instruments, the acoustic piccolo bass and the electric piccolo bass.
Carl Thompson and Stanley Clarke collaborated on the electric piccolo bass and Ron Carter invented the first upright
piccolo bass.

Acoustic piccolo bass

The acoustic piccolo bass is an instrument similar to the double bass, but with a range exactly one octave higher. It is
featured on Henry Threadgill's 1979 album X-75 Volume 1, played by Brian Smith.
Ron Carter uses a piccolo bass that he tunes a fourth higher than a normal double bass (low to high: A-D-G-C). [1]

Electric piccolo bass

The electric is a string instrument very similar to a four-stringed electric bass guitar, but usually tuned one whole
octave higher than a normal bass. This results in the lowest note from a piccolo bass usually being equal to the E
found on the seventh fret of the A string on a standard bass. To allow such an uptuning, the strings can be thinner, or
the length of the neck (the scale) can be shorter. The first option is the most common, and several companies
manufacture piccolo sets that can be put on any regular bass, thereby converting any bass into a piccolo bass.
Because of the thinner strings, a new nut may be required to hold the strings. Some people prefer a slightly shorter
scale, such as 30" or 28".
The tuning varies with the personal tastes of the artist, as does the number of strings. Joey DeMaio from the heavy
metal band Manowar plays with eight strings on his piccolo bass. Jazz bassist John Patitucci used a six-string piccolo
bass, unaccompanied, on his song "Sachi's Eyes" on his album One More Angel. Michael Manring has used a
five-string piccolo bass in several altered tunings. Michael uses D'Addario EXL 280 piccolo bass strings on his
four-string hyperbass, made by Zon Guitars.

External links
R.M. Mottola's Mezzaluna electric bass family [2] includes both a piccolo and a piccolino electric bass.

References
[1] http:/ / www. jazzreview. com/ forum/ dcboard. php?az=show_topic& forum=114& topic_id=13& mesg_id=13& page=
[2] http:/ / www. liutaiomottola. com/ instruments/ mezzaluna. htm
Extended-range bass 62

Extended-range bass
Extended-range bass refers to an electric bass guitar with greater frequency range than the standard 4-string bass
guitar. Bass guitars tuned one octave lower than a standard four-string instrument are also considered an
extended-range bass. "Extended range-bass" does not refer to 8 string bass guitars which have doubled or tripled
courses of octave strings.

History
The Danelectro 6-string bass (1956) and the Fender Bass VI (1961) were tuned EADGBE, an octave lower than
standard guitar tuning. In 1975, Anthony Jackson asked Carl Thompson to build him a six-string bass guitar tuned
(from low to high) BEADGC, which he called the contrabass guitar. Jackson's bass extended the range of the bass
both lower and higher than a four-string. Though Jackson initially received much criticism for the new instrument,
the deep sounds of the low "B" string has become a standard in many genres including metal, R&B, funk, and
gospel.
In the late 1980s, luthier Michael Tobias made the first bass with more than six single course strings, a custom order
seven string bass for bassist Garry Goodman, tuned BEADGCF. In 1988, Atlanta luthier Bill Hatcher also made a
seven string bass tuned EADGBEA and later tuned BEADGBE. This bass can be verified with serial number and
date on it. Since that time, luthiers have been adding strings to their custom basses. In 1995, luthier Bill Conklin
made a 9-string bass for Bill "Buddha" Dickens. Subsequently, other luthiers built instruments with 8, 9, 10 and 11
strings. Custom bass builders have added both lower strings (such as F# and C#) and higher strings (such as F and
Bb) to the six-string bass guitar.

Construction and tuning

While the extended-range bass instruments are built using the same design methods as the more traditional electric
bass, some performers view it as an entirely new instrument, since its expanded range permits high-register
melodies, four- and five-note chords, and other techniques.
Construction of basses with more than 7 strings has largely been the realm of boutique luthiers, with the exception of
several production-run models including Galveston 7- and 8-string basses and the recently discontinued Conklin
Groove-Tools line of 7-string basses. Some extended-range basses are tailor-made to a player's specific preferences,
including much variation in scale length, appearance, and electronics. Due to the fact that the scale length of a
typical bass guitar (34" or 35") produces excessive tension on the highest strings of extended-range basses, many
builders opt to use slanted or fanned frets to achieve a variable-scale instrument (such as the instruments by Novax
Guitars ) and prevent these strings from breaking.
Usually, extended-range basses are tuned in 4ths, and the most common methods include tuning 7-string bass to
F#BEADGC or BEADGCF, an 8-string to F#BEADGCF, a 9-string to F#BEADGCFBb, a 10-string to
C#F#BEADGCFBb or F#BEADGCFBbEb, an 11-string to C#F#BEADGCFBbEb or F#BEADGCFBbEbAb, and a
12-string to C#F#BEADGCFBbEbAb or BEADGCFBbEbAbDbGb.
Extended-range bass 63

Playing styles
The techniques used to play the extended-range bass are closely related to those used for basses, including finger
plucking, slapping, popping, and tapping. A plectrum is very rarely used.
The upper strings of an extended-range bass allow bassists to adopt playing styles of the electric guitar. One such
style is the practice of "comping", or playing a rhythmic chordal accompaniment to an improvised solo. The
increased polyphony of extended-range basses allows for voicings of five or more notes, as well as wider voicings
such as "drop 3", "drop 2+4" and "spreads." Walking a bassline and comping at the same time is also possible, which
is useful in jazz combos lacking a chordal instrument, or in accompaniment of a chordal instrument during their solo.
Two bassists notable for adopting this style are Todd Johnson and Oteil Burbridge.
The added strings of the extended-range bass compound the muting problems that many bassists encounter. Because
of the sympathetic vibration of the bass, a plucked note will cause that same note (and its octaves) to sound on all
strings if left unmuted. Extended-range bassists often turn to hairbands or advancing muting techniques, including
the "floating thumb" technique (allowing the thumb of the plucking hand to mute lower strings), to achieve a good
sound.
Many extended-range bassists, because of the extreme range of their instruments, choose to practice a technique
called "two-handed tapping," in which the player uses both hands on the fretboard to press down the strings and
creates sound with both hands (similar to the way one plays a Chapman Stick). By using both hands, extended-range
bassists can create sophisticated chordings, harmonies, melodies, and contrapuntal music.
The role that the extended-range bass plays in music is still largely a matter of situation and personal preference.
Many extended-range bassists play the bass part in bands, but many also perform their instrument in a solo setting,
often using advanced techniques such as two-handed tapping or chording. Still others are exploring the
extended-range bass's potential through the art of looping by layering complex bass parts, melodies, and harmonies
on top of each other.

Examples

Five string
Fender Bass V
Fender Jazz Bass V
Fender deluxe active jazz bass v
Music Man StingRay 5

Six string
Fender Bass VI
Fender Jaguar Baritone Custom
Extended-range bass 64

Notable players
Felipe Andreoli
Steve Bailey[1]
Al Caldwell[2]
Alain Caron
Edo Castro[3]
Les Claypool[4]
Kelly Conlon[5]
Bill Dickens[6]
Jimmy Haslip[7]
John Lennon
Jeroen Paul Thesseling
Anthony Jackson
Adrian Lambert
Ryan Martinie of Mudvayne
John Patitucci[8]
Tetsuo Sakurai
Steve "Fuzz" Kmak of Disturbed
Alex Webster of Cannibal Corpse
Sami Hinkka of Ensiferum
John Myung of Dream Theater
Mike Gordon of Phish

References
[1] Steve Bailey - That Bass Player Dude (http:/ / www. stevebaileybass. com/ )
[2] 9 String Bass (http:/ / www. 9stringbass. com)
[3] Edo Castro Homepage (http:/ / www. edocastro. com/ )
[4] Les Claypool - Electric Apricot: Quest For Festeroo - In Theaters Now (http:/ / www. lesclaypool. com/ )
[5] Kelly Conlon Website (http:/ / www. kellyconlon. com/ )
[6] BILL DICKENS - "The Buddha of Bass": Stevie Wonder and Bill Dicken Jamming at X2 Wireless (http:/ / www. billthebuddhadickens.
com)
[7] Jimmy Haslip Official Website (http:/ / www. jimmyhaslip. com/ / )
[8] John Patitucci Home Page (http:/ / www. johnpatitucci. com)

External links
Stewart McKinsey's article, "Approaching the Extended Range Bass" (http://extendedrangebassist.com/
ERB_app_ERB_SM.htm)
Dave's Guitar and Bass Resource Pages (http://www.guitar-and-bass.com/) This site includes numerous scale
and chord charts for 5 and 6 string basses.
Electric upright bass 65

Electric upright bass

The electric upright bass (abbreviated EUB) is an electronically amplified version
of the double bass that has a minimal or 'skeleton' body, which greatly reduces the
size and weight of the instrument. The EUB retains enough of the features of the
double bass so that double bass players are comfortable performing on it. While the
EUB retains some of the tonal characteristics of the double bass, its electrically
amplified nature also gives it its own unique sound.

History
The first production electric upright basses were developed independently in the
mid-1930s by Regal, Vega and Rickenbacker.[1] However, in the 1930s and 1940s,
neither the transducers and or amplification equipment which were then available
could accurately reproduce the deep tones of the bass. This may have contributed to
the lack of public interest in either the electric upright basses or the electric
guitar-style instruments that emerged in the 1930s.

In comparison with other electronically amplified string instruments, such as the

electric violin, viola and cello, the EUB has been taken up by a wider range of
players, perhaps because a traditional upright bass's size makes it challenging to
transport when compared to smaller instruments in the family.

Description An Aria SWB 02/5 5-string EUB

with a skeleton-style upper bout
so that the bass will sit against
the body properly.

Scale length and tuning

The scale length of EUBs varies: some scales are 42", similar to most double basses, whilst other models have scale
lengths of only 30" like a short scale bass guitar. The shorter scale can make it easier for bass guitarists to convert to
the EUB. Some scales lie between these two extremes, for example 34", like a long scale bass guitar. The
fingerboard extends over two octaves and usually has side dots for the players reference. Regardless of scale length,
the strings are usually tuned to E1, A1, D2, G2 (see Scientific pitch notation) at the same pitch as the double bass or
bass guitar. Double bass players use features of the instrument such as the neck heel and edge of the upper bout as
tactile positional references. The rear of the body of an upright bass is usually braced against the hip with player
standing or knee if sitting. Many EUBs therefore mirror these features in their design.
There will often be a raised reference point about 1/3 down from the nut to the bridge at either the "D" or "Eb"
position (where the notes "D" or "Eb" are found on the "G" string)) to represent the 'neck heel' of the acoustic bass.
Many EUBs have wooden or metal bars to brace the instrument against the musician's body, to act as the upper bouts
of a wooden double bass. The wooden or metal brace bars help the EUB to rest against the player's body in a position
roughly similar to the way a double bass rests against the body. The most complete example of this is the Yamaha
'silent bass' which has a removable frame designed to match the outline of right hand side and left upper bout of an
upright bass allowing for easy transference of double bass techniques.
Electric upright bass 66

Amplification
Solid bodied EUBs produce very little sound without electronic amplification. Hollow-bodied EUBs produce a quiet
tone that is loud enough for individual practice. However, since hollow-bodied EUBs do not have a large resonant
cavity like a double bass, they cannot reproduce the lowest notes of the instrument without an amplifier. To amplify
the EUB, the string vibrations are sensed with a pickup. Early EUBs used magnetic pickups similar to those in
electric guitars, or percussive magnetic diaphragm pickups (e.g., the Ampeg Baby Bass). Many modern EUBs use
piezoelectric pickups located in the bridge or a combination of pickup types. The signal from the pickup is usually
preamplified and equalized with a preamplifier and then sent to a bass amplifier or a PA system. For practice in a
hotel room or apartment, an EUB can also be connected to headphones.
Some EUBs have a hollow resonant chamber, such as the Eminence EUBs and some Aria and Azola models. While
these small resonant chambers are usually not large enough to provide much acoustic amplification, they do change
the tone and response of the instrument. Condenser microphones can be used to amplify EUBs with hollow bodies,
often in combination with other types of pickups.
EUB players who use the bow need to use the appropriate pickup, microphone, and preamplifier/equalizer
combination to avoid the tendency for the amplified tone to be scratchy and high-sounding. To obtain a more natural
arco sound, some performers use a condenser microphone for arco passages. Most bass pickups are designed to
capture the pizzicato sounds of a double bass rather than the arco sounds. Some pickup manufacturers produce
piezoelectric pickups that purportedly provide a natural reproduction of arco sound. Preamplifiers and equalizers for
acoustic instruments or double basses can also be used to "roll off" the treble frequencies or "notch out" the
"scratchy-sounding" frequencies. An external parametric equalizer could also be used to remove unwanted
"scratchy" sounds.
Electric upright bass 67

Types
There are many varieties of EUBs available at present. Some EUBs cannot be used with a
bow because of the large radius of the fingerboard and the flatness of the bridge. These types
are therefore solely used for pizzicato playing. Other EUBs have a curved bridge which
permits a bow to be used. EUB's are available in 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8-string models, and with
solid, hollow and 'floating top' configurations. While hollow and 'floating top' models produce
a more resonant tone, they are also more prone to feedback; as such, solid-body EUBs may be
the best choice for bassists who play in loud styles, such as jam bands or metal fusion groups.

Dean Pace 4 string

EUB
Electric upright bass 68

Playing techniques
The EUB is played in a similar manner to the double bass. All
EUBs can be played pizzicato style. However, only those with a
suitable fingerboard and arched bridge radius can be bowed. Some
EUBs are designed with integral stands, freeing the player from
the need to brace/support the instrument. More rarely, EUBs may
be designed to be strapped on the body using guitar straps. The use
of stands may make bowing much easier, especially for the
beginner, because then the instrument does not have to be
stabilized with the knee and thighs.

Like a double bass, the instrument may be played either standing

or sitting on a tall stool. The optimum height for most players will
be when the (index) finger in the first position (i.e., first fret on a
fretted instrument [actually, the first fret on a fretted instrument
corresponds to "half position" on an upright bass]) is at the same
level as the player's eye. If the bass is higher than this, discomfort
in the muscles of the neck may be experienced after playing long
passages in the first position. If the bass is too low, the player may
need to bend or stretch when attempting to play notes at the higher
end of the fingerboard (although not as much as on a double bass).
Karim Martusewicz - double-bassist for the band Voo
The strings are generally plucked with the sides of the top joints of Voo
the index and middle fingers, although sometimes the tips are used
to produce a mellower tone or to facilitate rockabilly or bluegrass "slap" playing, while the thumb of the right hand
rests against the side of the fingerboard. The strings are usually plucked over the fingerboard near the end. The left
hand is used to stop the strings by pressing down with the fleshy part of the finger, generally using the ball of the
thumb at the back of the neck to obtain pressure.

In the highest positions on the fingerboard, where the neck on an EUB gets considerably thicker, the left hand usage
can be modified with the whole hand being brought round to the front of the instrument and the thumb taking the
place of the index finger. These positions are called the 'thumb positions' in double bass parlance. In these positions,
it is necessary to rest the neck of the bass against the player's left shoulder in order to support the neck against the
pressure of fingers on the strings. On the shorter scale EUBs, bass guitar fingering can be used over a large portion
of the fingerboard and thumb positions may not be necessary. On the longer scale models, due to the larger distances
between notes, the double bass (Simandl) fingering method usually has to be used.

Comparison with the double bass

Since the EUB typically does not have a hollow sound chamber, or only includes a small sound chamber, the EUB is
less prone to feedback than the double bass when amplified. To use a bow with an EUB, both the bridge and
fingerboard need to be radiussed (given a curve). If the EUB's bridge and fingerboard are relatively flat, like those on
an electric bass, then it is not possible to use the bow on the inner strings. By adjusting the amplifier tone controls an
EUB can sound similar to an acoustic double bass. As well, by using tone controls and bass effects, an EUB can also
take on a sound similar to a fretless bass guitar. Since the EUB transmits its sounds through a pickup, the tone is
brighter than that of the acoustic double bass, which transmits its tone via the sound post to the back of the body.
Compared to a double bass, the tone produced by an EUB is much less modified by its wooden 'body'.
Electric upright bass 69

Genres and performers

The Ampeg 'baby bass' has been popular in Cuban music since the 1960s being used by such performers as Cachao
Lopez and Andy Gonzalez. Sting played a Dutch-made 'Van Zalinge' on some recordings. Eberhard Weber played an
EUB on the 1975 album Yellow Fields, using a combination of modes and raga-like riffs using the sustained tone of
the EUB. Weber also drummed on the EUB, making a variety of percussive sounds. In free improvised music/avant
garde jazz the Japanese bassist Motoharu Yoshizawa used a self-made 5-string EUB. More recently the Portuguse
bassist Margarida Garcia has concentrated on the EUB in electro-acoustic improvisation. Houston based musician
Damon Smith uses a 7 string Ergo EUB tuned (low to high) BEADGCF for free jazz and improvised music.
In the 1990s and 2000s, Les Claypool used the EUB in several of his bands. Jeff Ament of Pearl Jam also regularly
uses EUBs. In heavy metal, bassists such as Felipe Andreoli of Angra use EUBs; Andreoli uses a Brazilian-made
D'Alegria instrument. Tony Levin plays an NS Electric Upright Bass, sometimes with pizzicato and sometimes with
a bow. Italian bassist Don Bachi of Bandabard regularly plays a plucked EUB. Jazz musician Brian Torff uses
EUB, often incorporating percussive effects in his playing. Rob Wasserman uses a 6 string EUB in wide range of
rock contexts such as Ratdog.
In their 2008 tour, Queen + Paul Rodgers's touring bassist Danny Miranda played an EUB while performing "'39",
followed by a "bass solo" by both Roger Taylor and Danny Miranda with Roger using his drumsticks as fingers in
the strings.

References
[1] Jim, Roberts (2001). How The Fender Bass Changed the World. Backbeat Books. p. 24. 0-87930-630-0

External links
Electric Upright Bass resources (http://ebass.nl) Includes a gallery of different types and sound examples
 70

Other bass instruments

Serpent (instrument)
The serpent is a bass wind instrument, descended from the cornett, and
a distant ancestor of the tuba, with a mouthpiece like a brass instrument
but side holes like a woodwind. It is usually a long cone bent into a
snakelike shape, hence the name. The serpent is closely related to the
cornett, although it is not part of the cornett family, due to the absence
of a thumb hole. It is generally made out of wood, with walnut being a
particularly popular choice. The outside is covered with dark brown or
black leather. Despite wooden construction and the fact that it has
fingerholes rather than valves, it is usually classed as a brass, with the
Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification placing
it alongside trumpets.

The serpent's range varies according to the instrument and the player,
but typically covers one from two octaves below middle C to at least
half an octave above middle C.

Characteristics
The serpent usually has six holes, which are ordered in two groups of
three. On early models, the fingerholes were keyless, like those of a
recorder. However, later models added keys as on a clarinet, although
they were for additional holes (out of reach of the fingers), while the
original holes remained unkeyed, and are covered or uncovered An illustration of a Serpent.

directly by the player's fingers.

While it does not have a rigidly defined fingering system such as other wind instruments employ, the serpent
requires an extraordinary amount of effort from the player, who must select the desired pitch with the lips in falset,
usually overriding the tone the instrument prefers to sound with any particular fingering. The serpent player also has
a unique right-hand finger position, in that the index finger may be further down the tube towards the bell than the
other fingers of that hand. In this respect the fingering of the right hand is reversed to that found in all other keyed
wind instruments, where the keys and holes controlled by the index fingers are further up towards the mouthpiece
than the other fingers. This is because the serpent was originally held vertically, with both of the player's hands
oriented palm-down; in this position the right hand fingerings are not reversed in the manner described above. Later,
players began to hold the instrument horizontally, requiring a reversal of the right hand to palm-up, with the
fingerings changing accordingly and left.
Serpent (instrument) 71

History
The instrument is claimed to have been invented by Canon Edm
Guillaume in 1590 in Auxerre, France, and was first used to strengthen
the sound of choirs in plainchant. This date for the invention of the
serpent did not appear until 1743, in Jean Lebuf's "Mmoires
Concernant lHistoire Ecclsiastique et Civile dAuxerre." Herbert
Heyde asserts the serpent evolved from a type of bass cornetto and was
invented in Italy in the 16th century.[1] Around the middle of the 18th
century, it began to appear in military bands and orchestras, but was
replaced in the 19th century by a fully keyed brass instrument, the
ophicleide, and later on by valved bass brass instruments such as the
euphonium and tuba. After that the serpent dropped off in popularity
for a period of time.

Bernard Herrmann used a serpent in the scores of White Witch Doctor

and Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959).
In the 1970s, instrument-maker Christopher Monk began playing, and
A man playing the serpent: Engraving from
later making Serpents, and in 1976 he founded the London Serpent
Filippo Bonanni's Gabinetto Armonico pieno
d'Instromenti (Roma, 1723) Trio. Since then, the instrument has undergone a revival of sorts. In
1987, Simon Proctor wrote the first concerto for the instrument. The
Serpent Concerto was first performed on October 21, 1989 at the First International Serpent Festival (celebrating the
399th anniversary of the serpent) with serpent soloist Alan Lumsden. Since then, the Serpent Concerto has been
performed in public on many occasions, most notably by Douglas Yeo of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and
Boston Pops Orchestra, who played the solo part with the Boston Pops under the direction of John Williams. The
concerto appears on a commercial CD recording, Le Monde du Serpent (The World of the Serpent), on the Berlioz
Historic Brass label, BHB 101, with the Berlioz Historical Brass, Gloria Dei Cantores choir, members of the Boston
Symphony Orchestra et al. In 2008, Douglas Yeo premiered another serpent concerto, "Old Dances in New Shoes"
by Washington D.C.-based composer Gordon Bowie, with the Boston Classical Orchestra, conducted by Steven
Lipsitt.

In July 14, 2012 in Monopoli Conservatory of Music (Italy) world premiere of the Serpent Concerto of the title
"Diversita' : NO LIMIT" by Italian composer Luigi Morleo.
Serpent (instrument) 72

Variations
There are two main types of serpent: curved (serpentine, or double-S,
shaped) and straight/upright (the tube is mostly straight, but is folded
back on itself in the middle, much like a bassoon). Within the curved
style, there are two variations; Church (also called French) and
Military (also called English). The Church serpent is the original type,
popularized in France, and is distinguished by gentle, sweeping curves
and little (if any) metal reinforcements. The Military serpent was
primarily made in England, and its characteristics include having
tighter bends and a slightly more compact overall size as a result, with
lots of metal bands and stays between the tubing. Furthermore, there
are several different sizes besides the common "church" Serpent,
including Contrabass ("anaconda"), Tenor ("serpent") and Soprano
("worm"). Only the original bass size, and possibly the tenor, were Serpent in the V&A Museum, London.
made during the serpent's heyday. The soprano is a fanciful modern
variant, and the contrabass is based on a single known original made after the serpent was already fading in
popularity.

From its beginning as an instrument held vertically between one's knees with both palms facing down, Hermenge (in
his serpent method - Paris, 1817) suggested a horizontal playing position that rested in the right hand palm faced
upward. This position was adopted by English military serpents and the instrument was made of a more robust
construction (owing to marching or riding on horseback) with thicker walls of the wood and metal stays between the
"S" bends of the serpent. The "English bass horn" was a variant on the "cimbasso" (= corno di basso), a form of
upright serpent of metal consisting of a tube folded back on itself (rather like the modern bassoon). Mendelssohn
scored for the English bass horn in the first edition of his "Midsummer Night's Dream" although the ophicleide was
substitituted with his consent after the English bass horn fell rapidly from favor. Coeffet (Paris, active 1810-1845)
invented the "ophimonocleide," an upright serpent with six holes and a single key (ophi = serpent, mono = one, kleis
= key/covering). Upright serpents called the "basson Russe " (often referred to as the "Russian bassoon")neither
Russian nor a form of bassoonoften had a zoomorphic head like the buccin. The "serpent Forveille" (pronounced
"serpent forvoe" or "forvay" and named after its inventor) featured a small receptacle in the bocal to collect
condensation that results from the warm breath of the player. Whereas other upright serpents usually had metal bells
and either a metal or wooden body, the Serpent Forveille was half wood on the part from the middle up to the bell,
and metal from the middle to the mouthpiece. Gradually keys were added to serpents (the most appear to have been
14, on instruments made by Thomas Key (London, c. 1830) on display at the Museum of Welsh Life in Cardiff,
Wales (another specimen is owned but not displayed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City). The
extraordinary contrabass serpent (in nominal CC) made by the Wood brothers in Huddersfield, England, c. 1840) has
all of its holes covered by keys but, owing to the varying sizes of the holes and "chimneys" extending from each
hole, which are in turn covered by flat keys, is really more of a wooden contrabass ophicleide in serpentine shape.

The ophicleide (again, ophis = serpent, kleis = key/covering, therefore "keyed serpent",) was patented in France by
Halary in 1821.
Serpent (instrument) 73

Players
Michel Godard, jazz musician and tubist, who also plays the serpent

References
[1] H. Heyde, "Zoomorphic and theatrical musical instruments in the late Italian Renaissance and Baroque Eras", in: "Marvels of Sound and
Beauty: Italian Baroque Musical Instruments", Florence, 2007

External links
The Serpent Website (http://www.serpentwebsite.com/) - an excellent reference for everything Serpent-related.
Complete and detailed.
Complete Program Notes for "Le Monde du Serpent" (http://yeodoug.com/publications/le_monde_du_serpent/
le_monde_du_serpent_notes.html) - the story of Douglas Yeo's discovery of the Serpent and the recording of his
2003 solo Serpent CD.
Christopher Monk Instruments (http://www.jeremywest.co.uk/cmi/index.html) - Serpents and many other
historical brass instruments are made here.
Contrabass Serpent (http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ujt/ujt2929.html) - a page devoted to the c. 1840
Contrabass Serpent in the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments.
The London Serpent Trio (http://www.londonserpenttrio.co.uk/)
serpent.instrument (http://serpent.instrument.free.fr/) - Serpent French website by Volny Hostiou - : research
and informations about church serpent
cz:Serpent

Keyboard bass
The keyboard Bass is the use of a low-pitched keyboard or pedal keyboard to
substitute for the bass guitar or double bass in music.

ARP Odyssey and Rhodes Piano

Bass
Keyboard bass 74

History

1960s
The earliest keyboard bass instrument was the 1960 Fender Rhodes
piano bass, pictured above. The piano bass was essentially an electric
piano containing the same pitch range as the electric bass (or the
double bass), which could be used to perform bass lines. It could be
placed on top of a piano or organ, or mounted on a stand. Keyboard
players such as The Doors' Ray Manzarek placed his Fender Rhodes
piano bass on top of his Vox organ to play bass lines. About the same Rhodes Piano Bass (1960)
time, Hohner of Germany introduced a purely electronic bass
keyboard, the Basset, which had a 2-octave keyboard and rudimentary controls allowing a choice of tuba or string
bass sounds. The Basset was in due course replaced by the Bass 2 and, in the mid-1970s, the Bass 3. All three were
transistorized; the Basset was among the earliest solid-state electronic instruments. Similar instruments were
produced in Japan under the "Raven" and "Rheem Kee Bass" (sic) names.

1970s and 1980s

In the 1970s, a variant form of keyboard bass, bass pedals, became
popular. Bass pedals are pedal keyboards operated by musicians using
their feet. The guitar player or bass player of a bands such as Genesis'
Mike Rutherford, Yes' Chris Squire, John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin
during acoustic sets, Rush (bassist Geddy Lee), The Police (bassist
Sting), Marillion (Pete Trewavas) or Atomic Rooster (organist Vincent
Crane) use the bass pedals to play bass lines. Stevie Wonder pioneered Moog Taurus (19761981)
the use of synthesizer keyboard bass, notably on "Boogie on Reggae
Woman". During these decades the keyboard bass in its original form was still in use by some bands such as the
B-52's, who used a Korg SB-100 "Synth-Bass".

1990s and 2000s

In the 1990s and 2000s, 25-note MIDI keyboard controllers are used to
play the basslines in some pop groups. Keyboard bass instruments are
a common alternative to bass guitars in rap, modern R&B, and in
electronic dance music such as house music. As well, bassists from
bands such as No Doubt sometimes perform basslines on 25-note
Novation BassStation (1993)
MIDI keyboards. Jack White of The White Stripes uses a vintage
Rhodes Piano Bass live, particularly on performances of My Doorbell.
Keyboard bass 75

References
Information about early keyboard basses can be found at the Fender Rhodes site. [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. fenderrhodes. com/ models/ early. php

Pedal keyboard
A pedalboard (also called a pedal
keyboard, pedal clavier, or, with electronic
instruments, a bass pedalboard[1]) is a
keyboard played with the feet that is usually
used to produce the low-pitched bass line of
a piece of music. A pedalboard has long,
narrow lever-style keys laid out in the same
semitone scalar pattern as a manual
keyboard, with longer keys for C, D, E, F,
G, A and B, and shorter, higher keys for C#,
D#, F#, G# and A#. Training in pedal
technique is part of standard organ
pedagogy in church music and art music.

Pedalboards are found at the base of the

The 30-note pedalboard of a Rieger organ.
console of most pipe organs, theatre organs,
and electronic organs. Standalone
pedalboards such as the 1970s-era Moog Taurus bass pedals are occasionally used in progressive rock and fusion
music. In the 21st century, MIDI pedalboard controllers are used with synthesizers, electronic Hammond-style
organs, and with digital pipe organs. Pedalboards are also used with pedal pianos and with some harpsichords,
clavichords, and carillons (church bells).

History

13th century to 16th century

The first use of pedals on a pipe organ grew out of the need to hold bass drone notes, to support the polyphonic
musical styles that predominated in the Renaissance. Indeed, the term pedal point, which refers to a prolonged bass
tone under changing upper harmonies, derives from the use of the organ pedalboard to hold sustained bass notes.[2]
These earliest pedals were wooden stubs nicknamed "mushrooms"[3][4] which were placed at the height of the feet.
These pedals, which used simple pulldowns connected directly to the manual keys, are found in organs dating to the
13th century. The pedals on French organs were composed of short stubs of wood projecting out of the floor which
were mounted in pedalboards that could be either flat or tilted. Organists were unable to play anything but simple
bass lines or slow-moving plainsong melodies on these short stub-type pedals. Organist E. Power Biggs, in the liner
notes for his album Organs of Spain noted that "One can learn to play them, but fluent pedal work is impossible".
Pedal keyboard 76

There were two approaches used for the accidental notes (colloquially
referred to as the "black" notes). The first approach can be seen in the 1361
Halberstadt organ, which uses shorter black keys which are placed above the
white keys. Other organs positioned the black keys on the same level and
depth as the white keys. The first pedal keyboards only had three or four
notes.[3] Eventually, organ designers augmented this range by using eight
notes, an approach now called a "short octave" keyboard, because it does not
include accidental notes such as C#, D#, F#, G#, and A#.[3] The 17th-century
north German organ builder Arp Schnitger used an F# and G# in the lowest
octave of the manuals and pedal keyboards, but not a C# and D# . From the
A diagram of one type of "short octave"
16th to 18th centuries, short octave keyboards were also used in the lowest
as used on a manual keyboard; while this
exact layout was not used on
octave of upper manual keyboards.
pedalboards, it shows the different note
By the 14th century, organ designers were building separate windchests for
layouts that were used on some
instruments the pedal division, to supply the pipes with the large amount of wind that bass
notes need to speak. These windchests were often built into tall structures
called "organ towers." Until the 15th century, most pedal keyboards only triggered the existing Hauptwerk pipes
already used by the upper manual keyboards. Beginning in the 15th century, some organ designers began giving
pedal keyboards their own set of pipes and stops. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the pedal division usually
consisted of a few 8' ranks and a single 16' rank. By the early 17th century, pedal divisions became more complex,
with a richer variety of pipes and tones. Nevertheless, the pedal division was usually inconsistent from one country
to another.

17th century to 18th century

By the beginning of the 17th century, organ designers began to give
pedalboards on large organs a larger range, encompassing twenty-eight
to thirty notes. As well, German organ designers began to use longer,
narrower pedals, with a wider space between the pedals. By this point,
most pedals were given a smoother lever-action by including a fulcrum
at the back of each pedal. These design changes allowed performers to
play more complex, fast-moving pedal lines. This gave rise to the
dramatic pedal solos found in German organ works from composers
from the Lutheran Organ School, such as J.S. Bach. In Bach's organ
music the cantus firmus melody, which is usually a hymn tune, is often
performed in the pedal, using a reed stop to make it stand out.

Several sources, including an encyclopedia on the organ, claim that the

pedalboard design improvements of the 17th century allowed the
organist to actuate the pedals either with the toe of the foot or with the
heel.[3] However, organist Ton Koopman argues that "Bach's complete
This 1609 organ shows the short, button-style
pedals of early pedal setups oeuvre [can be played] with the pedal technique of his time, in other
words without the use of the heel." Koopman claims that in "Bach's
day toe and heel pedalling was not yet known, as is evident from his organ works, in which all the pedal parts can be
played with the toe."[5] Interestingly, what evolved as "German" pedal technique in the late eighteenth and early 19th
century promoted heel-and-toe pedaling, while the "French" style was predicated on "toe only" pedal technique.
Pedal keyboard 77

In the 17th century and 18th century,

pedalboards were rare in England. A critic
for the New York Times in 1895 argued that
this may explain why Handel's published
organ works are generally lighter-sounding
than those of J.S. Bach.[6] In the 17th and
18th centuries, the pedal part of organ music
was rarely given its own staff. Instead, the
organ part would be put into two staves,
which were mostly used for the upper and
lower manual parts. When the composer
wanted a part to be played with the pedal
keyboard, they marked "Pedal", "Ped.", or This 1776 diagram depicts the setup of the manuals and pedal keyboard
simply "P". Often these signs were omitted
entirely, and the player would have to decide if the range of all the parts or the lowest part was appropriate for the
pedal keyboard.[7] This lack of specification is in keeping with many other aspects of Baroque musical performance
practice, such as the use of improvised chords by organists and harpsichord players in the figured bass tradition and
the use of improvised ornaments by solo singers and instrumentalists.

19th century to 20th century

In the late 1820s, the pedalboard was still fairly unfamiliar in the UK. In the organ at the Church of St James at
Bermondsey in 1829, "a finger [manual] keyboard was added for those unable to play with their feet." If an organist
was performing a piece with a pedal part, "an assistant was needed to play the bottom line of the finger keyboard,
offset on the bass side of the console." [8] In 1855 in England, Henry Willis patented a concave design for the
pedalboard which also radiated the ends keyboard outward and used longer keys, bringing the end keys closer to the
performer. This design became widely used in the UK and in the US in the late 19th century, and by 1903, the
American Guild of Organists (AGO) adopted it as their standard.
In the 19th century and early 20th century, the pedal division also underwent changes. The pedal divisions from the
Baroque era had tended to include a small number of upper pedal stops, which allowed performers to perform
higher-range melodies with the pedalboard. In the 19th century and early 20th century, organ designers removed
most of the upper pedal stops, and used pedal divisions which were dominated by 8' and 16' stops. This design
change, which coincided with the musical trend for music with a deep, rich bass part, meant that the pedalboard was
used mainly for the performance of bass parts.
By the mid-19th century, the pedal part of organ music was increasingly given its own staff, which meant that organ
music began being printed in three-stave systems (upper manual, lower manual, and pedal keyboard).[7] Whereas
early organ composers left the way that pedal keyboard lines were played to the discretion of the player, in the later
19th century, composers began indicating suggested foot usage.
In addition to indicating whether the left or right foot should be used, symbols indicate whether the toe or heel of the
foot should be used. The toe is indicated with a "^" symbol, while the heel is indicated with a "u" or "o" symbol.
Symbols below notes call for the left foot, while symbols above notes indicate the right foot.
Swedish organist L. Nilson published a method for the pedal keyboard, the English translation of which was titled A
System of Technical Studies in Pedal Playing for the Organ (Schirmer, 1904). Nilson lamented that it "...is a
melancholy fact that only very few eminent organists since Bach's time have made it their business to lift
pedal-playing out of its primitive confusion..." (page 1 of Preface). He argued that the great organ pedagogues such
as Kittel and Abbe Vogler did not make any efforts to improve the "...system of playing on the pedals". Nilson
makes one exception from this critique: the organ method of J. Lemmens, who he praises as having reformed pedal
Pedal keyboard 78

playing by introducing "...sound principles of execution" (page 2 of Preface). Nilson's pedal method includes scale
and arpeggio studies, polyphonic studies with both feet playing in contrary motion, studies written in parallel
octaves, and studies written in thirds.

1990s-2000s
In the 1990s, standalone electronic MIDI controller pedalboards became widely available on the market. MIDI
pedalboards do not produce any tones by themselves, and so they must be connected to a MIDI-compatible
electronic keyboard or MIDI sound module and an amplified loudspeaker to produce musical tones. In the 1990s and
21st century, some churches began using electronic-trigger equipped pedalboards for the 16' and 32' stops. The MIDI
information from the electronic pedalboard sensors triggers pipe organ sounds from digital sound modules (e.g.,
Wicks CM-100, Ahlborn Archive Modules, or Walker Technical sound generation), which are then amplified and
fed through loudspeakers.
These MIDI systems can be much less expensive than metal or wooden bass pipes, which are very costly to purchase
and install, due to their heavy weight (up to one ton per pipe), large size, and need for large amounts of wind.
Another rationale for using MIDI systems is that it may be easier to get a focused sound with a MIDI system,
because all of the bass tone emanates from a single speaker or set of speakers. With traditional pipes, it can be
difficult to give the pedal division a focused sound, because the large pipes tend to be spread out over the entire
organ pipe chest.
This cost-saving measure has been the subject of controversy in the organ scene. Advocates of the use of MIDI pedal
divisions argue that a good quality MIDI system will produce a better tone than an inexpensive set of bass pipes with
money-saving "shortcuts" such as using stopped pipes and resultant tones to reduce the number of pipes that are
needed. However, critics dislike the way that the use of MIDI pedal divisions blends electronically amplified lower
voices with the natural, wind-driven upper ranks. Willi Apel and Peter Williams argue that by definition, an organ
must make its sound by air flowing through pipes. Some critics argue that the bass tone from a MIDI pedal division,
which comes from an amplified 12" subwoofer, is not as "natural" and "open-sounding" as the vibrations from a
massive, wind-driven 32-foot pipe.

Design

Keyboards
Pedalboards range in size from 13 notes on small spinet organs designed for in-home use (an octave, conventionally
C2-C3) to 32 notes (two and a half octaves, C2-G4) on church or concert organs. Modern pipe organs typically have
30- or 32-note pedalboards, while some electronic organs and many older pipe organs have 25-note pedalboards.
Besides the number of pedals, the two main identifying aspects of a pedalboard are: (1) whether all the pedals are at
the same height relative to the floor ["flat"], or whether the pedals in the middle are lower than those on the outer
edges, forming a curved-in shape ["concave"], and (2) whether all the pedals are completely parallel to each other
["parallel"], or whether the pedals are closer together at the far end than at the end closest to the organ console
["radiating"]. Specifications vary by country, organ builder, era, and individual tastes.
Exact design specifications for pedalboards are published in Great Britain by the RCO, in the United States by the
AGO (which requires a design similar to the RCO's), and in Germany by the BDO (which allows both 30- and
32-note pedalboards, of both concave/radiating and concave/parallel varieties).
Pedal keyboard 79

AGO-spec.: BDO-spec.: BDO-spec.: 30-note BDO Standard

concave/radiating concave/parallel concave/radiating (concave/parallel) pedalboard.

30-note BDO Standard
(concave/parallel) pedalboard.
30-note BDO Standard
(concave/parallel) pedalboard.
25-note flat/radiating
pedalboard on an
electro-mechanical
Wurlitzer organ.
A different style
of pedalboard, as
used in a Jens
Steinhoff organ in
Varna, Bulgaria

Pedal division
In an organ with more than one keyboard, the stops and the ranks that the stops control are separated into different
divisions, in which the ranks of pipes are grouped together so that they will make a "focused" or coherent sound. The
pedal division, which is played from the pedal keyboard, usually includes more stops of 16' pitch. The sound of the
pedal division is generally voiced so that the pedal division will complement the sound of the Great division.
Common 16' stops found in the pedal division include the 16' Bourdon, the 16' Principal, and the 16' Trombone.
Eight foot stops include the 8' Open Diapason. Pedal divisions may also include higher-register stops, such as the 4'
Choral Bass or various mixtures. When pedal parts are performed, a 16' stop is usually paired with an 8' one to
provide more definition. For pedal parts that need accentuation, such as the Cantus Firmus melody in a 17th century
organ piece, many organs have a nasal-sounding reed stop in the pedal division, or a 4' Principal designated on the
stop knob as "Choralbass".
A small number of pedalboards have a pedal divide system which enables the organist to split the pedal board at its
midpoint. With this system, an organist can play a melody with the right foot and a bass part with the left foot.[9]

Controls
In some organs, a wooden panel called a "kickboard" or "kneeboard" is installed above the pedalboard, between the
pedals and the lowest manual keyboard. Expression pedals, coupler controls and toe studs (to activate stops or stop
combinations) may be located on or set into the kickboard. Expression pedals are used to open and close shades or
shutters that enclose the pipes of a given division. Combination pistons are used to make rapid stop changes from the
console on organs with electric stop action. Toe studs are pistons that can be operated by the feet which change
either the pedal stops or the entire organ.
In some organs, a "pedalboard check" mechanism is used as a safety catch, to shut off the pedalboard keys when it is
engaged. The mechanism prevents the pedalboard notes from being accidentally sounded during a part of a
performance which is only written for the upper manuals.
Pedal keyboard 80

Repertoire
The works of Dutch composer, organist, and pedagogue Jan
Pieterszoon Sweelinck (15621621) contain the earliest example of an
independent part for the pedal, rather than a sustained bass drone. His
work straddled the end of the Renaissance and beginning of the
Baroque eras, and he helped establish the north German organ
tradition.

Dieterich Buxtehude (16371707), who was the most renowned

composer of his time, was famous for his "virtuosity and innovation at
the pedal board." The young Johann Sebastian Bach was influenced by
Buxtehude, who used the pedal board "as a full-fledged keyboard and This photo of a BDO pedalboard shows the
[10] variety of other controls that are positioned near
devot[ed] virtuoso passages to it." J.S. Bach used the pedal to
the pedalboard, including foot pistons and
perform the melody in works such as his setting of the Christmas expression pedals.
hymn, In Dulci Jubilo, in which the main theme in the tenor voice is
played in the pedal on a higher-pitched stop. Bach also wrote compositions that use the pedal for dramatic virtuoso
displays of scales and figurated passage-work in preludes, toccatas, fantasias and fugues.

There are a small number of organ compositions that are written solely for the pedal keyboard. English organist and
composer George Thalben-Ball (18961987) wrote a piece entitled Variations on a Theme by Paganini for pedal
keyboard. Based on Paganini's Caprice No. 24, a virtuoso work for solo violin, it includes pedal glissandi, leaps
from one end of the pedalboard to the other, and four-note chords.[11]
Firmin Swinnen (18851972) was a Belgian organist who became famous in the US in the 1920s for his theater
organ improvisations during silent films. Swinnen wrote a pedal cadenza for an arrangement of Widor's Fifth
Symphony. The cadenza was published separately by The American Organist. The publisher promoted the cadenza it
as the "most daring, the most musical Pedal Cadenza obtainable"; this praise is corroborated by reviewers who were
at the performance, who remarked at the complex footwork required by the work.[12] The symphony was performed
29 times during the week of its premiere, to "...literally screaming audiences...who had never seen such a sight as an
organist up on a lift [platform] in the spotlight playing with his feet alone".[13]
Although the pedalboard is most frequently used for the bass part, composers from the 17th century to the present
have often used it for higher parts as well. In his serene Le Banquet Cleste Olivier Messiaen places the tune,
registered for 4' flute (and higher mutation ranks), in the pedals.
From the early 20th century composers have increasingly demanded an advanced pedal technique at the organ.
Performers display their virtuosity in such works as Wilhelm Middelschulte's Perpetuum mobile, Leo Sowerby's
Pageant (1931), and Jeanne Demessieux's Six tudes, Op. 5 (1944), which recall the dramatic organ pedal solos of
the Baroque era.
Pedal keyboard 81

Use on instruments other than organs

Pedal harpsichord

Pedal keyboards were developed for the clavichord and harpsichords

during the Baroque era so that organists could practise the pedal parts
of their organ repertoire when they had no-one available to work the
bellows for a church organ or, in the wintertime, to avoid having to
practice on a church organ in an unheated church. Johann Sebastian
Bach owned a pedal harpsichord and his organ trio sonatas BWV
525-530, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582, Toccata and
Fugue in D minor BWV 565, and other works sound well when played
on the instrument.

Pedal piano

The pedal piano (or pedalier piano)[14] is a kind of piano that includes a
pedalboard[15] There are two types of pedal piano: the pedal board may be an
integral part of the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the
manual keyboard, or, less frequently, it may consist of two independent
pianos (each with its separate mechanics and strings) which are placed one
above the other, a regular piano played by the hands and a bass-register piano
played by the feet. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart owned a fortepiano with
independent pedals, built for him in 1785. Robert Schumann had an upright
pedal piano; his pedal keyboard had 29 notes. In the 21st century, pedal
pianos are made in the Borgato workshop in Italy. The bass pedalboard has 37
notes (rather than the standard 30 or 32 on an organ).

Carillon
An upright pedal piano
Some large carillon systems for playing church bells include a pedalboard for
playing the lowest-pitched bells. Carillon pedal keys activate a pull-down coupler which visibly moves the keys of
the manual clavier and heavy clappers for the largest bells. These keys resemble the "button keys" of very early
organs, and are played only by the player's toes. Because this non-legato technique involves no sliding, shoes with
leather soles are not required.
Pedal keyboard 82

In non-Classical music

Jazz organ
After jazz organist Jimmy Smith popularized the Hammond organ in jazz in the 1950s,
many jazz pianists "...who thought that getting organ-ized would be a snap ..." realized
that the Hammond "...B-3 required not only a strong left hand, but studied coordination
on the foot pedals to create the strong and solid "jazz bass" feel."[16] Jazz organists from
more recent decades typically perform the bass line with their left hand on one of the
Carillon keyboard for
playing church bells; the keyboards, rather than by using the pedalboard. Organists who play the bassline on the
pedals play the lower manual may do short taps on the bass pedals often on the tonic of a tune's key
lowest-pitched bells. and in the lowest register of the pedalboard to simulate the low, resonant sound of a
plucked upright bass string.

In popular music, the pedaling style may be more varied and idiosyncratic, in part because jazz or pop organists may
be self-taught. As well, the pedaling styles may differ due to the design of electromechanical organs and spinet
organs, many of which have shorter pedalboards that are designed to be played primarily with the left foot, so that
the right foot can control a volume (swell) pedal.

Rock and Fusion

In the 1970s, some progressive rock groups such as Yes, Pink
Floyd, Genesis, Atomic Rooster and Rush used standalone Moog
Taurus bass pedalboards. Other groups, such as Led Zeppelin and
Van Der Graaf Generator used the bass pedals of the Hammond
Organ in place of a bass guitar for several of their recordings, and
for live performances.

Other users included metal and hard rock bands such as Yngwie This Hammond spinet organ shows the relatively short
Malmsteen, Styx, and Francis Buchholz of the Scorpions, and pedals and 13-note range used on spinet organs
Justin Harris of Menomena. Ex-Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett
had a set mounted waist high which his brother, John Hackett, used to play with his hands for the intro of Clocks -
The Angel Of Mons from the album Spectral Mornings. Adam Jones of Tool uses the Moog Taurus along with an
Access Virus B synth to trigger live effects. The keyboardist for the rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer took this
idea to its logical conclusion by performing all of the first movement, and part of the second of The Three Fates on
the organ of Royal Festival Hall in London.

As well, some pop groups (e.g., The Police, Muse, U2) and fusion
bands have used bass pedalboards to produce sounds in the bass
range. They are most commonly used by keyboard players as an
adjunct to keyboards, but can be played in combination with other
instruments (e.g., by the bass guitar or electric guitar player), or by
themselves.

Standalone pedalboards usually have a 13-note range and short

pedals, which limits the types of basslines which can be performed
to fairly simple passages. If the group's bass guitarist or electric A 1970s-era Moog Taurus synth
Pedal keyboard 83

guitarist is playing the pedalboard from a standing position, they could only use one foot at a time to play, which
would further limit the types of passages which could be performed. The BASYN analog bass synthesizer is a 2
VCO analog synthesizer which uses a 13-note "button board". Instead of using organ pedalboard-style pedals, the
player depresses momentary pushbutton switches. Another variant used in rock bands is a bass pedalboard in which
the keyboard is laid out as a tabulature representation of part of the four strings of an electric bass guitar.

MIDI and synthesizer pedalboards

In the 1990s, standalone electronic MIDI controller pedalboards became widely available. Unlike the Moog Taurus
pedalboards, MIDI pedalboards do not produce any tones by themselves; they must be connected to a
MIDI-compatible electronic keyboard or MIDI sequencer to produce musical tones. In jazz organ trios, a keyboardist
using this type of pedalboard will usually connect it to a MIDI-compatible electronic Hammond organ-style
keyboard. On modern electronic synthesizers such as the Yamaha Electone, the pedals are not limited to traditional
bass notes but may instead produce many different types of sounds, including high-register tones. MIDI pedalboards
offer a range of features, depending on the price. Some MIDI pedalboards contain velocity-sensitive triggers, which
allows a performer to use dynamics in their performance. MIDI pedalboards such as the 13-note Roland PK-5
include a row of MIDI toe switches above the pedal keyboard, to allow the performer to select preset tones or
channels. Larger 25-note Roland pedalboards also include an expression pedal for controlling the volume or other
parameters.
Some MIDI pedalboards are designed for the church pipe organ market, which means that they use AGO
specifications such as a 32-note range. Most pipe organ-style MIDI pedalboards are too unwieldy for transportation,
so they are typically installed under the upper manuals. However, a German company makes a MIDI pedalboard
which has a hinge in the middle and wheels on the underside, which allows it to be moved more easily. Since
AGO-specification MIDI pedalboards are often priced in between $1000 and $3000 USD, some amateur home
organists make DIY MIDI pedalboards by retrofitting an old pedalboard with MIDI. Due to the popularity of theater
organs and Hammond organs during the 1950s and 1960s, there are many organ parts on the market, including
pedalboards (often with less than 32 notes, such as 20 or 25 notes) which cost under $300 USD. After the pedalboard
is cleaned up and the glass reed switches are repaired or replaced, the pedal contacts are soldered into a keyboard
matrix circuit-equipped MIDI encoder, which can then be connected to the MIDI input of a digital sound module to
create a bass organ tone.[17]

References
[1] Hammond XPK100 MIDI Bass Pedals (http:/ / www. hammondorgan. co. uk/ bass. htm)
[2] Encyclopdia Britannica. "Pedal point"
[3] The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Douglas Earl Rush and Richard Kassel
[4] While the term "mushroom" may seem unusual to English speakers, in French, the term "champignon" (mushroom) is also used to refer to
pedals, such as the accelerator pedal in a car.
[5] With Heart and Mind - Ton Koopman (archive.org) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061001120849/ http:/ / www. tonkoopman. nl/
vol12organ. htm)
[6] "The Organ in Bach's Time" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?_r=1&
res=9A07E1D7133DE433A25755C2A9639C94649ED7CF& oref=slogin). The New York Times. 1895-05-26. .
[7] http:/ / www-scf. usc. edu/ ~eunjeonp/ contents%204. htm
[8] The Restoration of the 1829 Organ at St James', Bermondsey, Lodon - Dominic Gwynn (http:/ / www. buildingconservation. com/ articles/
stjamesorgan/ stjamesorgan. htm)
[9] 403 Forbidden (http:/ / google. com/ search?q=cache:Uc-Ld5o9VbsJ:www. signumrecords. com/ catalogue/ sigcd028/ programme. htm+
pedal+ part+ organ+ bach& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=148& gl=ca& lr=lang_en|lang_fr)
[10] 403 Forbidden (http:/ / google. com/ search?q=cache:yFSTdOn1bdUJ:www. eprclassic. eu/ eprc003. php+ pedal+ part+ organ+ bach&
hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=157& gl=ca& lr=lang_en|lang_fr)
[11] "Olivier Latry Performs on the Spreckels Organ" (http:/ / www. sandiego. com/ option,com_sdca/
target,987cf78c-1c94-413c-ac39-c2847939cb95/ ). 2007-07-24. . Retrieved 2008-05-24.
Pedal keyboard 84

[12] 403 Forbidden (http:/ / google. com/ search?q=cache:cDOzNXUOFVEJ:66. 155. 36. 102/ Organ/ Swinnen. htm+ pedal+ part+ organ+
bach& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=183& gl=ca& lr=lang_en|lang_fr)
[13] Rollin Smith. Stokowski and the Organ. Pendragon Press, 2004.
[14] Logue, Karl (1997). "Images notes" (http:/ / www. loguerhythm. com/ Images. htm). Logue Rhythm Productions. . Retrieved 2008-01-24.
[15] Belt, Philip (1997). The Piano (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0X3FoI_Z6cQC). New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p.150.
ISBN0-393-30518-X. .
[16] (http:/ / 64. 233. 161. 104/ search?q=cache:D7tSoqTpASYJ:www. catalog-of-cool. com/ organ. html)
[17] http:/ / hackaday. com/ 2008/ 04/ 18/ diy-midi-pedalboard/
 85

The Fender story

Leo Fender
Leo Fender

Born Clarence Leonidas Fender

August 10, 1909
Anaheim, California, United States

Died March 21, 1991 (aged81)

Ione, California, United States

Occupation Inventor

Clarence Leonidas "Leo" Fender (August 10, 1909 March 21, 1991) was an American inventor who founded
Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company, or "Fender" for short. He left the company in the late 1960s,
and later founded two other musical instrument companies, MusicMan and G&L Musical Instruments.
The guitars, bass guitars, and amplifiers he designed from the 1940s on are still relevant: the Fender Telecaster
(1950) was the first mass-produced electric guitar; the Fender Stratocaster (1954) is among the world's most iconic
electric guitars; the Fender Precision Bass (1951) set the standard for electric bass guitars; and the Fender Bassman
amplifier, popular enough in its own right, became the basis for later amplifiers (notably by Marshall and Mesa
Boogie) that dominated rock and roll music.
Leo Fender 86

Biography

Early life
Clarence Leonidas Fender ("Leo") was born on August 10, 1909, to
Clarence Monte Fender and Harriet Elvira Wood, owners of a
successful orange grove located between Anaheim and Fullerton,
California.
From an early age, Fender showed an interest in tinkering with
electronics. When he was 13 years old, his uncle, who ran an
automotive-electric shop, sent him a box filled with discarded car radio
parts, and a battery. The following year, Leo visited his uncle's shop in
Santa Maria, California, and was fascinated by a radio his uncle had
built from spare parts and placed on display in the front of the shop.
Leo later claimed that the loud music coming from the speaker of that
radio made a lasting impression on him. Soon thereafter, Leo began
repairing radios in a small shop in his parents' home.
In the spring of 1928, Fender graduated from Fullerton Union High
School, and entered Fullerton Junior College that fall, as an accounting
major. While he was studying to be an accountant, he continued to
teach himself electronics, and tinker with radios and other electrical items but never took any kind of electronics
course.
After college, Fender took a job as a deliveryman for Consolidated Ice and Cold Storage Company in Anaheim,
where he later was made the bookkeeper. It was around this time that a local band leader approached Leo, asking
him if he could build a public address system for use by the band at dances in Hollywood. Fender was contracted to
build six of these PA systems.
In 1933, Fender met Esther Klosky, and they were married in 1934. About that time, he took a job as an accountant
for the California Highway Department in San Luis Obispo. In a depression government change-up, his job was
eliminated, and he then took a job in the accounting department of a tire company. After working there six months,
Leo lost his job along with the other accountants in the company.

Fender Radio Service

In 1938, with a borrowed $600, Leo and Esther returned to Fullerton, and Leo started his own radio repair shop,
"Fender Radio Service." Soon, musicians and band leaders began coming to him for PA systems, which he built,
rented, and sold. They also visited his store for amplification for the amplified acoustic guitars that were beginning
to show up in the southern California music scenein big band and jazz music, and for the electric "Hawaiian" or
"lap steel" guitars becoming popular in country music.

Early guitar builds

During World War II, Leo met Clayton Orr "Doc" Kauffman, an inventor and lap steel player who had worked for
Rickenbacker, which had been building and selling lap steel guitars for a decade. While with Rickenbacker,
Kauffman had invented the "Vibrola" tailpiece, a precursor to the later vibrato or "tremolo" tailpiece. Fender
convinced him that they should team up, and they started the "K & F Manufacturing Corporation" to design and
build amplified Hawaiian guitars and amplifiers. In 1944, Leo and Doc patented a lap steel guitar with an electric
pickup already patented by Fender. In 1945, they began selling the guitar, in a kit with an amplifier designed by
Leo Fender 87

Fender.

Development of the electric guitar: Esquire/Broadcaster/Telecaster

As the Big Bands fell out of vogue toward the end of World War II, small combos playing boogie-woogie, rhythm
and blues, western swing, and honky-tonk formed throughout the United States. Many of these outfits embraced the
electric guitar because it could give a few players the power of an entire horn section. Pickup-equipped archtops
were the guitars of choice in the dance bands of the late-'40s, but the increasing popularity of roadhouses and dance
halls created a growing need for louder, cheaper, and more durable instruments. Players also needed faster necks and
better intonation to play what the country players called "take-off lead guitar." In the late 1940s, solidbody electric
guitars began to emerge in popularity, yet they were still considered novelty items with the Rickenbacker Spanish
Electro guitar being the most commercially available solidbody, and Les Paul's one-off home-made "Log" and the
Bigsby Travis guitar made by Paul Bigsby for Merle Travis being the most visible early examples.
Fender recognized the potential for an electric guitar that was easy to hold, tune, and play, and would not feed back
at dance hall volumes as the typical arch top would. In 1949, he finished the prototype of a thin solid-body electric; it
was first released in 1950 as the Fender Esquire (with a solid body and one pickup), and renamed first Broadcaster
and then Telecaster (with two pickups) the year after. Although he never admitted it, Fender seems to have based his
design on the Rickenbacker Bakelite.[1] The Telecaster, originally equipped with two single-coil pick-ups and widely
used among country and western players, became one of the most popular electric guitars in history.

Stratocaster
Instead of updating the Telecaster, Fender decided, based on customer feedback, to leave the Telecaster as it was and
design a new, upscale solid body guitar to sell alongside the basic Telecaster. Western swing guitarist Bill Carson
was one of the chief critics of the Telecaster, stating that the new design should have individually adjustable bridge
saddles, four or five pickups, a vibrato unit that could be used in either direction and return to proper tuning, and a
contoured body for enhanced comfort over the slab-body Telecaster's harsh edges. Fender, assisted by draftsman
Freddie Tavares, began designing the Stratocaster in late 1953. It included a rounder, less "club-like" neck (at least
for the first year of issue) and a double cutaway for easier reach to the upper registers.[2]

Bass guitars: Precision, Jazz

During this time, Fender also tackled the problems experienced by players of the acoustic double bass, who could no
longer compete for volume with the other musicians. Besides, double basses were also large, bulky, and difficult to
transport. With the Precision Bass (or "P-Bass"), released in 1951, Leo Fender addressed both issues: the
Telecaster-based Precision Bass was small and portable, and its solid body construction and four magnet, single coil
pickup let it play at higher volumes without feedback. Along with the Precision Bass (so named because its fretted
neck allowed bassists to play with 'precision'), Fender introduced a bass amplifier, the Fender Bassman; a 45-watt
amplifier with four 10" speakers (although initially with one 15" speaker).
1954 saw a redesign of the Precision Bass to coincide with the introduction of the Stratocaster. Incorporating some
of the body contours of the Stratocaster, the redesign also included a split single coil pickup and a gold anodized
pickguard. In 1960, rosewood fingerboards, wider color selections and a three-ply pickguard became available for
the P-Bass.
1960 saw the release of the Jazz Bass, a sleeker, updated bass with a slimmer neck, and offset waist body and two
single coil pickups (as opposed to the Precision Bass and its split-humbucking pickup that had been introduced in
1957). Like its predecessor, the Jazz Bass (or simply "J-Bass") was an instant hit and has remained popular to this
day, and early models are highly sought after by collectors.
Leo Fender 88

1970 Music Man and G&L

In the 1950s, Leo Fender contracted a strep infection that impaired his health to the point where he decided to wind
up his business affairs, selling the Fender company to CBS in 1965. As part of this deal, Leo Fender signed a
non-compete clause and remained a consultant with Fender for a while. Shortly after selling the company, he
changed doctors and was cured of his illness. In 1971 he returned to business and formed the Tri-Sonic company. In
1974, as the expiry date of the clause approached, the company's name changed to Music Man. In 1975, Leo Fender
became its president.[3]
The StingRay bass was an innovative early instrument. Though the body design borrowed heavily from the Precision
Bass, the StingRay is largely considered the first production bass with active electronics. The StingRay's two-band
active equalizer, high output humbucking pickup, and smooth satin finished neck became a favorite of many
influential bassists, including Louis Johnson, John Deacon, and Flea. Later, a three-band active equalizer was
introduced on the StingRay. Music Man was active making amplifiers as well, but the HD-130 Reverb, designed to
compete with the Twin Reverb, came at a time when the clean sounds of the Twin were going out of fashion.[3]
In 1979, Leo Fender and old friends George Fullerton and Dale Hyatt started a new company called G&L (George &
Leo)[4] Musical Products. G&L guitar designs tended to lean heavily upon the looks of Fender's original guitars such
as the Stratocaster and Telecaster, but incorporated innovations such as enhanced tremolo systems and electronics.
In 1979, Fender's wife Esther died of cancer. He remarried in 1980; Phyllis Fender is an Honorary Chairman of
G&L. Despite suffering several minor strokes, Fender continued to produce guitars and basses. On March 21, 1991,
he died, having long suffered from Parkinson's disease. He was buried at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana,
California. His accomplishments for "contributions of outstanding technical significance to the recording field" were
acknowledged with a Technical Grammy Award in 2009. [5]

References
[1] (Smith, Richard (May 1998). History of the Fender Telecaster.)
[2] Burrows, T. et al. "The Complete Book of the Guitar" p. 71-72 Carlton Books Limited, 1998 ISBN 1-85868-529-X
[3] Hunter, Dave (January 2012). "The Music Man HD-130 Reverb". Vintage Guitar: pp.6466.
[4] http:/ / www. glguitars. com/ factorytour/ index. asp
[5] "Technical GRAMMY award" (http:/ / www. grammy. org/ recording-academy/ producers-and-engineers/ awards). . Retrieved January 30,
2012.

External links
Fender Musical Instruments website (http://www.fender.com)
G&L Guitars website (http://www.glguitars.com)
Fender Precision Bass 89

Fender Precision Bass

Precision Bass

Manufacturer Fender

Period 1951 present

Construction

Body type Solid

Neck joint Bolt-on

Woods

Body Alder and ash (poplar and basswood on many Mexican and Japanese models)

Neck Maple

Fretboard Maple, rosewood, ebony, and Pao Ferro

Hardware

Bridge Fixed

Pickup(s) One single-coil (1951 1957);

One split pickup, pieces connected in humbucking mode (1957 present);
One split "P" pickup and one eight-pole "J" pickup (2 magnets per string) connected in humbucking mode (some
later models);
One split pickup and one humbucker (some later models).

Colors available

(Standard Series): Brown Sunburst, Black, Arctic White, Lake Placid Blue, Candy Apple Red, Midnight Wine, Copper Metallic
Sunburst
(American Deluxe Series: as of 2010) 3-Color Sunburst, Midnight Wine Transparent, Black, Olympic White Pearl, Natural
(American Standard Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Olympic White, Black, Candy Cola, Jade Pearl Metallic, Charcoal Frost Metallic
(American Vintage Series): 57: White Blonde, 2-Color Sunburst 62: 3-Color Sunburst, Olympic White
(Highway One Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Flat Black, Honey Blonde, Midnight Wine
(American Special Series:): Black, 3-Color Sunburst, Olympic White, Candy Apple Red
(Classic Series): Butterscotch Blonde, 2-Color Sunburst, Black, Honey Blonde, Candy Apple Red
(Deluxe Series): Black, Chrome Red, Blizzard Pearl, Natural, Crimson Red Transparent, Blue Transparent
(Road Worn Series): Fiesta Red, 2-Color Sunburst
(60th Anniversary): Blackguard Blonde

The Fender Precision Bass (often shortened to "P Bass") is an electric bass.
Designed by Leo Fender as a prototype in 1950 and brought to market in 1951,[1] the Precision was the first electric
bass to earn widespread attention and use. A revolutionary instrument for the time, the Precision Bass has made an
Fender Precision Bass 90

immeasurable impact on the sound of popular music ever since. The body of the bass is very similar to the Fender
Stratocaster.

Background
Although the Precision was the first mass-produced and widely-used
bass, it was not the first model of the instrument, as is sometimes
believed. That distinction was claimed in the late 1930s by the
Audiovox Manufacturing Company in Seattle, Washington.
In its stock configuration, the Precision Bass is an alder or ash-bodied
solid body instrument equipped with a single split-coil humbucking
pickup and a one-piece maple neck with rosewood or maple
fingerboard and 20 frets. To this day, the Precision Bass is among the
best-selling electric basses of all time.
The Standard P-Bass is sanded, painted and assembled in Ensenada,
Baja California, Mexico along with the other Standard Series guitars.
As of December 5, 2008, the Standard P-Bass has been updated with
CBS era-style decals, a 3-ply parchment pickguard and a tinted maple
neck with rosewood or maple fingerboard. Other features include a
split-coil hum-cancelling pickup and a return to the knurled chrome
A patent sketch for the Fender Precision Bass
flat-top control knobs. Models produced before 2003 came for a period
with aged white Stratocaster control knobs.

Since its introduction in 1992, the Standard Precision Bass used (like the rest of the Standard series instruments) a
post-CBS era silver transitional decal. Fender changed the headstock decal to the bolder CBS-style in 2008.
The American Standard (featuring a high-mass vintage bridge and Hipshot lightweight staggered tuning machines),
American Deluxe (featuring a J-style humbucking pickup in the bridge position and an active 3-band EQ with an
18V power supply), Highway One (featuring '70s styling, BadAss II bridges with grooved saddles and a
Greasebucket tone circuit since 2006) and American Vintage series models are manufactured in Corona,
California.American Standard Precisions are currently available as of 2012; the 2012 color chart listed 3-Color
Sunburst, Olympic White, Black, Candy Cola, Jade Pearl Metallic, Charcoal Frost Metallic as available finishes
during that period. As of April 19, 2012, the American Standard Precision Basses are loaded with the Custom Shop
'60s Precision Bass Split Single-Coil Pickups, a 20-fret Graphite Reinforced Maple neck with compound rosewood
or maple fingerboard with white or black pearloid dot markers and a high-mass vintage bridge. The American
Standard Precision bass can also be bought as a 4 or 5 string bass.American Deluxe "Ash Body" Precisions were
offered from 1995 to 2006, and are currently available as of 2011; the 2004 color chart listed Aged Cherry Sunburst,
Butterscotch Blonde and Tobacco Sunburst as available finishes during that period. As of March 23, 2010, all
American Deluxe Precision Basses came with a N3 stacked-coil Jazz Bass pickup in the bridge position, a 21-fret
tinted maple neck with compound rosewood or maple fingerboard with white or black pearloid dot markers, an
active/passive toggle switch, a high-mass vintage bridge, Hipshot lightweight vintage tuners, a stealth retainer bar for
the A string and a bold CBS-era headstock decal.
The Road Worn Series 50s P-Bass (introduced in 2009) features a distressed alder body with nitrocellulose lacquer
finish, a 1-ply gold anodized pickguard, a synthetic bone nut, American Vintage hardware, a split-coil humbucking
pickup and a 1-piece maple neck/fingerboard with 20 vintage frets.
Similar to The Beatles and Yes' effect on the popularity of the Rickenbacker 4001, the early adoption of the electric
bass was in part due to Bill Black's ownership of the instrument. Black was beginning to use a Precision Bass during
the filming of Jailhouse Rock. Fender also delivered an early Precision to LA session bassist and arranger Shifty
Fender Precision Bass 91

Henry.
The double bass was considered difficult to play in tune, physically cumbersome and difficult to transport. It was
becoming hard to hear in increasingly large bands or in bands that included amplified electric guitars. With electric
pickups, a small body and fretted neck, the Precision Bass overcame these problems. The name "Precision" came
from the use of frets (as opposed to the fretless fingerboard of the double bass); players of the electric instruments
could play in tune much more easily - they could play with "precision."
The electric bass produces a timbre that differs from that of the double bass: it is a more focused, harder-edged
sound, with less percussive thump and a more clearly articulated fundamental tone. By bringing the sound of the
bass up in a band, the bass became more dominant in its role and transformed the beat and rhythm of pop music. The
electric bass allowed driving rhythms while still outlining harmonic structures and is essential to the evolution from
jump blues and swing to rhythm and blues and rock music, and today is still used regularly in any genre requiring the
use of a string bass instrument .

Design updates
The original Precision Bass of 1951 was essentially a bass counterpart
to the six-string Telecaster and shared several of its design
featuresthe main difference being its then-radical double cutaway
body. In 1953 the Precision Bass received contoured edges for comfort
while otherwise retaining the existing Telecaster-like styling.
In 1957 the Precision Bass received a major restyling; the headstock
and pickguard were redesigned to closely resemble Fender's recently
introduced, ultra-modern Stratocaster guitar, with a rounder neck heel
replacing the original square shape introduced in 1951. The redesigned
P-Bass pickguard was made of a single layer of gold anodized
aluminum with 10 screwholes (195759) and then changed in 1960 to
a 13-screw celluloid "multilayer" with 3 or 4 layers of black, white,
mint green, aged white pearloid and brown tortoise shell. The original
single-coil pickup was replaced in 1957 with a new split-coil pickup
with staggered polepieces, connected in a humbucking mode; however,
1956 Precision bass
Fender never emphasized this, as the Seth Lover patent on the
humbucking pickup had not yet expired. Two years later (1959), a
rosewood fingerboard glued on a maple neck featuring "clay"-style dot position markers replaced the 1-piece maple
neck. The rosewood neck became a standard feature until 1966/67, when the CBS-owned Fender companies began
to offer a separate laminated maple fingerboard capped on a maple neck. Rosewood fingerboards were made of a
veneered round-laminated piece of wood; pearloid dot markers replaced the "clay"-style inlays introduced in 1959.
Since 1969, the 1-piece maple neck option is a standard feature on many Fender basses, with the rosewood fretboard
offered as the second neck wood option.

Meanwhile, the original Telecaster-derived design, with a few updates, was reintroduced in 1968 as the Telecaster
Bass. Within a few years, however, it had evolved into a distinctly different model from the contemporary Precision
Bass, and continued to be manufactured alongside the P Bass until the early '80s. There are two artist designed
models using this Telecaster Bass body style. The Mike Dirnt Precision Bass using today's standard single split coil
Precision Bass pickups, and the Sting Precision Bass using only a single coil Precision Bass Pickup.
Fender Precision Bass 92

Some Precision Basses made in the 1970s were also available with an
unlined fretless rosewood, ebony or (usually) maple fingerboard,
popularized by endorsees Sting and Tony Franklin. Fender briefly
offered a fretless P Bass in the mid-1990s as a part of the
first-generation American Standard line, featuring a lined fretless
rosewood fingerboard. The fretless American Standard P Bass left the
Fender pricelist at the end of the 20th century. The American Series
Precision Bass (introduced in 2000 and discontinued in 2008) sports
the S-1 switching system since 2003, allowing the split-coil pickup to
be wired from series to parallel, giving the bass a brighter, snappier
tone similar to a Jazz Bass. This feature has been discontinued with the
introduction of the second generation of American Standard Series
instruments in 2008. As of March 23, 2012, the American Standard
Precision Bass (except the 5-string version) comes with a Custom Shop
60's P-Bass split-coil humbucking pickup.
1958 reissue Precision bass
From 1980 to 1984, the Precision Bass has been redesigned with new
pickups, an active onboard circuit and a high-mass brass bridge. The range included the Special (1980) featuring a
split-coil pickup with white covers, gold hardware and a 2-band EQ with an active/passive toggle switch and the
Elite (1983) with one (Elite I) or two (Elite II) special-design split-coil humbucking pickups, TBX tone circuit and a
fine-tuner bridge made by Schaller. Some models were available with a solid walnut body and a stained ebony
fretboard. Japanese models appeared in late 1984, sporting the same specifications as their American counterparts,
except for the addition of a downsized body shape and a modern C-shape maple neck with 22 medium-jumbo frets.
The Elite Precision's Schaller fine-tuner bridge has been later used on the Plus Series models in the early 1990s.

Fender has also produced several 'Deluxe' or 'Special' models over the years which feature active electronics and/or a
Jazz Bass pickup or humbucking soapbar at the bridge position in addition to the normal split-coil pickup. Both of
these measures are designed to increase the tonal options available to a fairly simple bass. Some P-Basses with
J-style bridge pickups usually feature the traditional Jazz Bass control layout of 2 volumes and master tone and a
side-mount jack socket; others had the front pickup volume control moved a step forward, leaving room for the
top-mounted output jack. Other variants include dual stacked control knobs similar to that of an early 1960s Jazz
Bass or a 3-way pickup selector switch (as used on the Tony Franklin Signature and Plus Series P-Basses).
The 1990s saw the introduction of the Precision Plus and Deluxe Plus basses in 1989 and 1991, featuring Lace
Sensor pickups, fine-tuner bridges, 22-fret necks and passive or active electronics on certain models. The Custom
Shop 40th Anniversary model of 1991 was a luxurious version of the Precision Plus Deluxe bass with gold hardware,
a quilted maple top and an ebony fretboard with side dot position markers.
Other variants (sometimes with 21 or 22 frets on the fingerboard) and special-edition Precision Bass guitars have
been offered in recent years. Fender made an American Deluxe 5-string model with a split-coil neck pickup, a
humbucking J-style bridge pickup and a 3-band active EQ between 2001 and 2007 and currently produces a passive
American Standard with a high-mass vintage bridge and a gloss-coated maple neck with satin back and vintage tint
as of 2008, tuned BEADG, along with a Squier Standard version sporting two J-Bass pickups with alnico magnets.
The company has also built a Korean-made Squier ProTone 5-string Precision with dual humbuckers and gold
hardware in the mid-1990s and a short-scale passive 5-string tuned EADGC called the Bass V during the CBS period
in the mid-1960s. The Bass V did not sell well, and after it was discontinued, Fender did not offer another 5-string
bass guitar until the 1980s.
Fender Precision Bass 93

Signature Models
Artists who are well known enough for using the instrument to have a signature Fender Precision bass model named
for them include James Jamerson,[2] Pino Palladino, Steve Harris, Mike Dirnt, Tony Franklin, Duff McKagan, Matt
Freeman, Mark Hoppus, Sting, and Roger Waters.
For a more complete listing of players, please see List of Precision Bass players.

References
[1] Wheeler, Tom, American Guitars: An Illustrated History, interview with Leo Fender, Harper Perennial, NY 1992
[2] "James Jamerson - Bassist" (http:/ / www. bassland. net/ jamerson. html). . Retrieved 2010-12-30.

Literature
Peter Bertges: The Fender Reference; Bomots, Saarbrcken 2007, ISBN 978-3-939316-38-1
Martin Kelly, Terry Foster, Paul Kelly: Fender: The Golden Age 1946-1970; London & New York: Cassell 2010
ISBN 1-84403-666-9
Fender Jazz Bass 94

Fender Jazz Bass

Jazz Bass

Manufacturer Fender

Period 1960 present

Construction

Body type Solid

Neck joint Bolt-on

Woods

Body Ash or Alder (Basswood or Poplar on certain Mexican and

Japanese models)

Neck Maple

Fretboard Rosewood, Maple, Ebony or Pao Ferro

Hardware

Bridge Fixed

Pickup(s) Two bipole pickups connected in parallel.

Colors available

(Standard Series) Brown Sunburst, Black, Arctic White, Lake Placid Blue, Candy Apple Red, Midnight Wine, Copper Metallic
Sunburst
(American Deluxe Series, as of 2010) 3-Color Sunburst, Midnight Wine Transparent, Black, Olympic White Pearl, Natural
(American Vintage Series): 62: 3-Color Sunburst, Black, Olympic White 75: Natural
(American Standard Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Olympic White, Black, Candy Cola, Jade Pearl Metallic, Charcoal Frost Metallic
(Highway One Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Flat Black, Honey Blonde, Midnight Wine
(American Special Series:) Black, 3-Colour Sunburst, Olympic White, Candy Apple Red
(Classic Series): Olympic White, Black, 3-Color Sunburst
(Custom Classic Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Olympic White, Black, Ice Blue Metallic (alder body), Aged Cherry Burst, Ebony
Transparent, Cobalt Blue Transparent, Bing Cherry Transparent (ash body)
(Deluxe Series): Black, Honey Blonde, 3-Color Sunburst, Tobacco Sunburst, Cherry Sunburst, Brown Sunburst, Candy Apple Red,
Vintage White, Flat Black
(Road Worn Series): 3-Color Sunburst, Fiesta Red
(50th Anniversary): Candy Apple Red

The Jazz Bass (or J Bass) was the second model of electric bass created by Leo Fender. The bass is distinct from the
Precision Bass in that its tone is brighter and richer in the midrange and treble with less emphasis on the fundamental
harmonic. Because of this, many bass players who want to be more "forward" in the mix (including smaller bands
Fender Jazz Bass 95

such as power trios) prefer the Jazz Bass. The sound of the Fender Jazz Bass has been fundamental in the
development of signature sounds in certain musical genres, such as funk, disco, reggae, blues, heavy metal and jazz
fusion.

History
First introduced in 1960 as the Deluxe Model, it was marketed as a stablemate to the Jazzmaster guitar which was
also marketed as a Deluxe Model in its own right. It was renamed the Jazz Bass as Fender felt that its redesigned
neck - narrower and more rounded than that of the Precision Bass - would appeal more to jazz musicians. The Jazz
Bass has two single coil pickups with two pole pieces per string. This gave the bass a stronger treble sound to
compete with the Rickenbacker bass, which had been introduced in 1957 and was famously "bright." As well as
having a slightly different, less symmetrical and more contoured body shape (known in Fender advertising as the
"Offset Waist Contour" body), the Jazz Bass neck is noticeably narrower at the nut than that of the Fender Precision
Bass. While the Precision Bass was originally styled similarly to the Telecaster guitar (and, after 1957, the
Stratocaster), the Jazz Bass' styling was inspired more by the Jazzmaster guitar, with which the Jazz shared its offset
body and sculpted edges that differentiate it from other slab-style bass bodies.
The original intention was to encourage upright-bass
players to switch to electric bass. The original Jazz Bass
had two stacked knob pots with volume and tone control
for each pickup. Original instruments with this stacked
configuration are highly valued in today's vintage guitar
market. Around 1961 it received three control knobs: two
controlling the volume of each pickup and one the overall
tone. Despite this new feature, many stacked knob models
were made until about 1962.
A number of cosmetic changes were made to the
instrument when CBS purchased the Fender companies in
1965. During 1965/66 the Jazz Bass received bound
rosewood fingerboards with pearloid dot position inlays
(which replaced the older "clay"-style of the early 1960s)
and oval-shaped tuning machines. Block-shaped
fingerboard inlays and an optional maple fingerboard were
introduced after 1966/67. At first necks with rosewood
fretboards received pearloid blocks/binding and maple
fretboard necks received black. Fender switched to pearloid
blocks/binding on all necks in mid-to-late 1974. Fender
also switched to the three-bolt neck "micro-tilt adjustable" neck and the "bullet" truss rod in mid-to-late 1975 before
reverting to the more standard four-bolt neck fixing and dot-shaped fretboard markers in 1983. White pickup covers
and a pickguard/control plate were introduced the same year. In 1985 Fender introduced the Japanese-made Fender
Performer Bass, also with micro-tilt neck, designed by John Page and intended to be an elite version of the Jazz
Bass, however the radical styling was not popular and production ceased the same year.[1]

American Standard Jazz Basses produced between 1989 and 1994 featured a larger body shape, a 'curved' neck
plate set into a chamfered pocket for greater sustain and a 22-fret neck, similar to that of a Precision Bass Plus, with
a standard vintage-style top-load bridge, two separate volumes and a master TBX tone circuit. Usually known as
"Boner" Jazz Basses, these early American Standard models (designed by George Blanda, who was Fender's senior
R&D engineer during that period) were discontinued in 1994 and shouldn't be confused with the Fender Jazz Bass
Plus, which has the same 22-fret neck design, but utilizes a different (downsized) body styling, Lace Sensor pickups,
Fender Jazz Bass 96

Schaller "Elite" fine-tuner bridge on the four-string model or Gotoh high-mass bridge on the 5-string model, and Phil
Kubicki-designed active electronics. Unlike the Fender Precision Bass Plus, which had a "maple-neck" option, the
Boner Jazz Bass was offered only with a rosewood fingerboard. The Jazz Plus Bass was available with an alder body
and the option of a natural-finish ash body on the four-string model for a $100 upcharge, either a maple or rosewood
fretboard on the four-string and pau ferro (an exotic hardwood whose tone is brighter than rosewood yet warmer than
ebony) on the five-string. The Jazz Plus debuted in 1989 (the five-string model was released in 1990), discontinued
in 1994 and replaced by the USA Deluxe Series Jazz Bass the following year.
A fourth push button control is available on American-made Jazz Basses produced between mid-2003 until 2008.
Known as the "S-1 Switch", this feature allows the pickups to operate in standard, parallel wiring, or alternatively in
series wiring when the switch is depressed. While in series, both pickups function as a single unit with one volume
control, giving the Jazz Bass a sound more similar to the Precision Bass. The two pickups are built to be opposite
from each other in both magnetic polarity and electrical phase, so that when heard together, hum is cancelledthe
humbucking effect. The Highway One Jazz Bass is a moderately priced American-made bass introduced in 2003,
featuring a Leo Quan BadAss II bridge with grooved saddles, Posiflex graphite neck support rods, 1970s styling and
a Greasebucket tone circuit since 2006.
In 2008, the American Series models were replaced by a new American Standard line, which greatly differs from the
first-generation American Standard Series basses introduced in 1994. The 2008 American Standard Jazz Bass
retained the "American Series" rolled-edge neck with highly detailed nut and fret work, as well as the familiar
rounded body shape with the vintage body radius, but deleted the S-1 switching system and incorporated a new
high-mass vintage bridge, Hipshot lightweight vintage-style tuning machines, a richer and deeper neck tint, gloss
maple or rosewood fingerboard and satin back for smooth playability. It also has a thinner finish undercoat that lets
the body breathe and improves resonance. In March 2012 Fender updated the American Standard Jazz Bass (except
the five-string version) with Custom Shop 1960s Jazz Bass pickups.
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Jazz Bass, first introduced in 1960, Fender released in 2010 the 50th
Anniversary Limited Edition Jazz Bass. This bass sports a selected alder body finished in a Candy Apple Red
nitrocellulose lacquer and incorporates design elements from several periods in the instrument's history, including
1960s-era lacquer finish, headstock logo, chrome bridge and pickup covers, 1970s-era thumb rest and bridge pickup
positioning, modern-era high-mass bridge and Posiflex graphite neck support rods.

Design features
Some "Deluxe" Jazz Bass models feature an active pre-amp
(usually with three bands of equalization) in place of a single
passive tone control, these basses have three separate equalizer
controls: bass and treble responses are controlled by the base and
top of a stacked double pot, while midrange is controlled by a
second knob. They came with 22 frets, abalone dot position inlays
and an 18-volt power supply on some models. Known as Jazz Bass
Deluxe since introduced as part of a major reworking of Fender's
Electric Bass lineup in 1995, they have been renamed the
American Deluxe Jazz Bass to the public as of August 2000 in a
A typical Fender Jazz Bass headstock.
Bass Player magazine review of the new "Fender American
Deluxe Precision V" five-string counterpart model to the American
Deluxe Jazz Bass.

The American Deluxe Jazz Bass (available in four-string fretted and fretless, five-string fretted and left-hand
versions) features two Samarium Cobalt Noiseless Jazz Bass pickups, designed by pickup designer Bill Lawrence.
Fender Jazz Bass 97

Fender used downsized bodies to accommodate the 22-fret neck and reshaped the pickguard with nine screw holes.
American Deluxes produced between 1995 and 1999 were initially available with
"single-pole" pickups designed by John Suhr. These were soon changed to the
Bill Turner-designed dual-coil Ceramic Noiseless units with nickel-plated
(gold-plated on certain models) polepieces until the advent of the Bill
Lawrence-designed Samarium Cobalt series in 2004.
Other refinements include a strings-through-body/top-load bridge, Posiflex
graphite neck support rods, rolled fingerboard edges, highly detailed nut and fret
work. Five-string versions are presented with a 4+1 tuner arrangement and two
Hipshot string trees since 2002. The asymmetrical five-bolt neck plate, along with
the smooth contoured heel allow much easier access to the upper registers. Bound
fingerboards with pearloid block inlays were added with the introduction of the
American Deluxe Jazz Bass FMT & QMT in late 2001, featuring flamed or
quilted maple tops and gold-plated hardware. Fender discontinued these models in
2007.

As of March 23, 2010, the American Deluxe Jazz Bass has been updated with a
pair of N3 stacked-coil Noiseless Jazz Bass pickups, an active/passive toggle
switch, CBS styling and a 21-fret bound compound radius maple neck featuring
rosewood or maple fingerboards with rectangular block inlays. Other features
include Hipshot vintage lightweight tuners, "Strong Arm" string retainer bar for
the A and low B strings, and Fender's High Mass Vintage (HMV) bridge.
The Mexican Deluxe Active Jazz Bass combines many of the features of the
American Deluxe models with a traditional Standard Jazz Bass body,
A sunburst Fender American
Deluxe Jazz Bass from 2005
vintage-style hardware and a 20-fret rosewood (four-string) or pao ferro
(fve-string) fingerboard. It also sports a three-band active circuit powered by two
dual-coil ceramic Noiseless Jazz Bass pickups and a 9V supply.
The Custom Classic model was made at the Fender Custom Shop. This Custom Shop Jazz Bass was a cross between
the American Vintage and the American Deluxe series. Features include an oversized select alder or premium ash
body, a modern 34"-scale C-shape maple neck with an unbound rosewood, pau ferro or maple fingerboard featuring
triangular pearloid block inlays and 21 medium-jumbo frets. Available in four- and five-string versions, all Custom
Classic Jazz Basses came with a pair of custom-wound dual-coil Noiseless Jazz Bass pickups, a three-band active
preamp, five-bolt neck plate, 18V power supply and a Deluxe string-through-body/top-load bridge with milled
nickel-plated brass saddles. Models manufactured prior to 2003 (formerly known as American Classics) were
identical to the mid-1990s American Deluxe basses in appearance, excepting the 22-fret bound maple neck featuring
a rosewood fretboard and white block inlays. Fender discontinued the five-string version in 2009. The Custom
Classic four-string Jazz Bass has been renamed Custom Active Jazz Bass as of 2010, featuring Fender's high-mass
vintage (HMV) bridge and a 1960s Jazz Bass "U" shape neck.
Fender Jazz Bass 98

The Standard Jazz Bass model is sanded, painted and assembled in

Ensenada, Baja California along with the other Standard Series guitars.
As of December 5, 2008, the Standard J-Bass has been updated with
CBS era-style decals, a three-ply parchment pickguard and a tinted
maple neck with rosewood or maple fingerboard (also available in a
fretless version with a rosewood fingerboard and 20 inlaid white
fretline markers). Other features include two staggered bi-pole
single-coil pickups and a return to the black bakelite control knobs.
Models produced before 2003 came for a period with black
Stratocaster control knobs. The five-string version (introduced in
1992), available with pao ferro or rosewood fingerboard and a
five-in-line tuner configuration with Gotoh Mini machineheads (c.
2006), has been updated with a tinted maple neck featuring a dark
rosewood fingerboard and a 4+1 tuner configuration with Fender/Ping
tuning machines as of 2009.

The Jazz Bass has a bright sound, with more high end than the
Precision Bass. This makes it ideal for slap playing as well as
finger-style players. This bright sound is due to the fact that there are
two pickups at different points in the string's length. The bridge pickup
gives a tone with more treble, while the neck pickup will yield a A Mexican-made Standard Series J-Bass from
rounder sound. The ability to blend the volume of both pickups allows 2009 with a black finish and a tinted maple neck
with rosewood fingerboard.
for a wider variety of tones than the Precision Bass can produce.
Pickups are RWRP (reverse wound, reverse polarity) from one another,
so all hum will be canceled when both pickups are at full volume.
All five-string Jazz basses came with pao ferro fretboard since 1990 (some US Deluxe models were also available
with a plain maple neck option). Fender offers its 5-string basses with rosewood or maple fretboard as of 2006 after
discontinuing the pao ferro fingerboard option in late 2005. In 2008, Fender introduced the fretted and fretless Steve
Bailey signature models, its first six-string Jazz Basses to feature a 9.5 to 14 compound-radius ebony fingerboard.
Having both pickups cranked up at full volume produces the classic scooped, "growling" sound which many players
- such as Marcus Miller and Will Lee - use for slap bass playing. This sound is the product of certain frequencies
from both pickups being out of phase and cancelling each other, leaving a "scoop" on the midrange. This is similar to
what happens on some guitars when you blend the sounds from two different pickups, such as the Fender
Stratocaster.

Models
Standard Jazz Bass
Standard Jazz Bass Fretless
Standard Jazz Bass V
American Standard Jazz Bass
American Standard Jazz Bass Fretless
American Standard Jazz Bass Left-Handed
American Standard Jazz Bass V
Deluxe Active Jazz Bass
Deluxe Active Jazz Bass V
American Deluxe Jazz Bass
Fender Jazz Bass 99

American Deluxe Jazz Bass V

American Vintage '62 Jazz Bass
American Vintage '75 Jazz Bass
Highway One Jazz Bass
'60s Jazz Bass
'70s Jazz Bass
Road Worn '60s Jazz Bass
American Special Jazz Bass
Blacktop Jazz Bass
Modern Player Jazz Bass

Signature Models
Fender has designed signature Jazz Bass models for notable players, including: Steve Bailey,[2] Victor Bailey,[2]
Frank Bello,[3] Reggie Hamilton,[4] Mark Hoppus,[2] Nicholas Eldred,[3] Geddy Lee,[2] Marcus Miller,[2] Jaco
Pastorius,[4] and Noel Redding.[5]

24-Fret Jazz Bass

In July 2005, Fender introduced its first 24-fret bass since the Fender Performer Bass, the Fender Jazz Bass 24 [6].
The Jazz Bass 24 featured a sleek alder body, a 34-scale length, modern C shaped maple neck with a two-octave
rosewood fingerboard, abalone dot inlays, 24 medium-jumbo frets, Hipshot licensed tuners, Fender/Gotoh High
Mass top-loading bridge, two custom-wound Basslines pickups, a passive/active push/pull volume knob and a
3-band active EQ with a "slap" mid-scoop switch. It was available in the Fender pricelist as part of the Deluxe Series
line, with Cherry Sunburst (discontinued as of 2007) and Tobacco Sunburst finishes over a quilted maple top and
chrome-plated hardware. The 5-string version [7] has been introduced in 2007.
In 2008, Fender offered both the four- and five-string versions of the 24-fret Jazz Bass in a stealthy Flat Black finish
(with matching headstocks and hardware). These two-octave Jazz Basses were gone from the Fender pricelist as of
2009.

Fender Jaguar Bass

In 2005, Fender introduced the Fender Jaguar Bass, as of 2008 available in Hot Rod Red, Olympic White, Sunburst
and Black finishes, with a three-ply white or tortoise pickguard. This is a variation on the traditional Jazz Bass
design - differences being that it has only one master volume and tone, but additional on/off switches for pickup
selection, series/parallel switching, and a two-band active preamp with bypass switch.
The Jaguar bass retains the slim Jazz neck, bi-pole pickups, Jazzmaster/Jaguar body design and the trademark Jazz
Bass growl.
As of 2008, the Jaguar Bass comes in Olympic White and three-colour Sunburst finishes, together with a four-ply
brown tortoise shell pickguard. These colours were previously available only for the Japanese domestic market.
In 2012, Fender also introduced the Reverse Jaguar Bass in its line of Pawn Shop Series guitars. This special issue
features a reversed body stock orientation, and also reverses the humbucking pickups for a unique tone.
Fender Jazz Bass 100

References
Bacon, Tony (2000). 50 Years of Fender: Half a Century of the Greatest Electric guitars. London: Backbeat
Books. ISBN0-87930-621-1.

Literature
Peter Bertges: The Fender Reference; Bomots, Saarbrcken 2007, ISBN 978-3-939316-38-1

References
[1] (http:/ / www. edroman. com/ guitars/ fender/ fender_performers. html)
[2] Fender Signature product page (http:/ / www. fender. com/ products/ search. php?section=basses& prod_series=Artist& pg=1)
[3] Squier signature product page (http:/ / www. squierguitars. com/ products/ search. php?section=basses& cat=jazzbass& subcat=artistseries)
[4] Fender Custom Shop signature product page (http:/ / www. fender. com/ customshop/ instruments/ search. php?section=basses&
cat=jazzbass& subcat=artist)
[5] The bass book: a complete illustrated history of bass guitars (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-JO5pBQo89wC& pg=PT127&
lpg=PT127& dq=noel+ redding+ signature+ jazz+ bass& source=bl& ots=TuSjyl7D82& sig=ogqaTp0tmIdVyPasTXkL36eM9Is& hl=en&
sa=X& ei=1HQpT4buAuXe0gG4s_nGAg& ved=0CFoQ6AEwBTge#v=onepage& q& f=false) p. 153
[6] http:/ / www. fender. com/ products/ / search. php?partno=0264500506
[7] http:/ / www. fender. com/ products/ / search. php?partno=0261000552

External links
Fender Jazz Bass Products Page (http://www.fender.com/products/search.php?section=basses&
bodyStyle=Jazz+Bass)

Fender Bassman
The Fender Bassman is a bass amplifier introduced by Fender in 1952. Although it was originally intended for
amplifying bass guitars, the Bassman was also used for non-bass electric guitar & steel pedal guitar amplification.

History
During 1952, the Fender Bassman amplifier with circuit design "5B6"
was introduced as a "Combo Amp" product with one fifteen inch
speaker (1x15). Initially, the newly introduced Fender (1x15) Bassman
was designed to accommodate the powerful very low frequency tones
produced by the Fender Precision Bass electric guitar. The Fender
Precision "P" Bass electric guitar introduced in 1951 was the very first
mass-production electric bass guitar by any manufacturer. The Fender
Precision Bass (or "P" Bass) electric guitar had initial "handshaking"
problems matching its powerful low-frequency sound/tone output to
A 2x15" Fender Bassman speaker cabinet, with a
the weaker signal reception capability offered from typical guitar
separate AB165 amplifier "head" unit
amplifiers of the early 1950s era. The next year in 1952, Fender
developed the 1x15 5B6 Bassman to specifically handshake with the
Precision "P" Bass' powerful low-frequency output to an amplifier (the Fender 5B6 Bassman) which could manage
those low-frequency signals without ruining speakers or amplifier electronics.

The 19521953 Fender "5B6" 1x15 Bassman is a "closed back" cabinet with two small three-inch rear ports and a
single fifteen inch speaker. The 1952-1953 Fender "5B6" 1x15 Bassmans were powered by two 6SC7 or 6SL7GT
Fender Bassman 101

pre-amp tubes, two 5881 power tubes and a single 5U4G rectifier tube. It was designed to generate 26 watts of
power output, an 8 ohm impedance load and offering a cathode based bias.
The 19521953 Fender 5B6 1x15 Bassman amplifier that included the newly designed and stronger fifteen inch
Jensen speaker, was called "possibly the greatest guitar amp we ever made" by Leo Fender's partner, George
Fullerton (from "The Soul Of Tone - Celebrating 60 Years of Fender Amps", by Tom Wheeler and Keith Richards
September 2007, pages #164168). However, by the time guitarists had discovered the Fender 5B6 1x15 Bassman
as a fantastic six-string electric guitar amplifier, Fender discontinued the 5B6 Bassman in early 1954. Guitarist then
sought the Fender 4x10 5E6 and 5F6 Bassman amplifiers until they were discontinued in 1960. While the
19571960 5F6-A Bassman amplifiers are highly revered for their tone, the few guitarists who have actually
played the earlier 5D6 and 5D6-A Bassman amplifiers have often described them as providing the most
responsive complex sounds and amplifier tones from any Fender amplifier, verifying George Fullerton's assertion.
The Fender 5B6 1x15 Bassman was born in 1952. During the early 1950s, the Fender Bassman quickly became one
of the most popular "bass" amplifiers ever designed for bass guitar players. The initial line of Fender Bassman
amplifiers lasted for thirty-two years and included many variations, modifications and changes during the production
run ending in 1983. Duplicate Fender Bassman Reissues of the 1953 Fender 1x15 5B6 Bassman and the 1959
Fender 5F6-A 4x10 Bassman were introduced in 1990 and continue to sell under the "Bassman Reissue" status
today.
From 1952 through the spring of 1954, Fender produced approximately 670 quantity 5B6 1x15 "TV Front"
Bassman amplifiers (serial numbers #0001-0670 during the approximate twenty eight months of production). Fender
made the decision to halt production of the 1953 Bassman model during the spring of 1954 because Fender was
planning the development of a new radical bass guitar amplifier that would offer bass players much more power
output, stronger more powerful low-frequency sounds with more tone possibilities, and more pure loudness for on
stage performance.
Before November 1954, no amplifier manufacturer and no speaker cabinet manufacturer had ever produced a
product with four ten inch speakers. Now, classically known years later as the famous 4x10 amplifier or 4x10
speaker cabinet, the 1954 Fender 5D6 4x10 Bassman combo amp was an extreme radical design during the 1950s
era and was the very first of its kind to have four ten inch speakers.
Understanding Early Bassman History: Most published Fender Bassman serial number charts do not include the
1954 Fender 5D6 4x10 Bassman, nor the early 1955 Fender "5D6-A Bassman. Most Fender history charts start
with the 1952 & 1953 Fender 5B6 1x15 Bassmans and then jump to the 1955 Fender 5E6 4x10 Bassman. It is
known but seldom documented that the 1953 Fender 5B6 1x15 Bassmans continued to be produced well into early
1954. Fender used the serial numbers SN#0600 to approximately SN#0670 for the early continued 1954 production
of the 1953 "5B6" 1x15 Bassmans. These few 1954 Bassmans were still of the 1953 "5B6" Bassman design. Since
Fender had made the decision that the 1953 5B6 1x15 Bassmans were at the end of the production line" for that
particular Bassman model, Fender kept on building the 1953 5B6 Bassman amplifiers into 1954 until Fender had
depleted parts and vendor inventory supply agreements for the 5B6 Bassman.
Fender did not produce Bassmans for six months from approximately April 1954 until November 1954. Fender took
time to plan and develop a new and completely radical design bass guitar amplifier for the emerging electric bass
guitar market. During late 1953 to late 1954 time frame, Fender went into heavy R&D, engineering, design,
planning, marketing, beta testing, production planning and vendor relationship development with the sole purpose to
produce, market, ship and service a new Fender 4x10 Bassman for the 1955 amplifier sales & marketing year.
Fenders goal was to manufacture the radical new Fender 4x10 Bassman for the 1954 Christmas Season, for the
January 1955 New Marketing Year and for national consumer industry trade shows annually held during January &
February.
The 1954 Fender "5D6" 4x10 Bassman is an open backed cabinet with four ten inch Jensen P10R speakers. The
amplifier was driven by two 12AY7 pre-amp tubes, two 6L6G power-tubes and two 5U4GA rectifier tubes. The
Fender Bassman 102

Bassman was specifically designed to generate 40 watts of power output, offering a 2 ohm impedance load and a
non-adjustable fixed bias.
Fenders manufacturing team produced approximately 83 quantity Fender 5D6 DK 4x10 Bassman "first series
prototypes" during November 1954; and approximately 89 quantity 5D6 DL 4x10 Bassman "second series
prototypes" during December 1954. These approximate 172 new and radically unique 1954 Fender "5D6" 4x10
Bassman prototypes were issued, given or sold to musicians, Fender employees and to Fender's retail customers for
testing, playability evaluation and performance quality review. Only eleven 1954 Fender "5D6" Bassmans survive
today, and only four are in "near-complete" original and usable condition.
Fender (famous for not discarding anything reusable) continued to use leftover serial number code series from the
previous 5B6 Bassmans, whos production had ended six months earlier (using serial numbers within the
0600-0670 range). In November 1954, Fender shipped approximately 83 of the first prototype version of the 5D6
DK 4x10 Bassmans using serial numbers SN#0701-SN#0783. All of the November DK 1954 5D6 Bassmans
are dated DK (1954 November) on each Bassmans inside tube chart. During very late November of 1954, Fender
made their last significant major modification on the 5D6 prototype line of Bassmans. Reintroduced during
December DL 1954, Fender relabeled the newly modified second version 5D6 Bassmans tube charts to 5D6
DL 4x10 Bassman amplifiers. A new serial number range, SN#0001-SN#0089, was generated for the December
DL 1954 Bassmans. It is noted that one December Bassman with serial #SN0035 has a DK date code. All other
5D6 December Bassmans with earlier or later serial numbers from SN#0001-SN#0089 do have the proper DL
date code markings.
An easy rule to follow is: if the date code is DK, it is a first series 5D6 Bassman from November 1954. If the date
code is DL, the Bassman is from the second 5D6 series manufactured during December 1954.
Fender planned to introduce the January EA 5D6-A 1955 Bassman using serial numbers to begin with
SN#0100(+), easily following the slightly lower December 5D6 DL 1954 Bassman serial number range. The A
within the 1955 5D6-A tube chart represents a new major modification variation from the 1954 5D6 Bassman
design. The 5D6-A Bassman was introduced during January EA 1955. There are published schematics of the
1955 Fender "5D6-A" Bassman's and the 1955 "5E6" Bassman's circuit designs. There are no known "original"
Fender schematics of the either the 1954 "5D6" "DK" Bassman, nor the 1954 "5D6" "DL" Bassman.
Why note the distinctions and importance of all three 1954/1955 prototypes ("5D6 DK", "5D6 DL" and "5D6-A
EA"? Again, Fender developed three circuitry designs and modification changes before the major introduction of the
"official" Fender 5E6 4x10 Bassman during early 1955. There were approximately 83 quantity "5D6 DK 4x10,
approximately 89 quantity 1954 Fender 5D6 DL 4x10 Bassmans manufactured, and approximately 100(+) 1955
Fender 5D6-A EA 4x10 Bassmans manufactured before the major Fender marketing introduction of the "NEW
1955 Fender 4x10 Bassman" ("5E6) during Spring of 1955. The first three 19541955 "5D6" and "5D6-A" series of
prototype Bassmans set production path for producing a successful new and unique product that would begin to
dominate the 1950s popular music scene. Also, the "5D6" Bassmans have a slightly unique sound & tone all their
own. Obviously, the 1954 Fender "5D6" 4x10 Bassmans are highly collectable and coveted.
The first 4x10 Bassman amplifiers started with a batch of prototypes in November (DK) 1954 and December (DL)
1954 with prototype model 5D6. No official original Fender schematic for the "5D6 DK" or the "5D6 DL"
Bassman circuits have ever been found. Ken Fox and Frank Roy have created a few 5D6 DL schematics from
original known 5D6 DL amplifiers ~ copies are freely available online. The 1954 5D6 DL Bassman schematics
have been nicely documented and are easily accessed by links on the Internet. Two examples are: 1) http:/ / www.
schematicsunlimited.com/?z=fender and 2)http://schems.com/manu/fender/bassman_5d6a.pdf
Of the original 172 quantity 1954 5D6 Bassmans manufactured by Fender, only five of the original first designed
1954 Fender 5D6 DK 4x10 Bassmans (SN#0700-0783) have survived. There are six known second generation
version 5D6 DL 4x10 Bassmans (SN#0001-SN#0089) still existing today. Sadly, there are only approximately
four of the eleven 1954 Fender "5D6" Bassmans that are in "near original good" condition with original tweed
Fender Bassman 103

covering, original wood cabinet integrity, original power transformer, original output transformer, original choke,
original face-plate panel with original "chicken head" control knobs, original four Jensen P10R speakers, original
legible tube chart, minimal rust and original wiring. There are some acceptable Bassman electronic parts that are
naturally expected to be replaced due to age: leather handle, power & rectifier tubes, some capacitors, some resistors,
some electrolytes, etc. Typical tubes that might be replaced: two quantity 12AY7 pre-amp tubes, two quantity 6L6G
power-tubes, and two quantity 5U4GA rectifier tubes.
The earliest documented existing 5D6 Bassmans are: #0701 (DK), #0745 (DK) (Walter Horton), #0769 (DK)
(Hayes Kolb), #0780 (DK) (sold on eBay November 2006), and #0783 (DK). The earliest second series 1954 5D6
Bassman serial numbers known to exist are: #0013 (DL) (sold by Frank Roy), #0033 (DL), #0035 (DK) (Albert
Talley), #0075 (DL) (Jim Cornett), #0077 (DL) (Peter Tate), and #0089 (DL) (sold by Mark Grandfield on EBay
during February 2011). These very rare few 1954 5D6 4x10 Fender Bassmans are known to sound better than the
revered 1959 5F6-A 4x10 Bassman amplifiers.
To share how unknown the 1954 5D6 Bassman amplifier has been until late 2011, the highly resourced and widely
renown authors John Sprung and John Teagle (Fender Amp: The First Fifty Years 1995) published and stated
within their book: "reportedly there is a 5D6 model Bassman". In another very recent 2007 Fender book "The Soul
Of Tone - Celebrating 60 Years of Fender Amps" (Tom Wheeler September 2007, page #170), Tom Wheeler,
writing about the extreme rarity of the 1954 5D6 Bassman prototypes, quotes Peter Tate (5D6 Bassman owner)
as stating that he (Peter Tate) only knows the existence of one other 5D6 Bassman amplifier. The above two
published quotes from two highly resourced and respected Fender history books, truly demonstrate the lack of
awareness, knowledge and history of the extremely rare 1954 Fender 5D6 4x10 Bassman amplifiers.
The eighty-three quantity November 1954 Fender 5D6 DK 4x10 Bassmans were the very first Tweed 4x10
Bassman prototypes developed. The eighty-nine quantity December 1954 5D6 DL Bassmans paved the way for the
1955 5D6-A" 4x10 Fender Bassmans. The "5D6-A" Bassmans lead directly to the 1955 "5E6" Bassmans which
were the first to be nationally advertised and promoted to guitarists, bass players, accordion players, steel-pedal
guitarist and to Fender retail dealers nation wide. During the years following the 1954 5D6 4x10 Bassmans were
the 5D6-A (1955) 5E6 (1955), 5E6-A (19551957), 5F6 (1957) and the 5F6-A (19571960) 4x10
amplifiers ~ all Tweed Fender Bassmans.
The 60's brought an end to the Tweed era 4x10 Fender Bassmans. Starting in 1960, Fender Bassman amplifiers were
offered as blonde tolex Brownface (faceplate) amplifier heads without speakers. Following were the famous
Fender Blackface with black tolex amplifier heads and then the Fender Silverface black tolex amplifier heads.
These more recent 1960s amp head Bassman models manufactured by Fender generated an entirely new trend of
guitar amplification circuitry and design that has greatly influenced the guitar industry, even today.
The evolution of the Fender Bassman amplifier was followed by the entire Fender guitar amplifier product line.
Bassman amps of the 1950s were covered in tweed and provided a more raw sound than did later Bassman models.
The combo Tweed Bassmans were followed by the Blonde, Blackface, and Silverface "piggyback head" (except the
Bassman 10 and 20, which were also combo amplifiers) versions of the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s with cleaner
sound and more headroom.
A unique aspect of the 1950s Tweed Bassman circuit is the use of a cathode follower, which provides a slight
compression of the sound while also allowing an increase in current, thus more signal is sent to the power amp. It
also has the secondary consequence of increasing the amp's dynamic output range.
Despite the fact that the Fender Bassmans were originally designed for bass guitar amplification, the Bassmans
actually became more popular and more famous for usage as a normal electric guitar amplifier. Appropriately,
when Fender recently reissued the 1959 (5F6-A) 4x10 Bassman model in 1990, that reissued Bassman was
re-categorized as a guitar amplifier rather than a bass guitar amplifier.
Fender Bassman 104

Reissues
In 1990 Fender began producing a reissue of the 1959 Bassman model 5F6A,
known as the '59 Bassman. The newest version of this reissue is the '59
Bassman LTD. The LTD version has a lacquered tweed covering and 4x10
inch Jensen speakers instead of the Eminence speakers used in the earlier '59
Bassman reissue series. David Gilmour from Pink Floyd used a pair of the
1959 reissue to achieve his sound in the studio.[1]

A vacuum tube inside a Fender Bassman
In 2009, Fender introduced the latest reincarnation of the original late '50s
Tweed Bassman amp, the Bassman TV series, which includes four
sub-models such as the TV 10, TV Duo 10, TV 12 and TV 15. Each of these
four amplifiers came with 10", 2 x 10", 12" or 15" speakers, 150 or 350W
RMS (depending on the model). Other features include an XLR output,
Master Volume, Gain and a three-band EQ with Treble, Middle, Bass, as well
as "deep" and "bright" switches which boost the low and high frequencies.

Many famous amplifier manufacturers, including Marshall and Traynor,

based their first batch of amplifiers upon the 5F6A Bassman, in examples such as Marshall's JTM45 (a clone of
Bassman, using British-equivalent parts), and Traynor's YBA-1 (head form of Bassman).

Other models
Super Bassman (19691971) - one speaker cabinet
Super Bassman II (19691972) - two speaker cabinets
Bassman 10 (19721982) - Silverface combo - four 10" speakers, 50 Watts/RMS (models produced after 1977
came with a three-band EQ on the Bass channel and 75 Watts/RMS with ultra-linear output section).
Bassman 50 (19721977) - Silverface piggyback head - two 15" speakers, 50 Watts/RMS - Same specs as the
original silverface Bassman heads produced between 1968 and 1972, except for the addition of a tailless amp
decal and an AC568 circuit.
Bassman 100 (19721977) - Silverface piggyback head - four 12" speakers, 100 Watts/RMS, became the
Bassman 135 in 1978.
Bassman 70 (19771983) - Silverface piggyback head - Same as the Bassman 50, with 70 Watts/RMS and a
master volume control.
Bassman 20 (19821983) - Blackface combo - one 15" speaker

References
[1] Tolinski, Brad (September 1994). "Welcome to the Machines" (http:/ / www. pinkfloydfan. net/ t11634-phil-taylor-welcome-machines-guitar.
html). Guitar World. . Retrieved 2011-07-29.

Bibliography
Kelly, Martin, Foster, Terry & Kelly, Paul (2010) Fender: The Golden Age 1946-1970 London & New York:
Cassell ISBN 1-84403-666-9
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 105

Fender Musical Instruments Corporation

Fender Musical Instruments Corporation

Type Private

Industry Musical instruments

Founded 1938 as Fender's Radio Service

1946 as Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company

Founder(s) Clarence Leonidas Fender

Headquarters Scottsdale, Arizona, U.S.

Area served Global

Key people CEO Larry Thomas

CFO James Broenen

Subsidiaries Squier
Gretsch
Jackson Guitars
Charvel
Hamer
Tacoma
Guild Guitar Company
SWR Sound Corporation
Sunn
Brand X
Orpheum
Olympia
Heartfield
Starcaster

Website [1]
www.fender.com

Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (FMIC), commonly referred to simply as Fender, is an American
manufacturer of stringed instruments and amplifiers, such as solid-body electric guitars, including the Stratocaster
and the Telecaster. It is headquartered in Scottsdale, Arizona. The company, previously named the Fender Electric
Instrument Manufacturing Company, was founded in Fullerton, California, by Clarence Leonidas "Leo" Fender in
1946.[2] Leo Fender also designed one of the first commercially successful solid-body electric basses, the Precision
Bass (P-Bass), which has become known in rock, jazz, country, Motown, funk, and other types of music. Fender's
Precision and Jazz Bass models are now widely considered to be the standard to which most other electric bass
guitars are measured.
The company is a privately held corporation, with the controlling majority of its stock owned by a group of its own
company officers and managers. Larry Thomas is Chief Executive Officer and James Broenen is Chief Financial
Officer.
The company filed for an Initial public offering in March 2012.[3]
In addition to its Scottsdale headquarters, Fender has manufacturing facilities in Corona, California (USA) and
Ensenada, Baja California (Mexico).[4]
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 106

History
Fender offered the first mass-produced solid-body Spanish-style electric guitar, the Telecaster (originally named the
'Broadcaster'; 'Esquire' is a single pickup version)[5] the first mass-produced electric bass, the Precision Bass
(P-Bass); and the popular Stratocaster (Strat) guitar. While Fender was not the first to manufacture electric guitars, as
other companies and luthiers had produced electric guitars since the late 1920s, none was as commercially successful
as Fender's. Furthermore, while nearly all other electric guitars then were either hollow-body guitars or more
specialized instruments such as Rickenbacker's solid-body Hawaiian guitars, Fender had created versatile solid-body
electric guitars. These guitars were and still are popular for musicians in a variety of genres. Many bands still use
Fender guitars today. Some notable Fender players were: , , , Jimi Hendrix, Bob Dylan, Duff Mckagan, Ritchie
Blackmore, Yngwie Malmsteen, Waylon Jennings, Buddy Guy, Jeff Beck, Tom Morello, Kurt Cobain, George
Harrison, John Frusciante, Keith Richards, Bruce Springsteen, Dave "Mello D" Fernandez, Brian Wilson, Rick
Parfitt, Francis Rossi, Hank Marvin, Eric Clapton, Mark Knopfler, David Gilmour, John Mayer, Charles Brown,
Marc "Mad Dog" Davis, Mark Hoppus, Mike Dirnt, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Jim Root, Dave Murray, Brad Paisley,
Keith Urban, Kenny Wayne Shepheard, and others.
The company also makes and / or distributes acoustic guitars, electric basses, mandolins, banjos, and electric violins,
as well as guitar amplifiers, bass amplifiers, and PA (public address) equipment. Other Fender brands include Squier
(entry level/budget), Guild (acoustic and electric guitars and amplifiers), SWR (bass amplification), Passport
Tacoma, Jackson, Charvel, Gretsch guitars and collaborated with Eddie Van Halen to make the EVH guitars and
amplifiers.
On February 11, 1994 the Fender manufacturing plant based in Ensenada, Mexico burned down. Fender President
Bill Shultz decided to temporarily move production from the Mexico plant to the U.S. plant. These Fender guitars
are fairly rare and can be identified by the unique serial number.
On October 28, 2007, Fender announced its intention to buy Kaman Music Corporation (owners of Hamer Guitars,
Ovation Guitars, Genz Benz amplifiers, Gibraltar Hardware, along with many others, and exclusive distributor for
Sabian cymbals and Takamine Guitars).
Other Fender instruments include the Mustang, Jazzmaster, Jaguar, Starcaster, Duo-Sonic, Toronado and Bronco
guitars; basses such as the Jazz Bass, the 'Telecaster Bass' reissue of the original 1950s Precision Bass; a line of lap
steels; three models of electric violin, and the Fender Rhodes electric piano.
For a full list of products made by Fender see: Fender Musical Instrument Corporation product list
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 107

Origins
The company began as Fender's Radio Service in late 1938 in
Fullerton, California, USA. As a qualified electronics technician, Leo
Fender had been asked to repair not only radios, but phonograph
players, home audio amplifiers, public address systems and musical
instrument amplifiers. (At the time, most of these were just variations
on a few simple vacuum-tube circuits.) All designs were based on
research developed and released to the public domain by Western
Electric in the '30s, and used vacuum tubes for amplification. The
business also sidelined in carrying records for sale and the rental of
self-designed-and-built PA systems. Leo became intrigued by design
flaws in current musical instrument amplifiers, and he began
custom-building a few amplifiers based on his own designs or
modifications to designs.

By the early 1940s, he had partnered with another local electronics

enthusiast named Clayton Orr "Doc" Kauffman, and together they
formed a company named K & F Manufacturing Corp. to design,
manufacture and sell electric instruments and amplifiers. Production
began in 1945 with Hawaiian lap steel guitars (incorporating a patented
pickup) and amplifiers, which were sold as sets. By the end of the year, Sketch of Leo Fender's lap steel guitar from 1944
Fender had become convinced that manufacturing was more profitable patent application
than repair, and he decided to concentrate on that business. Kauffman
remained unconvinced, however, and they had amicably parted ways by early 1946. At that point Leo renamed the
company the Fender Electric Instrument Company. The service shop remained open until 1951, although Leo
Fender did not personally supervise it after 1947.

The first big series of amplifiers were built in 1948. These were known as tweed amps, because they were covered in
the same kind of cloth used for luggage at the time. These amps varied in output from 3 watts to 75 watts. This
period was one of innovation and changes; while Leo made a Tweed Princeton in 1948 for his Professional 8 string
Lap Steel guitar (very short lived, as later he would focus on 6 string Student models) later the Princeton would
become a push-pull class AB tube amp. In 1948 it was a single-ended Class A amplifier similar to the Fender
Champ, with the output transformer mounted to the speaker frame and bereft of any negative feedback. Also, in
1964, the Tweed Champ amp would be reissued in black tolex [6] in small numbers along with the newer model with
the slant front panel and controls; the stacked plywood boxes Leo used often went uninventoried. In late 1963, he
found a couple hundred Tweed Champ chassis boxes in these bins. He had had them chromed and printed in 1958;
being frugal, he built them in black tolex with a chrome and black Champ nameplate, as he had money tied up in
them already.
Fender moved to Tolex coverings for the brownface amps in 1960, with the exception of the Champ which kept its
tweed until 1964. Fender also began using Oxford, Utah and CTS speakers interchangeably with the Jensens;
generally the speaker that could be supplied most economically would be used. Jensens and Oxfords remained the
most common during this period. By 1963 Fender amplifiers had a black Tolex covering, silver grille cloth, and
black forward-facing control panel. The tremolo was changed to a simpler circuit based on an optical coupler and
requiring only one tube. The amps still spanned the spectrum from 4 watts to 85, but the difference in volume was
larger, due to the improved, clean tone of the 85w Twin.
Fender owed its early success not only to its founder and talented associates such as musician/product engineer
Freddie Tavares but also to the efforts of sales chief, senior partner and marketing genius Don Randall. According to
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 108

The Stratocaster Chronicles (a book by Tom Wheeler; Hal Leonard Pub., Milwaukee, WI; 2004, p.108), Mr.
Randall assembled what Mr. Fender's original partner Doc Kauffman called a sales distributorship like nobody had
ever seen in the world. Randall worked closely with the immensely talented photographer/designer Bob Perine.
Their catalogs and ads such as the inspired "You Won't Part With Yours Either" campaign, which portrayed
people surfing, skiing, skydiving, and climbing into jet planes, all while holding Jazzmasters and Stratocasters
elevated once-staid guitar merchandising to an art form. In Fender guitar literature of the 1960s, attractive,
guitar-toting teenagers were posed with surfboards and Perine's classic Thunderbird convertible at local beachside
settings, firmly integrating Fender into the surfin/hot rod/sports car culture of Southern California celebrated by the
Beach Boys, beach movies, and surf music. (The Stratocaster Chronicles, by Tom Wheeler; Hal Leonard Pub.,
Milwaukee, WI; 2004, p.108). This early success is dramatically illustrated by the growth of Fender's manufacturing
capacity [7] through the 1950s and 1960s.

Sale to CBS
In early 1965, Leo Fender sold his companies to the Columbia Broadcasting System, or CBS for $13 million.[8][9]
This was almost two million more than they had paid for The New York Yankees a year before. CBS entered the
musical instruments field by acquiring the Fender companies (Fender Sales, Inc., Fender Electric Instrument
Company, Inc., Fender Acoustic Instrument Company, Inc., Fender-Rhodes, Inc., Terrafen, Inc., Clef-Tronix, Inc.,
Randall Publishing Co., Inc., and V.C. Squier Company), as well as Electro-Music Inc. (Leslie speakers), Rogers
drums, Steinway pianos, Gemeinhardt flutes, Lyon & Healy harps, Rodgers (institutional) organs, and Gulbransen
home organs.
This had far-reaching implications. The sale was taken as a positive development, considering CBS's ability to bring
in money and personnel who acquired a large inventory of Fender parts and unassembled guitars that were
assembled and put to market. However, the sale also led to a reduction of the quality of Fender's guitars while under
the management of "cost-cutting" CBS. Several cosmetic changes occurred after 1965/1966, such as a larger
headstock shape on certain guitars. Bound necks with block shaped position markers were introduced in 1966. A
bolder black headstock logo, as well as a brushed aluminum face plate with blue or red labels (depending the model)
for the guitar and bass amplifiers became standard features, starting in 1968. These cosmetic changes were followed
by a new "tailless" Fender amp decal and a sparkling orange grillcloth on certain amplifiers in the mid-1970s.
Regarding guitars, in mid-1971 the usual four-bolt neck joint was changed to one using only three bolts, and a
second string tree for the two middle (G and D) strings was added in late 1972. These changes were said to have
been made to save money: while it suited the new 'improved' micro-tilt adjustment of the neck (previously requiring
neck removal and shimming), the "Bullet" truss rod system, and a 5-way pickup selector on most models, it also
resulted in a greater propensity toward mechanical failure of the guitars.
During the CBS era, the company did introduce some new instrument and amplifier designs. The Fender Starcaster
was particularly unusual because of its semi-hollow body design, still retaining the Fender bolt-on neck, and a
completely different headstock. The Starcaster also incorporated a new Humbucking pickup designed by Seth Lover.
This pickup also gave rise to 3 new incarnations of the classic Telecaster. Though more recent use by Jonny
Greenwood of Radiohead has raised the Starcaster's profile, CBS-era instruments are generally much less coveted or
collectable than the "pre-CBS" models created by Leo Fender prior to selling the Fender companies to CBS in 1965.
The culmination of the CBS "cost-cutting" may have occurred in 1983, when the Fender Stratocaster received a
short-lived redesign lacking a second tone control and a bare-bones output jack, as well as redesigned single-coil
pickups, active electronics, and three push-push buttons for pickup selection (Elite Series). Additionally, previous
models such as the Swinger (also known as Musiclander) and Custom (also known as Maverick) were perceived by
some musicians as little more than attempts to squeeze profits out of factory stock. The so-called "pre-CBS cult"
refers to the popularity of Fenders made before the sale.
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 109

After selling the Fender company, Leo Fender founded Music Man in 1975, and later founded the G&L Musical
Instruments company, which manufactures electric guitars and basses based on his later designs.

Fender today (2007)

In 1985, in a campaign initiated by then CBS Musical Instruments division president William Schultz (19262006),
the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company employees purchased the company from CBS and renamed
it the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation. Behind the Fender name, the Fender Musical Instruments
Corporation has retained Fender's older models along with newer designs and concepts.
Fender manufactures its highest quality, most expensive guitars at its Corona factory in California and manufactures
a variety of other mid-to-high quality guitars at its Ensenada factory in Baja California, Mexico. Channing Ward is
the lead designer of the 2009 Stratocaster. Fender also contracts Asian guitar builders to manufacture Fender guitars
and the economy priced entry-level Squier guitars. Older vintage and U.S.A. built Fender guitars are generally the
most favoured, but pre-1990 Fender Japan guitars are now highly regarded as well. Fender guitars built in Ensenada,
Mexico now fulfill the primary export role formerly held by Japanese made Fenders. Japanese Fenders are now
manufactured specifically for the Japanese market, with only a small number marked for export.
Squier was a string manufacturer subsequently acquired by Fender. The Squier brand has been used by Fender since
1982 to market inexpensive variants of Fender guitars intended to compete with the rise of Stratocaster copies, as the
Stratocaster was slowly becoming more popular. Squier guitars have been manufactured in Japan, Korea, Mexico,
India, Indonesia, China, and the United States of America. The Squier name adorns many inexpensive guitars based
on Fender designs but with generally cheaper hardware, bridges and electronics.
In recent years, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has branched out into making and selling steel-string
acoustic guitars, and has purchased a number of other instrument firms, including the Guild Guitar Company, the
Sunn Amplifier Company, and other brands such as SWR Sound Corporation. In early 2003, Fender Musical
Instruments Corporation made a deal with Gretsch and began manufacturing and distributing new Gretsch guitars.
Fender also owns: Jackson, Charvel, Olympia, Orpheum, Tacoma Guitars (based in Seattle, WA), Squier and Brand
X amps. The Californian guitar giant has recently purchased Kaman Music Corporation, which owns Ovation
acoustic guitars, LP and Toca hand percussion products, Gibraltar Hardware, Genz Benz Amplification, Hamer
Guitars and is the exclusive U.S. sales representative for Sabian Cymbals and exclusive worldwide distributor of
Takamine Guitars and Gretsch Drums.
In February 2007 Fender announced that it would produce an illustrated product guide in place of its traditional
annual Frontline magazine. This change was made in large part due to the costs associated with paying royalties in
both print and the Internet. With the new illustrated product guide, this removed print issues. The new guide contains
its entire range of instruments and amplifiers along with color pictures and basic specifications. The New Fender
Frontline In-Home will be produced during the year, keeping customers up to date with new products. These will be
available through guitar publications and will be directly mailed to customers who sign up to the Fender website. As
well as these printed formats, Fender Frontline Live was launched at the winter NAMM show in January 2007 as a
new online reference point, containing information on new products and live footage from the show.
Fender is currently owned mainly by the private equity firm of Weston Presidio (43%) and the Japanese distributor
Yamano Music (14%).[10]
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 110

Instruments
The core of its instrument line the Telecaster, Stratocaster, Jaguar, Jazzmaster, Mustang, Precision Bass and Jazz
Bass remains largely unchanged from the 1950s and 1960s originals (Roberts, Jim. 2003. American Basses: A
Illustrated History). The Stratocaster ranges from many editions; Standard, Modern Player, Deluxe, American
Standard, American Deluxe, American Vintage, Classic, Classic Player, Vintage Hot Rod, Blacktop, American
Special, Roadworn, Artist, Fender Select and Pawn Shop. And the Telecaster; American B-Bender, American
Deluxe, American Special, American Standard, American Vintage, Artist, Blacktop, Cabronita, Classic, Classic
Player, Deluxe, Factory Special Run, Fender Select, Limited Anniversary Edition, Modern Player, Roadworn,
Special Edition, Standard, Tele-bration and Vintage Hot Rod.

Electric guitars

Fender Fender Fender Fender Fender Fender

TelecasterTelecaster StratocasterStratocaster JazzmasterJazzmaster JaguarJaguar Jag-StangJag-Stang MustangMustang

Electric basses

Precision Bass Fender Fender Jazz Fender Fender Fender

(1951-1957) single Precision BassJazz Bass Jaguar Bass Mustang
coil pick up BassPrecision BassJaguar VIBass BassMustang
Bass Bass VI Bass

References
[1] http:/ / www. fender. com/
[2] Fender history (http:/ / www. fender. com/ support/ fender_history. php)
[3] CNNMoney article on Fender IPO (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2012/ 03/ 08/ news/ companies/ fender-ipo/ index. htm)
[4] Hennigan, W.J. (March 8, 2012). "Guitar maker Fender files for initial public offering" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ business/ money/
la-fi-mo-fender-ipo-20120308,0,79390. story). Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 2012-03-08.
[5] "Broadcaster Guitar Development" (http:/ / original. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-204192/ Fender-Telecaster). Britannica. 2008. . Retrieved
2008-08-31.
[6] http:/ / myfenderchamp. com/ 2009/ 12/ 06/ transition-fender-champ-c-22845/
[7] http:/ / myfenderchamp. com/ 2010/ 02/ 19/ fender-manufacturing-growth/
[8] "CBS Acquires Guitar Concern. Purchases Fender Co. for $13 Million in Cash Deal" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=F50F1EFF355C147A93C7A9178AD85F418685F9). New York Times. January 5, 1965. . Retrieved 2012-08-23. "The Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc., which entered the sports field by acquiring the New York Yankees, is further diversifying into the guitar and
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation 111

amplifier manufacturing business."

[9] Day, Paul (1979). The Burns Book. pp Publishing. pp.36.
[10] "Fender changes tune on IPO". The Orange County Register. Associated Press: p.Business 3. July 21, 2012.

External links
Fender Musical Instruments official website (http://www.fender.com/)
Leo Fender Exhibit (http://www.ci.fullerton.ca.us/depts/museum/exhibits/leo_fender_exhibit/default.asp),
Permanent exhibit at the Fullerton Museum on the Fender company history in the city
Fender's channel (https://www.youtube.com/user/fendermusical) on YouTube
The Guitar Collection features the following Fender guitars: Coronado 11, Katana and Jag-Stang (http://www.
theguitarcollection.org.uk)
Fender Fatfinger Product Review (http://www.musicianyou.com/articles/fender-fatfinger-product-review)

Music Man (company)

Music Man is an American guitar and bass guitar manufacturer. It is a
division of the Ernie Ball corporation.

Early years
The Music Man story began in 1971 when Forrest White and Tom
Walker talked with Leo Fender about starting a company they would
call Tri-Sonic, Inc. White had worked with Leo in the very early days
of Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company as the plant
manager and stayed on after the company was sold to the CBS
Corporation, but had grown unhappy with their management. Tom
Walker worked as a sales rep at Fender. Because of a 10-year
non-compete clause in the 1965 contract that sold the Fender
companies to CBS, Leo Fender was a silent partner.

The name of this partnership was changed to Musitek, Inc. by 1973

Music Man Stingray in Trans Gold finish, 2001
and in January 1974 the final name, Music Man, appeared. In 1974, the
model
company started producing its first product, an amplifier designed by
Leo Fender and Tom Walker called the "Sixty Five". It was a hybrid of
tube and solid state technology. The preamps used the then burgeoning solid state "op-amp" integrated circuits
embodying traditional Fender preamp time constants and architecture, while the power amps typically featured a
Cathode Driven Tube power amp stage, much as were used in the radio broadcast industry in AM Transmitters.
There were a few models with a tube phase splitter in them, but for the most part Music Man amplifiers used the
faster responding common Grid, Cathode Coupled drive from a solid state front end that players characterized as
"loud as hell". The number of designs rapidly increased. 15 of the 28 pages from 1976 catalogue were dedicated to
amplification. In 1975, Fender's legal restriction had expired and after a vote of the board he was named the
president of Music Man.
This wasn't Fender's sole enterprise however. He also owned and ran a consulting firm called CLF Research
(Clarence Leo Fender) in Fullerton, California. By 1976, it had built a manufacturing facility for musical instruments
and was contracted to make Music Man products. In June 1976, production started on guitars and in August basses
followed. The 1976 catalogue shows the first offerings; A two pickup guitar called the "StingRay 1" and the
StingRay Bass. Both instruments featured bolt on neck designs; the basses featured a distinctive 3+1 tuner
Music Man (company) 112

arrangement that should help eliminate "dead spots" while the guitars came with a traditional, Fender-style
6-on-a-side tuner array. The StingRay Bass featured a single large hum-bucking pickup (located somewhat toward
but not adjacent to the bridge) with a two-band fixed-frequency EQ. A row of string mutes sat on the bridge. Basses
were produced in fretted and fret-less versions.
These instruments were designed by Leo Fender and Forrest White. Sterling Ball assisted in the design of the bass.
Tom Walker played a large part in the design of the bass preamp. They were the first production guitar and basses to
use active electronics which could boost frequencies, whereas traditional electronics could only reduce frequencies.
The preamps were coated with epoxy to prevent reverse engineering. The StingRay Bass sold well. While highly
innovative electronically, the guitar was not blessed cosmetically and met with little success. Part of the reason for
the poor sales of the guitar was that the preamp actually made the sound "too clean" for most Rock and Roll
guitarists, who preferred the slightly distorted sound offered by passive electronics.
In December 1978, a two pickup bass was introduced called the Sabre(discontinued in 1991). A redesigned guitar
bearing the same name followed. Both sold poorly.
CLF Research and Music Man were treated as separate companies, headed by Leo Fender and Tommy Walker,
respectively. Fender made the guitars and basses, while Walker's company made the amplifiers and sold accessories.
The instruments were made at CLF, and shipped to Music Man's warehouse, where each instrument was inspected
and tested. Problems with fibers in the finish caused Music Man's inspectors to reject a high percentage of the
instruments, and return them to CLF for refinishing. Since Music Man didn't pay CLF Research until the instrument
finishes were deemed acceptable, a rift developed between CLF and Music Man over payment.
Low sales stressed the staff. The company's internal conflicts caused Leo Fender to form another partnership. Paul
Bechtoldt author of "G&L: Leo's Legacy" describes the situation:
Leo had decided to market guitars under another name besides Music Man in 10/79 due to tension between
CLF and Music Man. Production of bodies and necks for both Music Man and G&L were concurrent up to
and including March 1981. G&L was incorporated May 1980, although some early models with the moniker
"G&L" have body dates from March 1980.[1]
Other incidents point to a later date for CLF's exit. Sterling Ball, Music Man's current owner, describes the
circumstances and confusion regarding this era on the Ernie Ball website forum:
"Here is the problem...most of these guys are dead so trying to correct the record becomes more and more
difficult. Tommy, Leo, Forrest and quite a few more are no longer with us. I can tell you that Leo was very
disappointed that his stingray and sabre guitars didn't sell and that was the basis for G&L. G&L (GEORGE
AND LEO) was started at CLF behind Music Man's back and coincidence or other CLF made 2,500 Music
man bass necks with straight truss rods. Tommy was forced to go to a young upstart Grover Jackson to make
the basses. Grover was the one who introduced the trans finishes. I often asked Tommy why he didn't sue over
the suspect necks and he replied "My daddy didn't raise me like that".[2]
Still another account varies. In an interview conducted by Gav Townsing [3], George Fullerton offers this scenario,
"At the end of 1979 we stopped building for Music Man and never made another item for them. We really
werent friends at that point and not even talking."[4]
It has been said that Music Man attempted to force Leo Fender into selling the CLF factory, and when he refused ~
Music Man began cutting orders trying to drive Leo into financial despair. In November 1979, Leo had enough of
Music Man's pressure and the ties were cut.
Tom Walker was also having extreme problems with his relationship with Forrest White. At one point, Tommy is
said to have chased Forrest out of the building telling him to never return.
By all accounts it was an acrimonious affair. Sterling Ball makes no mention of the dates these incidents occurred
but many place the date of the 'neck incident' in late 1982. So how were the instruments made during the two years
between the G&L start up and the final CLF blow out? A contract was given to Grover Jackson to build bass bodies
Music Man (company) 113

and assemble the instruments with CLF necks and the remaining CLF hardware. When CLF stopped making necks
Jackson made those also. Oddly, it was Grover Jackson who would provide the headache that would torment Fender
and Gibson in the coming years. His Jackson and Charvel line of guitars seemingly would pop into every guitarist
hands in the 1980s.
Given this climate the StingRay guitar was quietly dropped from the line. The Sabre guitar soldiered on until 1984
but it's doubtful there were problems filling orders. A graphite necked StingRay Bass debuted in 1980. Fender had
been opposed to the idea. The neck was made by Modulus. It was called the Cutlass and the two pickup variant, the
Cutlass II. Neither it, nor the new translucent finishes, were able to turn the financial tide and by 1984 the company
was near bankruptcy. Music Man was in good company as both Fender and Gibson reached the nadir of
mismanagement in the early 1980s. After looking at a few offers Music Man was sold to Ernie Ball on March 7,
1984. Music Man's remaining physical assets were sold on June 1, 1984. The production of amplifiers, which were
manufactured at a separate factory, ceased.

Rebirth
Ernie Ball had started producing a modern acoustic bass guitar in 1972
under the name Earthwood but, despite endorsement by players of the
stature of John Entwistle, the bass was only moderately successful in
terms of sales and production stopped around the mid-1970s. Ball's
partner in this company was George Fullerton. The factory, which Ball
still owned at the time of the Music Man purchase, was located in San
Luis Obispo, California and that is where Music Man started producing
basses in 1985.

Tony Levin playing a Stingray 5 Ernie Ball Music Man improved their visibility in the guitar market
with a succession of new guitar models, largely player-endorsed,
including the Silhouette (1986), Steve Morse Signature (1987), Eddie Van Halen Signature/Axis model (1990),
Albert Lee Signature (1993), Steve Lukather Signature (1993), the John Petrucci 6 & 7-string guitars (1999). They
also introduced a series of new electric bass models, including the StingRay 5 (1987), the Sterling Bass (1993) and
the Bongo Bass (2003) (the futuristic look of which was designed in conjunction with the BMW DesignworksUSA
team). While none of these could compete against Fender or Gibson on sales figures, Music Man outpaced the
competition by making 'players' guitars with quick change pickup assemblies, Teflon coated truss-rods, low noise
pickup designs, piezo bridge pickups, 5 and 6 bolt necks, sculpted neck joints, graphite acrylic resin coated body
cavities and most importantly, consistently high quality fit and finish.
Music Man (company) 114

Recent years
In 1996, Ernie Ball/Music Man began an annual 'Battle of the Bands'
contest to spotlight unsigned talent.
Initially, Music Man concentrated solely on production of its high-end,
US-built instruments, refusing to enter the budget instrument market.
In the late 1990s, the demand for cheaper versions of Music Man
instruments had increased and other companies had begun to exploit
this market-gap by producing replica instruments, built from
inexpensive woods and components in various East-Asian countries.
Music Man responded by licensing its designs to HHI/Davitt &
Hanser, launching OLP (Officially Licensed Products) to give Music
Man market coverage in this price point.
Albert Lee playing his signature model guitar
As a replacement for the overseas line of OLP Music Man instruments
the company developed the 'SUB' line of Guitars [5] & Basses [6] (listed
both online & in print and other media as well as physically on the headstock first as the acronym "S.U.B." for
"Sport Utility Bass" and then as the non-acronym "SUB" due to the fact that two versions of guitars were made
under the "Sport Utility Bass" banner, and that a "S.U.B. Bass" repeated 'Bass' twice). This mid-range line (in which
the typical cost was typically less than 1/2-to-1/3 the price of their "standard" instruments) was launched in 2003 to
prove that a quality instrument without the bells and whistles could be made in the USA. A non-angled "slab" piece
of wood to which a textured paint that didn't call for any polishing was applied, as well as necks with a matte painted
back instead of the "Oil & Wax" finish applied to the higher-end models made up the bulk of the changes between
the lower and higher model lines - quite simply, "Production Hours" were reduced as opposed to the quality of the
wood, hardware, or electronics that allowed the 'SUB' line of guitars & basses to be made at their price-point without
a loss of their trademark quality. The product was a success and helped Music Man when its main price point was in
a slump. Sterling Ball has commented that, due to the quickly growing $1,000+ segment of the guitar industry, there
have been fewer and fewer SUBs in production each year. This line was made at the same plant that makes the
higher priced models, but was discontinued in September 2006. Used 'SUB' guitars & basses are in high demand and
have held their prices even years later on the used instrument market such as eBay and private forums due to their
quality and "Made In The USA" production status. In 1999 Les Paul was quoted as saying, "Music Man is a great
guitar brand."

In 2000 Ernie Ball/Music Man was raided by the copyright lobby group the Business Software Alliance and accused
of having unlicensed software installed at its premises. Following a court settlement, the BSA used Ernie Ball/Music
Man as an example in advertisements and industry publications; Sterling Ball was so offended at this treatment that
he had all Microsoft software removed from Ernie Ball/Music Man ("I don't care if we have to buy 10,000
abacuses,") and imposed an open-source software policy across the company.[7]
In 2001, Sterling Ball decided to institute a living wage at the plant. The entry level wage would be $10.10 per hour.
One third of the then current workforce of 226 people got a raise. He cited the need to attract and retain high quality
employees, and the moral responsibility to provide his employees with a decent income. Fewer than twenty percent
of the residents in San Luis Obispo county can afford to buy a house. He had this to say in a New Times interview
concerning the decision, "It's contrary to a lot of traditional business theories, I know, but I did it because it's the
right thing to do, fundamentally."
Music Man (company) 115

2003 saw the introduction of the radical Music Man Bongo Bass, the
result of a partnership with DesignworksUSA, a design firm better
known for its work with BMW. This bass features a 24-fret rosewood
fingerboard with custom "moon"-shaped inlays and a 4-band active EQ
powered by an 18V supply. It also came with 4 and 5 strings, in fretted,
fret-less and left-handed versions, with the choice of HS
(humbucker/single-coil), HH (dual humbuckers), and H (single
humbucker, the traditional Music Man setup) pickup configurations
and a pickup blend pot for ultimate versatility. These pickup
configurations were adopted on other Music Man models three years
later, using a 5-way pickup selector switch with coil-tap capabilities.
John Myung playing a Music Man Bongo bass
In 2008, Music Man released the Bongo 6, its first six-string bass,
played by Dream Theater's bassist John Myung - the company does not
"endorse" any non-signature model musicians, but Sterling Ball was quoted as saying that "We won't be making any
six-string basses unless a high-profile player asks for one", while Myung was using a variety of 4 & 5-strings to
record several Dream Theater albums until he and the company got together and began working on a prototype,
which was so successful that Myung took it directly on tour with him. In the words of Sterling Ball "We've never 'hit
it out of the ballpark' with a new model so successfully until now!!" The company offers a five-string version of the
Sterling Bass line since January 22.

Music Man has recently introduced the 'Big Al' bass, which is based on
the Albert Lee signature guitar, boasting an 18V-powered 4-band EQ,
active/passive switching, series/parallel pickup wiring and three
single-coil pickups with neodymium magnets as well as a
limited-edition run of 25th Anniversary guitars and basses finished in a
Venetian Red-burst finish, featuring a bound book-matched figured
maple top and mahogany tone block. The 25th Anniversary guitar
sports a chambered basswood body and dual DiMarzio custom
hum-bucking pickups with chrome covers, while the 25th Anniversary
bass (available in 4, 5-string, fretted and fret-less versions) has an ash
body and comes in H, HH (ceramic magnets) and HSS
(ceramic+neodymium magnets) pickup configurations, active/passive
circuitry and an active 4-band EQ with 18V power supply. Other
Steve Lukather playing the Limited Edition
features include a 22-fret select maple neck with rosewood, maple or
"Dargie Delight II" version of his signature model
pau ferro (lined/unlined fret-less) fingerboard and mother of pearl dot guitar
position markers. The 25th Anniversary models were replaced by the
Reflex series, introduced on July 23, 2010.

As of 2010, the 'Big Al' bass came in a 5-string version with the choice of H and SSS pickup configurations. The
Albert Lee signature model comes with two custom-wound DiMarzio hum-bucking pickups and an African
mahogany body.
The JPX, new for 2010, is a sleeker variant of the John Petrucci signature model, released to commemorate 10 years
of collaboration with Dream Theater guitarist John Petrucci. The new body shape has a slightly thinner upper horn
and a more symmetric bridge end profile. The body is also chambered for added acoustic resonance.
Music Man's latest addition was the Bass Player Live Deluxe Classic Collection, which combines the elements of the
first Music Man basses - such as a 2-band EQ, a chrome truss rod wheel, vintage skinny fret-wire and nut, a chrome
plated, hardened steel bridge plate with "Classic" stainless steel saddles and adjustable mute pads, as well as a 7.5"
Music Man (company) 116

radius urethane finished figured maple neck - with modern features such as a 6-bolt neck fixing and graphite acrylic
resin coated body cavity and aluminum control cover. Models include the StingRay, StingRay 5 and Sterling.
In 2009, as a replacement for their 'SUB' line of lower-priced "mid-range" instruments Music Man outsourced a new
Far Eastern-constructed budget brand called Sterling by Music Man.[8] Basses include the RAY34/RAY35 (Music
Man StingRay 4 and 5 string models) and the SB14 (Sterling). Guitars include the AX20 (Axis Super Sport), AX40
(Axis), JP50 (John Petrucci) and the SILO30 (Silhouette). This practice has been performed by many guitar
manufacturers. In 2012 Music Man expanded this line with the "Sterling By Music Man SUB Series" to compete
with other -$300 USD "Beginner" lines of Instruments. They will continue to be produced in Indonesia and other Far
East countries using "non-standard" woods (i.e. not typically thought of as "tone woods") to keep production costs
low.[9]

Notable artists who use Music Man instruments

Bassists
Chris Batten (Enter Shikari)
Nick Beggs
Pino Palladino (Paul Young)
Simon Gallup (The Cure)
John Bentley (Squeeze)
Joe Lally (Fugazi)
Steve Kmak (Disturbed)
John Moyer (Disturbed)
Cliff Hugo (Supertramp, Ray Charles)
Rex Brown (Pantera, Down)
Roger Manganelli (Less Than Jake, Rehasher)
Dave Bronze (Eric Clapton, Barbara Dixon, Robin Trower, Nik Kershaw)
Paul D'Amour (Tool)
Justin Chancellor (Tool)
Greg Christian (Testament)
Tim Commerford (Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave)
Nathan East (Fourplay, Toto, Eric Clapton, Herbie Hancock)
Mike Herrera (MxPx)
Mark Hoppus (Blink-182)
Johnny Christ (Avenged Sevenfold)
John Deacon (Queen)
Kim Deal (Pixies, The Breeders)
Gail Ann Dorsey (David Bowie)
Bernard Edwards (Chic)
Mark King (Level 42)
Flea (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
Jeremy Davis (Paramore)
John Glascock (Jethro Tull)
Tom Hamilton (Aerosmith)
Louis Johnson (The Brothers Johnson)
Dave LaRue (Steve Morse Band, The Dixie Dregs, Bruce Hornsby)
Tony Levin (Alice Cooper, King Crimson, Paul Simon, Peter Gabriel, Liquid Tension Experiment)
Ray Newcomb (Ratt)
Music Man (company) 117

Matt Wong (Reel Big Fish)

John Myung (Dream Theater)
Gord Sinclair (The Tragically Hip)
Robert Trujillo (Metallica, Suicidal Tendencies, Ozzy Osbourne)
Ross Valory (Journey)
Cliff Williams (AC/DC)
Alan Lancaster (Status Quo)
Anders Kjlholm (Volbeat)

Guitarists
Albert Lee
Blues Saraceno
Joe Bonamassa
Stephen Egerton (Descendents)
Steve Lukather (Toto)
Benji Madden (Good Charlotte)
Kim Mitchell (Max Webster), solo
Vinnie Moore (UFO, solo artist)
Steve Morse (Dixie Dregs, Deep Purple, Kansas)
John Petrucci (Dream Theater, Liquid Tension Experiment, solo artist)
Keith Richards (The Rolling Stones, X-pensive Winos)
Ronnie Wood (The Rolling Stones)
Eddie Van Halen (Van Halen)
Randy Owen (Alabama)
Jeff Cook (Alabama)
John Fogerty (Creedence Clearwater Revival)

Amps
Chet Atkins
Eric Clapton
Joe Strummer
Albert Lee
Robbie Robertson
Johnny Winter
Alabama
Jeff Beck
Joan Jett
Mark Knopfler
James Burton
Merle Travis
Waddy Wachtel
Nick Craft
Music Man (company) 118

Music Man Basses

StingRay
Sabre
Cutlass
Cutlass II
StingRay 5
Sterling
Bongo
Big Al
Reflex
Music Man SUB (Discontinued) [6]
Music Man SUB Sterling (Discontinued) [10]

References
[1] Bechtoldt, Paul, G&L: Leo's Legacy, Woof Books
[2] Ball, Sterling (May 11, 2005), "Re. Some "Music Man" History From George Fullerton" (http:/ / www. ernieball. com/ forums/
music-man-basses/ 7512-some-music-man-history-george-fullerton. html#post74974), Ernie Ball Bass Discussion Forum, , retrieved January
13, 2011
[3] http:/ / www. musicmanbass. org
[4] Townsing, Gav (May 11, 2005), "Some "Music Man" History From George Fullerton" (http:/ / www. ernieball. com/ forums/
music-man-basses/ 7512-some-music-man-history-george-fullerton. html#post74948), Ernie Ball Bass Discussion Forum, , retrieved January
13, 2011
[5] http:/ / www. music-man. com/ specs/ instruments_subguitar. html
[6] http:/ / www. music-man. com/ specs/ instruments_sub. html
[7] "Rockin' on without Microsoft" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 2008-1082_3-5065859. html). CNET News. . Retrieved 20 August 2003.
[8] "Welcome to the All New Sterling by Music Man Website" (http:/ / www. sterlingbymusicman. com). . Retrieved 05 July 2012.
[9] "NEW!! SUB Series Basses from Sterling by Music Man" (http:/ / forums. ernieball. com/ music-man-basses/
52112-new-sub-series-basses-sterling-music-man. html). Ernie Ball Forums. 23 January 2012. . Retrieved 5 May 2012.
[10] http:/ / www. music-man. com/ specs/ instruments_substerling. html

External links
MusicMan web site (http://www.music-man.com/)
Example of Vintage MusicMan Stingray Bass Guitar (http://www.howtoslapbass.com/1980-stingray/)
ErnieBall/MusicMan Battle of the Bands site (http://www.battleofthebands.com)
ErnieBall/MusicMan Forums (http://www.ernieball.com/forums)
Dedicated to dating & promotion of Pre-EB and Ernie Ball MusicMan Bass Guitars (http://www.musicmanbass.
org/)
G&L Musical Instruments 119

G&L Musical Instruments

G&L Musical Instruments
Type Private

Industry Musical instruments

Founded 1979

Founder(s) Leo Fender and George Fullerton

Headquarters Fullerton, California, United States of America

Key people Chairman John C. McLaren

Honorary Chairman Phyllis Fender
Plant Manager John C. McLaren Jr.

Parent BBE Sound, Inc.

Website [1]

G&L is a guitar design and production company founded by Leo Fender, George Fullerton, and Dale Hyatt in the
late 1970s[2]. Fender sold his company named Fender in 1965. He designed and produced instruments for Music
Man in the 1970s through his company CLF Research. When relations with Music Man soured, G&L was created to
continue operations outside of Music Man. The G&L name comes from the initials of George (Fullerton) and Leo
(Fender)[3].
G&L instruments are similar to the classic Fenders, but with some modern innovations. They are built at the same
facility on Fender Avenue in Fullerton, California that produced the early Music Man instruments. G&L instruments
are not widely distributed but are highly regarded by many musicians and collectors. The relatively small scale of
production further allows for more custom options than are possible on larger production lines.
After the death of Leo Fender in 1991, Fender's wife, Phyllis Fender, passed the management of G&L to John C.
McLaren of BBE Sound[4]. George Fullerton remained a permanent consultant until his death on July 4 2009,[5] and
Leo's wife Phyllis remains as Honorary Chairman of G&L.
In a print advertisement for G&L, Leo Fender claimed the G&L line of instruments were "the best instruments I have
ever made."[6]

Innovations
Leo Fender and George Fullerton created improved designs over the years, with the
most advanced being featured in G&L instruments.:
The Magnetic Field Design[7] (MFD) pickups use a ceramic bar magnet in
combination with soft iron pole pieces with adjustable height, instead of the
traditional Alnico magnet, and allow a player to set the pickup output per string,
as opposed to the entire pickup as a whole in traditional single-coil pickup
designs. MFDs are known for their distinctive tone, which combines clarity, high
fidelity and power with an airy "sweetness".
The Dual-Fulcrum Vibrato[8] has two pivot points. The design aims to improve
tuning stability, and according to some has a sound that is more mellow than a
Dual-Fulcrum Vibrato
traditional bridge. It allows the player to bend notes up as well as down. See also
Tremolo arm.
G&L Musical Instruments 120

The G&L Saddle-Lock bridge[8] utilizes a small Allen screw on the side of the bridge, to reduce side-to-side
movement of the individual string saddles. The design, and the bridge's beefy dimensions, aim to prevent loss of
sustain due to this sideways motion by locking the saddles together.
The Tilt Neck Mechanism[9] designed and patented by George Fullerton. This feature is no longer used, and was
a carryover from Music Man production.
The Bi-cut neck design[10] involved cutting the neck lengthwise perpendicular to where the fretboard is later
installed, routing a channel for the truss rod, then gluing the two neck pieces back together. As G&L moved
production to CNC machines, this method was phased out.

G&L guitars
G&L produces several distinct models of guitar and bass products, including:

Electric guitars
ASAT Classic[11]: Similar design to the Telecaster; offered as a solid-body instrument as well as a semi-hollow
body instrument.
Bluesboy[12]: Based on the ASAT Classic, but with a Seth Lover humbucker pickup in the neck position and a
modified MFD single coil at the bridge. Designed by Tim Page of Buffalo Bros. with the help of Seymour W.
Duncan for the neck pickup and Tony Petrilla (of G&L) for wiring of the bridge pickup. First introduced as a
special edition in 1999 in both solid body and semi-hollow versions. Became a standard model in 2001.
ASAT Special[13]: named G&L Broadcaster until 1985, when it was renamed ASAT. Sometime later the
"Special" was added. Similar to the ASAT Classic but with two large "soap bar" MFD pickups and a
Saddle-Lock bridge rather than the Telecaster-style bridge found on the Classic.
ASAT Z-3[14]: Similar to the ASAT Classic but with three "Z-Coil" pickups, additional pickup switching options
and a Saddle-Lock bridge.
Broadcaster The Broadcaster, which is the most well known and highly collectible G&L, was the brainchild of
Dale Hyatt. Mr.Hyatt designed and marketed this highly sought after G&L in 1985 as a marketing strategy to
increase sales and distribution. And as mistakenly reported on many websites, the G&L Broadcaster was highly
successful not because of Mr. Leo Fender signing each guitar in the neck pocket, but rather because of the pure
quality of the guitar itself. Mr. Fender only signed one guitar in his entire lifetime, and that priceless,
one-of-a-kind guitar, is owned by Mr. Hyatt. Mr. Fender did sign a dated sticker that went inside the neck pocket
to prove that the guitar was authentic and built by G & L. The name Broadcaster was changed to ASAT (After
Stratocaster After Telecaster) after a production run of one year and 869 guitars. The change was due to a conflict
over the use of the Broadcaster name.
Comanche[15]: Similar design to the Fender Stratocaster but utilizes MFD Z-coil pickups, a Dual Fulcrum vibrato
bridge and additional pickup switch options (super-switch).
F-100[16]: The first guitar produced by G&L. Two small switches controlled a coil splitter and a phase switch
(reversed the phase of one humbucker), allowing additional tone creation abilities.
G-200[17]: Designed by George Fullerton, this is the only G&L guitar to feature a 24-3/4" scale neck (as on most
of Gibson's guitars). Features include two MFD humbuckers, a Saddle-Lock fixed bridge, a unique
wiring/switching design by Leo Fender, an Ebony fingerboard and a mahogany body. Approximately 209 of these
were made.
George Fullerton Signature model[18]: Based on the Legacy. The main differences are the vintage style neck
with a late 50's soft "V" shape rear contour and a treble roll-off for the neck and bridge pickup that Mr. Fullerton
had on his '54 Stratocaster.
Invader[19]: A "super strat" style design; the Invader typically has a humbucker in bridge position; the 2010
model features two dual blade pickups (one at neck and the other in the middle position); there is also a split coil
G&L Musical Instruments 121

function. Some use a Kahler bridge locking vibrato system with a locking nut; Floyd Rose (also with locking nut
system) and the G&L dual fulcrum are also options. The Invader XL has two humbuckers.
Legacy[20]: Similar design to the Stratocaster with design considerations derived from older Stratocaster models
from the 1950s and 1960s, but also newer features such as the G&L Dual Fulcrum vibrato.
Legacy Special[20]: Based on the Legacy, but with blade humbucker pickups.
Legacy Deluxe: A Stratocaster licensed body with bolt on neck. Rear mounted controls and no pickguard.
Standard pickup configuration is a Seymour Duncan TB-4 (An SH4 with different dimensions) and 2 alnico V
single coils).
Rampage[21]: Similar in design to the Stratocaster but with a more narrow waist and a more dramatic "tummy"
relief. Rampages utilize a single humbucker designed by G&L and built by Schaller. The necks are Maple with an
Ebony finger board. Most Rampages use Kahler tremolo systems. Production colors include white, black, yellow
and Rampage Red. Played by Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains, who now has his own signature Rampage.
S-500[22]: Similar design to the Stratocaster and Legacy, but with MFD pickups and additional pickup switch
options. A toggle switch enables the bridge pickup to be "always on" so you can have combinations of the neck
and bridge pickup and all three pickups at once. Also includes G&L Dual Fulcrum vibrato. Offered with optional
Seymour Duncan JB Jr humbucker in bridge position.
Will Ray Signature Model: Based on the ASAT Z-3 with changes to suit Will Ray's style, including overwound
pickups, a B-bender, a different neck profile, and skull-shaped fingerboard position marker inlays designed by
Ray.

G&L Legacy 1993

G&L Musical Instruments 122

Electric basses
All G&L basses feature bolt-on necks and 34 inch scale lengths.

Current models

ASAT Bass[23]: Relatively small bass guitar with a Telecaster style

body shape. Available in both solid-body and semi-hollow versions.
Same electronics as the L-2000. Earlier models have slab bodies.
JB-2 Bass[24]: J style bass guitar with 2 vintage Alnico jazz style
pickups. Swamp ash or alder body.
JB Bass: Similar to Fender's original Jazz Bass design, featuring
traditional pickguard, metal control plate and black bakelite knobs.
L-1500[25]: Active/passive bass with single large MFD humbucker
in bridge position.
L-1505[25]: 5 string adaptation of the L-1500
L-2000[26]: Dual large MFD humbuckers, 4 string bass. Both active
and passive electronics, selected by a switch, along with pickup
switching for a wide range of tones.
L-2500[25]: 5 string adaptation of the L-2000. Earlier versions have
a 4+1 headstock configuration. Most are 3+2.
SB-2 (second-style)[27]: Essentially a second-style SB-1 with an
added MFD single coil pickup at the bridge and a second volume
knob in place of the tone knob.

G&L L-2000 - USA 1997

Discontinued Models
Climax Bass: Active/passive bass with sculpted neck heel area. Single large MFD humbucker in bridge position.
Introduced after G&L was sold to current owners (BBE).
El Toro Bass[28]: Two small MFD humbuckers.
Interceptor Bass[29]: Same as the El Toro but with a different body and headstock design.
L-1000[16]: Passive bass with one large MFD humbucker in front position. Discontinued after sale of G&L to
BBE Sound. Since then, a limited run of about 40 L-1000 basses was completed in 2008, featuring the current
"six bolt" neck attachment.
L-5000[29]: Five string bass with split MFD pickup. Leo Fender's last 5 string bass design to see production.
L-5500[26]: Five string bass with EMG pickups. 4+1 headstock configuration. Introduced after G&L was sold to
current owners (BBE).
LB-100[25]: Also known as the Legacy Bass. A Fender Precision Bass substitute model with alnico pickup.
Introduced after G&L was sold to current owners (BBE).
Lynx Bass[28]: Very similar to the first-style SB-2, but with a contoured body.
SB-1 (first-style)[30]: Single coil MFD pickup in front position. Slab body.
SB-1 (second-style)[27]: Similar to the Precision Bass in form. The MFD split pickup has the same footprint as
split Precision Bass pickups.
SB-2 (first-style)[30]: Two single coil MFD pickups. Slab body.
G&L Musical Instruments 123

Tribute
In 2003, G&L introduced the Tribute series to the US market as a more affordable alternative to the USA built
products. Tribute G&L's were made in Korea by Cort Guitars using mostly foreign-made hardware, though some
original parts were also used on select models. The pickups used are all originally made by G&L in Fullerton,
California. Production of the guitars has since moved to a Cort facility in Indonesia.
Before 2003, for a short time there was production of Tribute guitars in Japan for non-US markets. But when
production in Japan became more expensive and the best Korean manufacturing raised to the same quality level, the
production moved to Korea.
The Tribute series is offered in many of the same body shapes as their original creations. The Tribute SB-2 was
offered briefly but was discontinued, however, it was reintroduced late 2006/early 2007. The JB-2 was introduced to
the Tribute series at the same time.

Tribute Models
Tribute ASAT Classic
Tribute ASAT Classic Lefty
Tribute ASAT Classic Semi-Hollow
Tribute ASAT Classic Bluesboy Semi-Hollow
Tribute ASAT HB
Tribute ASAT Deluxe
Tribute ASAT Special
Tribute ASAT Special Semi-Hollow
Tribute ASAT Special Deluxe Carved Top
Tribute Comanche
Tribute Legacy
Tribute Legacy Lefty
Tribute Legacy HB
Tribute Rampage Jerry Cantrell Signature Model
Tribute S-500
Tribute Will Ray Signature Model

Notable users
Tom Hamilton (Aerosmith)
Ben Gibbard
Jerry Cantrell
Gustavo Cerati
Jake Cinninger
Niclas Etelvuori (Amorphis)
Peter Frampton
Tom Gabel
Carl Perkins
Liam Wilson
Jack Pearson
Francis Rossi
Glen Campbell
Ryan Montbleau
G&L Musical Instruments 124

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. glguitars. com/
[2] Fullerton 1993, p.97-98
[3] Fullerton 2005, p.53
[4] Fullerton 2005, p.65
[5] Lewis, Randy (July 8, 2009). "George Fullerton dies at 86; musician helped Leo Fender create his unique guitars" (http:/ / www. latimes.
com/ news/ obituaries/ la-me-george-fullerton8-2009jul08,0,5638626. story). Los Angeles Times. .
[6] Fullerton 2005, p.190
[7] Fullerton 2005, p.151
[8] Fullerton 2005, p.152
[9] http:/ / www. vintageguitar. com/ features/ artists/ details. asp?AID=3543
[10] Fullerton 2005, p.153
[11] Fullerton 2005, p.129
[12] Fullerton 2005, p.147
[13] Fullerton 2005, p.130
[14] Fullerton 2005, p.132
[15] Fullerton 2005, p.111,136
[16] Fullerton 2005, p.106
[17] Fullerton 2005, p.107
[18] Fullerton 2005, p.136
[19] Fullerton 2005, p.121
[20] Fullerton 2005, p.134
[21] Fullerton 2005, p.120
[22] Fullerton 2005, p.109-111, 134
[23] Fullerton 2005, p.126, 139
[24] Fullerton 2005, p.149
[25] Fullerton 2005, p.140
[26] Fullerton 2005, p.139
[27] Fullerton 2005, p.142
[28] Fullerton 2005, p.125
[29] Fullerton 2005, p.126
[30] Fullerton 2005, p.124

References
Fullerton, George (1993). Guitar Legends, The evolution of the Guitar from Fender to G&L. Fullerton:
CENTERSTREAM Publishing. ISBN0-931759-69-2.
Fullerton, George (2005). George & Leo, How Leo Fender and I Built G&L Guitars. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard.
ISBN0-634-06922-5.

External links
Official G&L Guitars website (http://www.glguitars.com)
G&L guitar registry (http://www.guitarsbyleo.com/AUTOREG/autoreg.php3)
 125

The bass guitar parts

Solid body
A solid-body instrument is a string instrument such as a guitar, bass or violin built without its normal sound box and
relying on an electric pickup system to directly receive the vibrations of the strings.
Solid-body instruments are preferred in situations where acoustic feedback may otherwise be a problem and are
inherently both less expensive to build and more rugged than acoustic electric instruments.
The most well-known solid body instruments are the electric guitar and electric bass. These instruments were
instrumental in creating new genres of music such as rock and metal. Common materials used in the construction of
solid body instruments are alder, maple, mahogany, korina, spruce, rosewood, and ebony. Some woods are used
more in constructing certain solid bodies more than others. For instance, mahogany, maple, alder, spruce, and
rosewood are commonly used in constructing the parts of electric guitars and bass guitars.
Solid body instruments have some of the same features as acoustic string instruments. Like a typical string
instrument they have a tuner and a bridge and a fingerboard (or fretboard). Fretboards are a piece of wood that run
from top of the neck to the body. Atop the fretboard are the strings. Some fingerboards have frets or bars which the
strings are pressed against. This allows musicians to stop the string in the same place. Ebony, rosewood and maple
are commonly used to make the fingerboard. All the solid bodies have variations in scale length or, the length of the
strings from the nut to the bridge. The action, or the height of the strings from the fingerboard, is adjustable on solid
body instruments. Most solid bodies have a form of equalization controls such as a preamp, volume and tone
controls. Some might also contain frequency adjustments such as low, middle, and high. These are used to shape the
sound along with the aid of amplifier. Amplifiers allow solid body instruments to be heard at medium to high
volumes.

Instruments
Solid-body instruments
Some electric guitars
Most bass guitars
Electric upright bass
A few electric mandolins
Most electric violins
Most electric sitars
Most electric violas
Electric cello
Solid-body instruments do not include:
Semi-acoustic instruments.
Electric pianos, even those with strings such as the electric grand piano.
Pedal steel guitar.
Electric lap steel guitars without sounding boards are considered to be solid-body instruments by some authorities,
and not by others. This has a major effect on some claims of historical priority, as they predate the first models of
solid-body electric guitar, which may otherwise be claimed to be the first commercially successful solid-body
instruments. While noting this, it will be assumed that electric lap steels without sounding boards are solid-body
Solid body 126

instruments for the purposes of this article.

History

Early prototypes
A solid-body electric violin was proposed by Thomas Edison.

Commercial models
The first commercially successful solid-body instrument was the
Rickenbacker frying pan lap steel guitar, produced from 1931 to 1939.
The first commercially successful solid-body electric guitar was the
Fender Telecaster (The early Telecaster models had no model name on
the head stock and are now referred to as 'No Casters") in 1950. It was
followed by the Gibson Les Paul in 1952.

Impact on musical styles

Solid-body instruments have particularly influenced heavy rock and
surf music. Without solid-body guitars, neither of these genres could
have developed as they did.

Additional history
Solid Body Electric Guitars
The solid body electric guitar is one of the most well-known solid body
Sketch of Rickenbacker "frying pan" lap steel
instruments. Instrumental in rock, metal, blues, and country music, the
guitar from 1934 patent application
electric guitar has been responsible for creating various sounds.

There are some common characteristics of solid body electric guitars. They typically have six strings although there
are some seven string and eight string models. Most have at least a tone and volume control. If they have more than
one guitar pickup they have a switch that allows them to switch between the different pickups. There are various
types of pickups that can be outfitted to a guitar. They can have single-coils, a P-90, or a humbucker. These pickups
can be either passive or active (require batteries).
Sometimes guitars are outfitted with pickguards which prevent the guitar from being scratched with a pick (a small
device you use for strumming guitar).
The early beginnings of the solid body electric guitar are confusing. Les Paul, a guitarist, invented the first
solidbody, but Fender was the first to commercially market a solid body electric guitar. In the 1940s, Les Paul
created a guitar called the Log, which came from the 4 by 4 solid block of pine which the guitarist had inserted
between the sawed halves of the body that hed just dismembered. He then carefully re-joined the neck to the pine
log, using some metal brackets. [1] He then put some pickups that he designed on it. He soon went to companies
asking if they would buy his guitar. They turned him down. However, after the Fender Telecaster electric guitar
became popular, the Gibson company contacted him and had him endorse a model named after him, The Les Paul
guitar. It came out in 1952.
While Les Paul was looking for a manufacture for his log, Leo Fender was working on the Fender Telecaster. It
came out in 1950. The telecaster had a basic, single-cutaway solid slab of ash for a body and separate screwed-on
maple neck was geared to mass production. It had a slanted pickup mounted into a steel bridge-plate carrying three
Solid body 127

adjustable bridge-saddles. [2] Its color was blond. It is considered the worlds first commercially marketed
solidbody electric guitar. .[3] The Telecaster continues to be manufactured today.
The follow-up to the Fender Telecaster, the Stratocaster, came out in 1954. It had three pickups instead of two. It had
a tremolo bar on the bridge. This allowed players to bend notes. The contoured body with its beveled corners
reduced the chafing on the players body. [4] It also had cutaway above and below the fretboard to allow players
easy access to the top frets.
In 1958, Gibson introduced the Explorer and the Flying V. only about 100 of the Explorer were produced. Very
few of the Flying V were produced also. Both were discontinued shortly after. The Flying V did manage to find a
few followers and Gibson reintroduced the guitar in 1967. The Explorer was also reintroduced in the mid-1970s.
Both guitars are still in production today.
In 1961, Gibson discontinued the Les Paul model and replaced it with a new design. The result was the SG (Solid
Guitar). It weighed less and was less dense than the Les Paul. It had double cutaways to allow easier access to the
top frets. Eventually the Les Paul came back into production in 1968 because Blues and Hard Rock guitarists liked
the sound of the Les Pauls. The SG and the Les Paul are still in production today.
Fender and Gibson went on to make more well-known models. Gibson made the Melody Maker and the Firebird.
Fender later created the Jazzmaster, and Jaguar.
Many of the designs that Gibson and Fender both created provide the basis for many guitars made by various
manufacturers today.
Solid Body Electric Bass
A typical solid body bass guitar has specific characteristics. It consists of four strings (some have been made with
more), a 34 scale neck, at least one pickup, sometimes a pickguard, frets, and a bridge. It also has a volume and tone
control. Some solid body basses have a 3 band equalizer to stabilize the low frequency of the bass. Woods typically
used to make the body of the bass are alder, maple, or mahogany. Rosewood or ebony are used for to make the
fingerboard. The pickups are of the same style as guitar except they are designed for basses.
The double bass guitar was very heavy and not as easy to carry as other string instruments. Paul Tutmarc built an
electronic bass that was played the same way as a guitar. This bass was called the Audiovox Model 736 Electronic
Bass. About 100 Audiovox 736 basses were made, and their distribution was apparently limited to the Seattle area.
[5]
The idea did not catch on and the company folded.
Later in the late-1940s when dance bands downsized [6] guitar players who lost their positions playing guitar were
told they could play double bass. However, they did not want to take the time to learn upright technique. They
needed a bass they could play like a guitar-a fretted bass.[7] Leo Fender heard these criticisms and took his telecaster
model and adopted it to a bass guitar. The result was the Fender Precision Bass. It consisted of an ash bolt-on maple
neck. The scale for the bass was 34. It also had cutaways for better balance. [8] Now guitarists could double on
bass, and the bass player of the band would not have to carry around a huge upright bass. It entered the market in
1951.
Fenders second bass model, the Jazz Bass, was introduced in 1959. It had a slimmer neck at the nut, a different two
pickup combination, and an offset body shape. While it did not become extremely popular among jazz players, it was
well received in rock music.
Many companies today produced models based on the body shapes first started by Fender.
Gibson created the Gibson Electric Bass to be introduced in the 1953. The scale, 30 was shorter than the Fender
basses. Its body was designed to look like a violin. It had a single pickup. It also had an endpin which allowed the
bass player to play it vertically. In 1959 Gibson created the EB-0 which was designed to compliment the Les Paul
Junior. In 1961 it was redesigned to match the SG guitar and called the EB-3.
Gibson also created the Thunderbird in 1963, which complimented the Firebird. It had the 34 scale for the neck.
This was the same scale as the Fender basses.
Solid body 128

Other companies have created designs that are different from the Fender and Gibson models.
Solid Body Electric Mandolins
Electric Mandolins are similar to electric violins because they traditionally have one pickup. Some manufacturers
produce electric violins because they also have a single pickup.
Epiphone currently produces and electric mandolin called the Mandobird IV and VIII. IV and VIII standing for four
and eight strings respectively.[9][10]
They usually have a bolt on neck and a rosewood inlay. Both Mandobird models have a single coil pickup.
Solid Body Electric Violin
The solid body violin is different from the traditional violin because it does not have a hollow body and has a Piezo
Pickup with Passive Volume and Tone Controls. [11] These features allow it to be amplified. The body is made out
of wood, usually maple. The fingerboard is made out of ebony. The top of the violin might be made out of flame
maple or solid spruce. The body of the electric violin compared to an acoustic violin has cutaways that allow for
weight reduction and a not as heavy body. This is also known as a cutaway
Solid Body Electric Sitar
While a regular sitar has 21, 22, or 23 strings an Electric sitar is designed similar to a guitar. It first appeared in 1967
when Vinnie Bell invented the Coral electric sitar, a small six-string guitar-like instrument producing a twangy
sound that reminded people of its Indian namesake. [12] It is played like a regular guitar. An electric sitars
electronics consist of Three pickups with individual volume and tone controls are standard, including one pickup
over the sympathetic strings. The bridge of the electric sitar is creates the sound of a sitar. Like electric guitars,
made by Fender especially, the neck of a sitar is usually made of bolt-on, hard maple wood with an optional
mini-harp. The sitar also has 13 drone strings to located above the six strings that reach from the fretboard to the
bridge.
Solid Body Electric Viola
Electric Violas are designed similar to electric violins. They usually have the same features.
Solid Body Electric Cello
Electric Cellos are similar to regular cellos, but they have a smaller body. Some electric cellos have no body
branching out from the middle where the strings are. Some electric cellos have the out line of the traditional body
around middle creating the feel of a traditional cello. It is played like a traditional cello.
The electric cello contains a volume control. Some have eq controls also. The fingerboard is made out of ebony. A
piezo pickup is mounted at the bridge for amplification.
The body can be made out of alder.

References
[1] Dave Hunter, Lee Hodgson, Pete Madsen, Barrie Cadogan, Paul Balmer, Totally Interactive Guitar Bible: Guitar Facts: The Essential
Reference Guide, (San Diego: Thunder Bay Press), 37.
[2] Tony Bacon, Paul Day, The Fender Book: A Complete History of Fender Electric Guitars (San Francisco: Miller Freeman Books, 1998), 18
[3] Ibid, 18
[4] Andre Millard, The Electric Guitar: The Complete History of an American Icon, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 94.
[5] Jim Roberts, How the Fender Bass Changed The World (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2001), 29.
[6] Ibid, 31
[7] Ibid, 31.
[8] Ibid, 33
[9] "Epiphone Mandobird-IV" (http:/ / www. epiphone. com/ Products/ Bluegrass/ Mandobird-IV. aspx). Epiphone.com. .
[10] "Epiphone Mandobird-VIII" (http:/ / www. epiphone. com/ Products/ Bluegrass/ Mandobird-VIII. aspx). Epiphone.com. . Retrieved 23
February 2012.
[11] Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, "FV3 Deluxe Violin Specificiations," Fender Musical Instruments Corporation,http:/ / www.
fender. com/ products/ view_specs. php?full_partno=0950030& name=FV3+ Deluxe+ Violin (accessed November 20, 2009).
Solid body 129

[12] Joe Bennett, Trevor Curwen, Cliff Douse, Douglas J., Noble, Richard Riley, Tony Skinner, Harry Wylie, The Complete Guitar Player (Old
Saybrook: Konecky & Konecky, 2004), 110.

External links
Pickups for acoustic guitar, sitar, sarod and surbahar (http://www.tav.net/audio/pickups/index.htm).
The History of the Electric Solid Body Guitar (http://www.history-of-rock.com/guitarstwo.htm).
From Frying Pan to Flying V: The Rise of the Electric Guitar (http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/
electricguitar/index.htm) at the Smithsonian Institution's Lemelson Center site.
The Les Paul Story (http://www.gibson.com/products/gibson/Stories/LesPaul.html) at the Gibson Guitar
Corporation site.

Sound box
A sound box or sounding box (sometimes written soundbox) is an open chamber in the body of a musical
instrument which modifies the sound of the instrument, and helps transfer that sound to the surrounding air. Objects
respond more strongly to vibrations at certain frequencies, known as resonances. The chamber's own resonances
supply the reinforcement, and so the tone quality and resonances of the instrument are altered as a whole wherever
the chamber's resonances mismatch the chamberless instrument's. The sound box typically adds resonances at lower
frequencies, enhancing the lower-frequency response of the instrument.
The distinctive sound of an instrument with a sound box owes a lot to the alteration made to the tone. A sound box is
found in most string instruments.[1] The most notable exceptions are some electrically amplified instruments like the
solid body electric guitar or the electric violin, and the piano which uses only a sound board instead. Drumhead lutes
such as the banjo or erhu have at least one open end of the sound box covered with animal skin (or a skin-like acrylic
material). Open back banjos are normally used for clawhammer and frailing, while those used for bluegrass have the
back covered with a resonator.
In some arrangements, loudspeakers also are mounted on a sound box to enhance their output, particularly bass
speakers. One notable example of this arrangement is called the bass reflex enclosure. However, in these cases the
box resonance is carefully tuned so as to make the sound more equal across frequencies, rather than to impart a
particular character to the reinforced sound.

References
[1] Medieval and Tudor string instruments (http:/ / www. trouvere. co. uk/ String instruments. htm)
Bridge (instrument) 130

Bridge (instrument)
A bridge is a device for supporting the strings on a stringed instrument
and transmitting the vibration of those strings to some other structural
component of the instrument in order to transfer the sound to the
surrounding air.

Explanation
Most stringed instruments produce their sound through the application
of energy to the strings, which sets them into vibratory motion. The
strings alone, however, produce only a faint sound because they
displace only a small volume of air as they vibrate. Consequently, the
sound of the strings alone requires impedance matching to the
surrounding air by transmitting their vibrations to a larger surface area
capable of displacing larger volumes of air (and thus producing louder
sounds). This calls for an arrangement that allows for the strings to
vibrate freely, but also conducts those vibrations efficiently to the
larger surface. A bridge is the customary means by which this is
accomplished. On a cello, the strings are attached to the tailpiece
and are held above the soundboard by the bridge.

Positioning
Typically, the bridge is placed perpendicular to the strings and larger surface (which are roughly parallel to one
another) with the tension of the strings pressing down on the bridge and thus on the larger surface beneath it. That
larger, more acoustically responsive surface may be coupled to a sound chamber an enclosure such as the body of
a guitar or violin that assists in sound amplification. Depending on the type of stringed instrument, the resonant
surface the bridge rests on may be made of wood, as the top plate of a guitar or violin; of calfskin or plastic, as the
head of a banjo; of metal, as on certain types of resophonic fretted instruments; or of virtually any material that
vibrates sympathetically with the strings.

Construction
Bridges may consist of a single piece of material, most commonly
wood, that fits between the strings and the resonant surface.
Alternatively, a bridge may consist of multiple parts. One common
form is a bridge that incorporates a separate bearing surface on which
the strings rest, termed a saddle. This is often of a material harder than
the bridge itself, such as bone, ivory, high-density plastic, or metal. A A violin bridge blank and a finished bridge.

classical guitar uses a saddle which sits loosely in the hardwood bridge
and is kept there by string tension. The saddle has shallow grooves in it, at least for the treble strings, to prevent them
moving around during hard playing.

Yet another type of multipart bridge is common on instruments whose sound plate is curved rather than flat.
Instruments of this type, such as arch-top guitars and mandolins, often have a bridge comprising a base and a
separate saddle that can be adjusted for height. On classical and flat-top guitars the bridge is glued to the top. Where
it held on to the top by string tension, as in archtop guitars, it is known as a floating bridge, and requires a separate
Bridge (instrument) 131

tailpiece.

Operation
The bridge must transfer vibration to the sound board or other
amplifying surface. As the strings are set in motion, it does this by
bending to and fro along the string direction at twice the rate of the
string vibration. This causes the sounding board to vibrate at the same
frequency as the string producing a wave-like motion and an audible
sound.

Bridges are designed to hold the strings at a suitable height above the
fingerboard of the instrument. The ideal bridge height is one that A guitar's bridge holds its strings fast to the
creates sufficient angularity in the string to create enough down force instrument; its saddle (white) raises them above
to drive the top but places the strings sufficiently close to the the bridge and conveys their vibrations to the
bridge. The black fasteners are called string pegs.
fingerboard to make noting the strings easy. Bridge height may be
All are "loose" - held in place only by string
fixed or alterable. tension.
In addition to supporting the strings and transmitting their vibrations,
the bridge also controls the spacing of the strings from one another. This is accomplished by shallow grooves cut in
the bridge or its saddle. The strings sit in those grooves and thus are held in their proper lateral position. The nut,
situated at the opposite end of the instrument from the bridge or tailpiece (typically where the head holding the
tuning pegs joins the fingerboard), serves a similar string-spacing function at the strings' other end.

Electric guitar bridges

Bridges for electric guitars can be divided into two main groups, "tremolo" and "non-tremolo" (also called hard-tail).
Tremolo bridges have an arm (called the tremolo or whammy bar) that extends from below the string anchoring
point. It acts as a lever that the player can push or pull to change the strings tension and, as a result, the pitch. This
means that this type of bridge produces a vibrato rather than tremolo, but the term is deeply entrenched in popular
usage. Non-tremolo bridges supply an anchoring point for the strings but provide no active control over string
tension or pitch. A small group of tremolo bridges has an extended tail (also called longtail). These guitars have
more reverb in their sound, because of the string resonance behind the bridge. The Fender Jaguar is a famous
example of such a guitar.
All bridges have advantages, depending on the playing style, but, in general, a non-tremolo bridge is thought to
provide better tuning stability and a solid contact between the guitar body and the strings.
Bridge (instrument) 132

Tremolo bridges
Generally, the more contact the bridge has with the body (i.e. the lower
the position), the better the sound transfer will be into the body. A
warmer sound with increased sustain is the result.
Tremolo bridges usually need to be suspended in some way, which
reduces contact. Most tremolo designs today use a group of springs in
the guitar body, which oppose the tension of the strings. Some players
feel that the vibration of the springs affects resonance in a way that
makes the guitar sound better; others disagree. Naturally, it all depends
on personal preference and the musical style of the individual player.
A licenced Kahler tremolo system on a '87
Since many playing styles make use of a tremolo obligatory, most Gibson Les Paul Standard

solid-body guitars today are manufactured with one of two kinds of

tremolos:

Non-Locking Tremolo

Non-locking (or vintage) tremolos are the bridges found on all guitars manufactured prior to the advent of the Floyd
Rose locking tremolo in the late 1970s and many (typically cheaper) guitars manufactured thereafter. For many
playing styles, vintage tremolos are a good choice because they are easy to use and maintain and have very few
parts. Some people feel that they can also provide a better degree of sound transfer, especially with tailpiece type
tremolos such as the Bigsby. However, "Synchronized Tremolo" type found on the Fender Stratocaster is balanced
against a set of screws in much the same manner as a locking tremolo and offers little improvement in the way of
sounds transfer. Given that this type of tremolo is installed on solid body guitars the degree to which sound transfer
affects the sound that the instrument produces is minimal. Also, keeping a guitar with a non-locking tremolo in tune
can be difficult. The most common types of non-locking tremolos are the "Synchronized Tremolo" type and an
almost endless stream of copies. The Bigsby vibrato tailpiece is another option, although that type has largely fallen
out of favour.

Locking Tremolo
Another type of tremolo is the locking tremolo. These bridges have a sort of vise in each saddle which clamps the
string into place (usually with an Allen key). The end of the string has a clamp, which holds the string in place,
stopping it from slipping. This is especially useful for songs that require tapping or heavy/hard playing styles. Once
set up for tuning stability, locking tremolos are very good. However, their fulcrum points offer extremely minute
contact with the body, which may disturb sound transfer.
Bridge (instrument) 133

Non-Tremolo bridges
It is generally thought that non-tremolo bridges offer
better transfer of string vibration into the body. This is
due to direct contact of the bridge to the guitar's body.
These bridges are bolted directly to the guitar body and,
assuming good quality, limit longitudinal string
movement completely. Therefore tuning stability is
assured.
The improved transfer of string vibration into the body
has an effect on the sound, so guitars with this type of
bridge have different characteristics than those with
tremolos even when it is removed. There are no springs
Badass Bridge on a Martin EB18 Bass guitar [1]
in the body or a cavity to accommodate them, which
also affects resonanc e.

References
A.B.Wood (Admiralty Research Laboratory), A Textbook of Sound, Publ Bell, 3rd ed. 1955. No ISBN found.

External links
violinbridges.co.uk -- Online bridge archive [2]

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ C. F. _Martin_& _Company
[2] http:/ / www. violinbridges. co. uk
Pickup (music technology) 134

Pickup (music technology)

A pickup device is a transducer that captures mechanical vibrations,
usually from suitably equipped stringed instruments such as the electric
guitar, electric bass guitar, Chapman Stick, or electric violin, and
converts them to an electrical signal that is amplified, recorded, or
broadcast.

Magnetic pickups
A magnetic pickup consists of a permanent magnet with a core of Three magnetic pickups on a Peavey Raptor with
material such as alnico or ceramic, wrapped with a coil of several the pickup configuration of a fat-strat (H-S-S).
thousand turns of fine enameled copper wire. The pickup is most often The bridge (right) pickup is a humbucker and the
neck (left) and middle pickups are single coils.
mounted on the body of the instrument, but can be attached to the
bridge, neck and/or pickguard, as on many electro-acoustic archtop
jazz guitars and string basses. The vibration of the nearby soft-magnetic strings modulates the magnetic flux linking
the coil, thereby inducing an alternating current through the coil of wire. This signal is then carried to amplification
or recording equipment via a cable. There may also be an internal preamplifier stage between the pickup and cable.
More generally, the pickup operation can be described using the concept of a magnetic circuit, in which the motion
of the string varies the magnetic reluctance in the circuit created by the permanent magnet.

Output
The output voltage of magnetic pickups varies between 100 mV rms to over 1 V rms for some of the higher output
types. A hard strum on all 6 guitar strings can produce a larger output voltage swing, typically peak voltages of +/- 5
volts for single coil pickups and +/- 10 volt peaks on dual coil pickups. Some high-output pickups achieve this by
employing very strong magnets, thus creating more flux and thereby more output. This can be detrimental to the
final sound because the magnet's pull on the strings can cause problems with intonation as well as damp the strings
and reduce sustain. Other high-output pickups have more turns of wire to increase the voltage generated by the
string's movement. However, this also increases the pickup's output resistance/impedance, which can affect high
frequencies if the pickup is not isolated by a buffer amplifier or a DI unit.

Pickup sound
The turns of wire in proximity to each other have an equivalent
self-capacitance that, when added to any cable capacitance present,
resonates with the inductance of the winding. This resonance can
accentuate certain frequencies, giving the pickup a characteristic tonal
quality. The more turns of wire in the winding, the higher the output
voltage but the lower this resonance frequency. The inductive source
Single coil pickups, Fender Stratocaster (1963)
impedance inherent in this type of transducer makes it less linear than
other forms of pickups, such as piezo-electric or optical. The tonal
quality produced by this nonlinearity is, however, subject to taste, and some guitarists and luthiers consider it
aesthetically superior to a more linear transducer.

The external load usually consists of resistance (the volume and tone potentiometer in the guitar, and any resistance
to ground at the amplifier input) and capacitance between the hot lead and shield in the guitar cable. The electric
cable also has a capacitance, which can be a significant portion of the overall system capacitance. This arrangement
Pickup (music technology) 135

of passive components forms a resistively-damped second-order low-pass filter. Pickups are usually designed to feed
a high input impedance, typically a megohm or more, and a low impedance load reduces the high-frequency
response of the pickup because of the filtering effect of the inductance.

Humbuckers
Classic single coil pickups (in contrast to modern, noiseless single coil
designs) also act like an antenna and are prone to pick up mains hum
(nuisance electromagnetic interference generated by electrical power
cables, power transformers, and fluorescent light ballasts in the area)
along with the musical signal. Mains hum consists of a fundamental
signal at a nominal 50 or 60Hz, depending on local alternating current
frequency, and usually some harmonic content. The changing magnetic
flux caused by the mains current links with the windings of the pickup,
inducing a voltage by transformer action. The pickups also are
PRS's Dragon humbucker
sensitive to the electromagnetic field from nearby cathode ray tubes in
video monitors or televisions.

To overcome this effect, the humbucking pickup was invented by Joseph Raymond "Ray" Butts, but Seth Lover of
Gibson was also working on one himself. Ray Butts initially developed one on his own and later worked with
Gretsch.[1] Who developed it first is a matter of some debate, but Ray Butts was awarded the first patent (U.S. Patent
2892371 [2]) and Seth Lover came next (U.S. Patent 2896491 [3]). Ultimately, both men developed essentially the
same concept, but Ray Butts was never recognized as the one who produced it first.
A humbucking pickup, shown in the image on the right, is composed of two coils. Each coil is wound reverse to one
another. However, the six magnetic poles are opposite in polarity in each winding. Since ambient hum from
power-supply transformers, radio frequencies, or electrical devices reaches the coils as common-mode noise, it
induces an electrical current of equal magnitude in each coil. Because the windings are reversed in each pickup coil,
the electro-magnetic interference sine wave signals in each pickup are equal and in antiphase, resulting in them
canceling each other. However, the signal from the guitar string is doubled, due to the phase reversal caused by the
out of phase magnets. The magnets being out of phase in conjunction with the coil windings being out of phase put
the guitar string signal from each pickup in phase with one another. Therefore, the voltage of the signal is
approximately doubled, if the two coils are connected in series.
When wired in series, as is most common, the overall inductance of the pickup is increased, which lowers its
resonance frequency and attenuates the higher frequencies, giving a less trebly tone (i.e., "fatter") than either of the
two component single-coil pickups would give alone. Because the two coils are wired in series, the resulting signal
that is output by the pickup is larger in amplitude, thus more able to overdrive the early stages of the amplifier.
An alternative wiring places the coils in buck parallel. The equal common-mode mains hum interference cancels,
while the string variation signal sums. This method has a more neutral effect on resonant frequency: mutual
capacitance is doubled (which if inductance were constant would lower the resonant frequency), and inductance is
halved (which would raise the resonant frequency without the capacitance change). The net is no change in resonant
frequency. This pickup wiring is rare,[4] as guitarists have come to expect that humbucking 'has a sound', and is not
neutral. On fine jazz guitars, the parallel wiring produces significantly cleaner sound,[4] as the lowered source
impedance drives capacitive cable with lower high frequency attenuation.
A side-by-side humbucking pickup senses a wider section of the string (has a wider aperture) than a single-coil
pickup. This affects tone.[5] By picking up a larger portion of the vibrating string more lower harmonics are present
in the signal produced by the pickup in relation to high harmonics, resulting in a "fatter" tone. Humbucking pickups
in the narrow form factor of a single coil, designed to replace single-coil pickups, have the narrower aperture
Pickup (music technology) 136

resembling that of a single coil pickup. Some models of these single-coil-replacement humbuckers produce more
authentic resemblances to classic single coil tones than full-size humbucking pickups of a similar inductance, which
shows that the amount of high-frequency rolloff due to coil inductance is not the only factor in that sound.

Construction
Pickups have magnetic polepieces (with the notable exceptions of rail
and lipstick tube pickupsone or two for each string). These polepiece
centers should perfectly align with the strings, or sound is suboptimal
as the pickup would capture only a part of the string's vibrational
energy. An exception to this rule are the J- and P-style pickups (found
on the Fender Jazz Bass and Precision Bass, respectively) where the
two polepieces per string are positioned on either side of each string.
Split pole pickups, Fender Jazz Bass
String spacing is not even on most guitars: it starts with minimal
spacing at nut and ends with maximal at bridge. Thus, bridge, neck and middle pickups usually have different
polepiece spacing on the same guitar.
There are several standards on pickup sizes and string spacing between the poles. Spacing is measured either as a
distance between 1st to 6th polepieces' centers (this is also called "E-to-E" spacing), or as a distance between
adjacent polepieces' centers.

1st-to-6th Adjacent

Standard spacing 1.90" 0.380"

(Vintage Gibson guitars) 48mm 9.6mm

F-spacing 2.01" 0.402"

(Most Fender guitars, modern Gibson, Floyd Rose bridges) 51mm 10.2mm

Very close to bridge, extra pickup 2.060" 0.412"

(Roland guitar synth hex pickups) 52.3mm 10.5mm

Telecaster spacing 2.165" 0.433"

(Fender Telecaster guitars) 55mm 11mm

Steinberger Spirit GT-Pro spacing 2.362" 0.3937"

(may be typical for other Steinberger guitars) 60mm 10mm

Notation
Usually an electric guitar has more than one magnetic pickup. A combination of pickups is called a pickup
configuration. It is usually notated by just writing out the pickup types, using "S" for single-coil and "H" for
humbucker, in order from bridge pickup to neck pickup. Popular pickup configurations include:

S-S (Fender Telecaster) S-S-S (Fender Stratocaster) H-H (Gibson Les Paul, H-S-S (Superstrats like
Fender Double Fat Fender HM Strat,
Stratocaster, Telecaster Peavey Raptor EXP,
DX) Peavey Destiny)
Pickup (music technology) 137

H-S-H (Superstrats)

Less frequently found configurations are:

S (Fender Esquire, early Gibson Les Paul Juniors, Gibson Melody Maker, some Telecasters)
H (some hollow body guitars like Gibson ES-165 Herb Ellis; minimalistic rock/metal guitars like Kramer Baretta;
later Les Paul Juniors)
H-S (minimalistic guitars like Hamer Californian Deluxe and Les Paul BFG, entry-level guitars like Squier '51)
Examples of rare configurations that only a few particular models use include:
H-H-H (some Gibson Les Paul Gold Tops and Customs, Gibson SG-3, Gibson ES-5 Switchmaster (after 1957),
Kramer Jersey Star, Ibanez Destroyer, Ibanez PGM200)
H-S-S-H (Music Man Steve Morse Signature)
H-H-S (some ESP Stephen Carpenter Models and Alembic Jerry Garcia Models)
H-H (some early seven-string ESP horizon models. But unlike the regular H-H setup, the humbuckers are in the
Middle and bridge position)
S-H-S (Fender Wayne Kramer Signature)
S-H (Some Telecasters have this configuration.)
H-S (one model of the Fender Jazzmaster. The Ibanez RG2011SC, but with the single coil in the middle, rather
than the neck position.)
H-S-S (The Hamer phantom has this configuration but instead has an angled neck pickup and there is no space
between the middle single coil and the bridge humbucker.)

Piezoelectric pickups

Sensors

Piezoelectric pickup on an acoustic guitar

Dual pickup by Peterman in Australia

Pickup (music technology) 138

Piezoelectric violin bridge pickup

Many semi-acoustic and acoustic guitars, and some electric guitars and basses, have been fitted with piezoelectric
pickups instead of, or in addition to, magnetic pickups. These have a very different sound, and also have the
advantage of not picking up any other magnetic fields, such as mains hum and feedback from monitoring loops. In
hybrid guitars, this system allows switching between magnetic pickup and piezo sounds, or simultaneously blending
the output. Solid bodied guitars with only a piezo pickup are known as silent guitars, which are usually used for
practicing by acoustic guitarists. Piezo pickups can be also built into electric guitar bridges for conversion of existing
instruments.
Most pickups for bowed string instruments, such as cello, violin, and double bass, are piezoelectric. These may be
inlaid into the bridge, laid between the bridge feet and the top of the instrument, or, less frequently, wedged under a
wing of the bridge. Some pickups are fastened to the top of the instrument with removable putty.

Preamps
Piezoelectric pickups have a very high output impedance and appear as a capacitance in series with a voltage source.
They therefore often have an instrument-mounted buffer amplifier fitted to maximize frequency response.
The piezo pickup gives a very wide frequency range output compared to the magnetic types and can give large
amplitude signals from the strings. For this reason, the buffer amplifier is often powered from relatively high voltage
rails (about 9 V) to avoid distortion due to clipping. Some musicians prefer a preamp that isn't as linear (like a
single-FET amplifier) in which the clipping is "softer".[6] Such an amplifier starts to distort sooner, which makes the
distortion less "buzzy" and less audible than a more linear, but less forgiving op-amp. However, at least one study [7]
indicates that most people can not tell the difference between FET and op-amp circuits in blind listening
comparisons of electric instrument preamps, which correlates with results of formal studies of other types of audio
devices. Sometimes, piezoelectric pickups are used in conjunction with magnetic types to give a wider range of
available sounds.
For early pick-up devices using the piezoelectric effect, see phonograph.

Other transducers
Some pickup products are installed and used similarly to piezoelectric pickups, but use different underlying
technology, for instance electret[8] or condenser microphone technology.[9]

Multi-transducer pickups
Hexaphonic pickups (also called divided pickups and polyphonic pickups) have a separate output for each string
(Hexaphonic assumes six strings, as on a guitar). This allows for separate processing and amplification for each
string. It also allows a converter to sense the pitch coming from individual string signals for producing note
commands, typically according to the MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) protocol. A hexaphonic pickup
and a converter are usually components of a guitar/synthesizer.
Such pickups are uncommon (compared to normal ones), and only a few notable models exist, like the piezoelectric
pickups on the Moog Guitar. Hexaphonic pickups can be either magnetic or piezoelectric.
Pickup (music technology) 139

Optical
Optical pickups are a fairly recent development that work by sensing the interruption of a light beam by a vibrating
string. The light source is usually a LED, and the detector is a photodiode or phototransistor.[10] These pickups are
completely resistant to magnetic or electric interference and also have a very broad and flat frequency response,
unlike magnetic pickups.
Optical pickup guitars were first shown at the 1969 NAMM in Chicago, by Ron Hoag.[11]
In 2000, Christopher Willcox, founder of LightWave Systems, unveiled a new beta technology for an optical pickup
system using infrared light. In May 2001, LightWave Systems released their second generation pickup, dubbed the
"S2." The S2 featured LightWave Systems' monolithic bridge, six-channel motherboard, and a host of other
improvements, making the technology more practical for use in both live and recording studio settings. [12]
LightWave Systems began producing their own guitars in the late 2000's. Currently the company features the Saber
bass and the Atlantis ElectroAcoustic guitar.[13] These models are the only guitars that come come with the
LightWave Systems optical pickup installed.

Active and passive pickups

Pickups can be either active or passive. Pickups, apart from optical types, are inherently passive transducers.
"Active" pickups incorporate electronic circuitry to modify the signal. "Passive" pickups are usually wire wound
around a magnet, and are the most common type used. They can generate electric potential without need for external
power, though their output is relatively low, and the harmonic content of output depends greatly on the winding.
Active pickups require an electrical source of energy (usually one or
two 9V batteries) to operate and include an electronic preamp, active
filters, active EQ and other sound-shaping features. They can
sometimes give much higher possible output. They also are less
affected in tone by varying lengths of the electric cable connecting the
guitar to the amplifier, and amplifier input characteristics. Magnetic
pickups used with 'active' circuitry usually feature a lower inductance
(and initially lower output) winding that tends to give a flatter
frequency response curve.
EMG 81 and EMG 85 pair of popular active
The disadvantages of active pickup systems (pickups->preamp) are the pickups
power source (usually either a battery or phantom power) and higher
cost. They are more popular on electric bass, because of their solid tone and improved clarity; most high-end basses
feature active pickup systems. Most piezoelectric and all optical pickups are active and include some sort of preamp.
The main advantages of active bass pickup systems is their cleaner, clearer more "Hi Fi" sound. Many players,
notably Stanley Clarke, Flea, Victor Wooten, Abraham Laboriel and Doug Wimbish have used active bass pickups
to produce their characteristic bass tones.
They also allow more "headroom" and dynamic range. Good quality active systems produce less noise and hum
compared to their passive counterparts.

Stereo and multiple pickups with individual outputs

Rickenbacker was the first manufacturer who began producing stereo bass guitars with a stereo output for each
pickup section. The neck pickup had one output and the bridge pickup had one. Also Teisco produced a guitar with a
stereo option. Teisco divided the two sections in the upper three strings and the lower three strings for each
individual output. The Gittler guitar was an experimental guitar with six pickups, one for each string, with six
outputs. The Go! Team has modified a Fender Telecaster with an additional rotated pickup for the upper string,
Pickup (music technology) 140

causing a simulation of a one string bass sound. Gibson also created the HD.6X Pro guitar with The Hex Pickup that
captures a separate signal for each individual string and sends it to the onboard analog/digital converter which uses
Gibson's digital transport technology to send the signal out of the guitar via the Cat 5 Ethernet Cable. The output can
be routed as a single summed mono signal to an amplifier or recording console. It can also send the E, A, and D
strings to one amp or recording channel and the G, B, and high E to a separate amp or channel. Or it can send the
output of all six individual strings to six different amps or channels. These six individualized outputs can used to
create various effects.

Notes
[1] Wheeler. p.214
[2] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=2892371
[3] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=2896491
[4] humbucker (http:/ / europa. spaceports. com/ ~fishbake/ buck/ humbuck2. htm)
[5] Tillman, Donald (2002).
[6] Discrete FET Guitar Preamp (http:/ / www. till. com/ articles/ GuitarPreamp/ index. html)
[7] Mottola, R.M. (2003). "A Listening Evaluation of Discrete vs Integrated Circuit Audio Preamplifiers in Stringed Musical Instruments" (http:/
/ www. liutaiomottola. com/ PrevPubs/ Preamp/ preamps. htm). Journal of Musical Instrument Technology (23). .
[8] B-Band electret pickup (http:/ / www. b-band. com/ )
[9] Schertler Bluestick (http:/ / www. schertlerusa. com/ bluestick. htm)
[10] "LightWave Systems | Technology" (http:/ / lightwave-systems. com/ technology/ ). . Retrieved 13 September 2012.
[11] Wallace, Joe (2006-12-11). "Light Speed Guitars: The Story Of Ron Hoag And His Optical Guitar Pickup" (http:/ / www. gearwire. com/
ron-hoag-interview. html). Gearwire. . Retrieved 2009-06-09.
[12] "About | LightWave Systems" (http:/ / lightwave-systems. com/ about/ ). . Retrieved 9/13/2012.
[13] "LightWave Systems" (http:/ / www. lightwave-systems. com). . Retrieved 09/13/2012.

References
Brosnac, Donald (1980 a). Guitar Electronics: A Workbook. Ojai, CA: d.B. Music Co.. ISBN0-933224-02-8.
Tillman, Donald (2002). Response Effects of Guitar Pickup Position and Width (http://www.till.com/articles/
PickupResponse/index.html)
Wheeler, Tom (1992). American Guitars: an illustrated history. Harper. New York ISBN 0-06-273154-8

External links
Guitar Pickup Simulation (http://www.muzique.com/lab/pickups.htm)
Guitar Pickup - Interactive Java Tutorial (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/guitarpickup/
index.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Properties of Magnetic Materials (chapter) (http://orca.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/elmag/em12.pdf)
Basic Electric Guitar Circuits - Pickups (http://www.amplifiedparts.com/tech_corner/
basic_electric_guitar_circuits_pickups)
Single coil 141

Single coil
A single coil pickup is a type of magnetic transducer, or pickup, for
the electric guitar and the electric bass. It electromagnetically converts
the vibration of the strings to an electric signal. Single coil pickups are
one of the two most popular designs, along with dual-coil or
"humbucking" pickups.

History
This image shows three single coil pickups on a
Stratocaster guitar. Left to right: bridge, middle
and neck pickups.

String effect on a single coil (electric guitar). The

coil is connected to a multimeter that indicates
the voltage changes when the string moves. This
signal is normally sent to the amplifier.
Single coil 142

Beauchamp
In the mid 1920s George Beauchamp, a Los Angeles, California
guitarist, began experimentation with electric amplification of the
guitar. Originally using a phonograph pickup assembly, Beauchamp
began testing many different combinations of coils and magnets hoping
to create the first electromagnetic guitar pickup. He wound his earliest
coils using a motor out of a washing machine, later on switching to a
sewing machine motor, and eventually using single coiled magnets.

Beauchamp was backed in his efforts by Adolph Rickenbacker, an

engineer and wealthy owner of a successful tool and die business.
Beauchamp eventually produced the first successful single coil pickup.
The pickup consisted of two massive "U" shaped magnets and one coil
and was known as the "horseshoe pickup". The two horseshoe-shaped
magnets surrounded the strings that passed over a single core plate (or
blade) in the center of the coil.

Beauchamp outfitted the pickup in a custom built lap slide guitar. The
production model based on this prototype became the Hawaiian Electro
lap steel guitar, nicknamed the "Frying Pan" for its round, flat body.
In 1931 Beauchamp founded the Ro-Pat-In Company with Sketch of Rickenbacker "frying pan" lap steel
guitar from 1934 patent application.
Rickenbacker and his associates. Ro-Pat-In eventually became The
Electro String Instrument Corporation and subsequently the
Rickenbacker International Corporation. The company introduced its first "Electro-String Instruments" to the public
in 1932.

Gibson
The Gibson Guitar Corporation introduced the "bar pickup" in 1935 for its new line of Hawaiian lap steel guitars.
The pickup's basic construction is that of a metal blade inserted through the coil as a shared pole piece for all the
strings. A pair of large flat magnets were fastened below the coil assembly.
In 1936 Gibson introduced the ES-150, its first electric Spanish styled guitar. The ES-150 was outfitted with the bar
pickup. Jazz guitar innovator, Charlie Christian, began playing an ES-150 in the late 1930s with the Benny Goodman
Orchestra. This caused the popularity of the electrified guitar to soar. Due to Christians close association with the
ES-150 it began being referred to as the Charlie Christian Model and Gibsons now famous bar pickup as the
Charlie Christian pickup or CC unit.

Sound
The sound of a single coil pickup can range from the strong, fat midrange sound of the Gibson P-90 to the bright and
clear Fender Telecaster single-coil tone.

Common designs

Gibson P-90
The P-90 is a single-coil pickup designed by the Gibson Guitar Corporation. These pickups have a large, flat coil
with adjustable steel screws as pole pieces, and a pair of flat alnico bar magnets lying under the coil bobbin. The
adjustable pole pieces pick up the magnetism from the magnets. Moving the screw closer or further away from the
Single coil 143

magnet determines signal strength, thus tone as well. There are two variations of P-90 pickup that differ mainly by
mounting options:
Soap bar casing has true rectangular shape and the mounting
screws are contained within the coil perimeter, positioned between
the pole pieces, between strings 2-3 and 4-5, thus creating irregular
and somewhat unusual pattern. Occasionally, they are mistaken for
pole pieces; thus, the P-90 is sometimes erroneously said to have
eight pole pieces. The "soap bar" nickname most probably comes
from its predominantly rectangular shape and proportions
resembling a bar of soap, and the fact that the first P-90s on the
Gibson P-90 soap bar
original Gibson Les Paul Model of 1952 were white.

Dog ear is a casing type with extensions at both sides of pickup that
somewhat resemble dog's ears. These are extensions of the
predominantly rectangular cover that encompass the outlying
mounting screws. Dog-ear P-90 pickups were commonly mounted
on Gibson's hollowbody guitars like the ES-330 and occasionally on
solid body models like the Les Paul Junior. The same pickups were
P90 dog ear
also available on Epiphone models (since Gibson was building
Epiphone guitars in the 1950s) and the design is best remembered
for its appearance on the hollow body Epiphone Casino of the mid to late 1960s.

The sound of a P-90 is somewhat brighter and more transparent than Gibson's later humbucker pickup, and every bit
as crisp and snappy as Fender's single-coil pickups despite its high output and big sound.
Despite its tonal qualities the P-90 fell out of favor with Gibson in the early 1950s as a consequence of guitar players
complaining about the amount of hum (noise) it put out. Gibson employee Seth Lover solved the hum problem by
designing a hum-canceling pickup known as a humbucker, it was supposed to sound like a P-90 but in fact has quite
a different sound. It nevertheless became Gibson's mainstay pickup from that point on. The P-90 likely did not
become as popular for that reason, although many guitarists still prefer the tone of the P-90.
The hum problem proved extremely difficult to solve and despite numerous attempts by Gibson with their P-100,
and the larger aftermarket pickup manufacturers with their stacked and sidewinders noiseless designs, hum-canceling
P-90 pickups lost most of their favored tonal characteristics and generally did not gain acceptance among guitar
players.

Telecaster design
The Fender Telecaster features two single coils. The neck pickup
produces a mellower sound, while the bridge pickup produces an
extremely twangy, sharp tone with exaggerated treble response,
because the bridge pickup is mounted on a steel plate. These design
elements allow musicians to emulate steel guitar sounds, making it
particularly appropriate for country music.
Two pickups on a Telecaster
Pickups are selected with a three-position switch, and two wiring
schemes exist:
Vintage: 1) neck pickup with treble cutoff for a bassier sound; 2) neck pickup only; 3) bridge pickup only.
Modern: 1) neck pickup only, with no treble cutoff; 2) neck and bridge; 3) bridge pickup only.
Single coil 144

The Fender Esquire has a variation to the Vintage wiring scheme by using the scheme on a single pickup. This gives
a treble cutoff in the first position, normal in the middle position, and a tone control cutoff in the third position.

Stratocaster design
The traditional Stratocaster design guitar features three single coils.
The guitarist can control which pickup or combination of pickups are
selected with a lever switch. The pickup positions are usually referred
to as the bridge, middle and neck pickups based on their proximity to
those parts of the instrument.
Pickup position, number of coil winds, type of magnet wire, magnets
and other factors shape the sound. A given pickup in the neck position
will give louder, mellower and warmer sound, while an identical
pickup in the bridge position will have lower output and produce a Stratocaster pickups, viewed along the neck
brighter, sharper sound. The reason the neck pickup has the most profile. Note that the poles are of different
output is that the string's vibration has a higher amplitude at the neck heights.

position, being near the middle of the string length. Some

manufacturers overwind the bridge pickup for more output to compensate for this difference.

The magnet poles have different heights. This is called a magnet stagger and is done to compensate for the different
outputs of the string for two reasons. The first reason is that the fretboard has a radius (also called camber) of
between 7 and 12inches usually. Naturally the strings will follow the radius of the fretboard and so must the top
surface of the magnets, generally speaking. The second reason is that some strings have naturally higher output, so a
lower magnet pole piece can compensate for this. For example a plain or non-wound G-string has the highest output,
and this calls for the corresponding magnet to be further compensated, resulting in an apparent odd looking stagger.
Fender staggered pickups generally follow the traditional design and have the G string's magnet pole piece taller than
the D-string's, but this causes the G-string of modern string sets to be excessively loud and dominate all the other
strings (going against the original purpose of stagger and exacerbating the problem of unbalanced string output more
than a non-staggered pickup). This comes about because Stratocaster pickups were designed in the 1950s when
string sets came with a wound G-string, but modern rock and blues players found it difficult to stretch or bend
wound G-strings across the fretboard because of their inherently higher tension. In the 1970s, string manufacturers
responded and introduced the now standard non-wound G-string which has lower tension and can be stretched more
easily, but which produces much higher output. In order for the G-string to have the same output the corresponding
magnet pole should have the greatest gap between the string and the magnet pole piece.
The first Stratocasters had a three-way pickup selector switch, selecting either the neck, middle or bridge pickup.
Innovative guitarists found they could get an interesting sound by carefully positioning the selector switch lever
between detented positions, where any two adjacent pickups would be on simultaneously. Some players wedged a
plectrum between the pickguard and the selector switch to lock it in these positions. Later on, Fender introduced the
now standard five-way selector switch, which uses additional detents between the original three positions to allow
the combinations of any two adjacent pickups.
Modern Stratocasters have five-position pickup selector switch. Positions 1, 3 and 5 activate only one pickup
(bridge, middle or neck respectively), while positions 2 and 4 activate a combination of two pickups (bridge and
middle, or middle and neck, respectively). Some pickup sets have a reverse wound and reverse polarity middle
pickup that when in combination with the normal bridge or neck pickups will cancel electromagnetic interference
(noise/hum) which single coil pickups suffer badly from. The sonic effect of positions 2 and 4 is sometimes referred
to as a "quack" or "notch positions", and some guitar notation includes directions to use these pickup combinations.
One example is "Sultans of Swing" by Dire Straits which is played in position 2 (bridge and middle).
Single coil 145

Noise problems
It is important to understand that there are two types of noise that afflict magnetic guitar pickups, hum and buzz.
Hum is directly attributed to magnetic disturbances in the ether caused by 50Hz or 60Hz alternating mains from
electrical equipment, whereas buzz is propagated as Radio transmissions and sounds more like static. Simply put, the
sources of buzz are many but one example is an AC power tool with a brush motor. The Brush (electric) makes and
breaks electrical contact with the commutator segment several thousand times a second at variable frequency
dependent on load thus causing Radio noise propagation.
Hum can be canceled by suitable arrangements of two coils within the pickup's architecture. Hum can not be
screened out by conductive shielding. Buzz can not be canceled, it can only be dealt with by conductive shielding
installed in the wiring cavities of guitars and must be grounded.
Fender Stratocaster and Telecaster pickups as well as Gibson's P-90 pickup being of the single-coil type, output a
type of noise known as mains hum or 50Hz / 60Hz hum. Mains hum has its origin in wiring of a building and
electrical apparatus/appliances such as transformers, electric motors and lighting. Hum is undesirable because it
pollutes the musical notes being played on the instrument with its own sound of fixed unchanging frequency or pitch
(usually 50 or 60 hertz) which is discordant with the musical sounds. To address this undesirable situation various
attempts to eliminate mains hum signal from Fender single-coil pickups were made dating back to the early 1970s.
DiMarzio, Seymour Duncan and EMG manufacture what are commonly known as stacks, or stacked single coils
which cancel mains hum. Unfortunately the design is flawed and these stacks also cancel string signal due to
magnetic coupling of the two coils which has a detrimental effect on sound quality. EMG used active circuitry within
the pickup to compensate for the losses caused by stacked coils by boosting and reshaping the damaged sound but
this required an on-board battery with its attendant inconvenience. The resultant sound is not authentic Fender trade
mark sound but EMG pickups became popular for their own sound.
Actodyne General manufactured a low-noise design of single-coil pickup known as Lace Sensors, Don Lace being
the inventor. The Lace Sensor pickup had a rubberized particle magnet and used ferrous shielding to reduce hum.
Being the best at the time, Fender installed Lace Sensors on the Strat Plus model for many years as a solution to the
mains hum problem. However the Lace Sensor was a stopgap solution because the sound was not authentic Fender
trademark sound. Fender purists wanted the genuine sound of the original Fender pickups with Alnico rod magnets
and Fender eventually discontinued Lace Sensors as their mainstay solution to mains hum circa 1998. Lace Sensors
continue to be used by many guitar players regardless.
Kinman Guitar Electrix were awarded 5 or more US patents beginning circa 1996 for innovative design concerned
with hum canceling single pole pickups. Kinman at first concentrated on particularly the Fender type single coil
pickup and in 2009 the P-90 pickup. One of the most important elements of Kinman's patents is the use of iron in the
core of the noise sensing coil. This was absolutely novel in 1996 and without the presence of iron to boost the
efficiency of the noise sensing coil differential coil technology would not have been possible. Vertical differential
coil technique is also described in Kinman's US Patents 5,668,520 [1] and 6,103,966 [2] with priority date of March
1996. After 1998 DiMarzio and Seymour Duncan also began using iron and differential winding techniques in the
noise sensing coils in some of their products. Over the years Kinman has improved and refined their designs to a
point where the popular consensus is the sound of some models is indistinguishable from noisy single coils. Kinman
also manufactures noiseless P-90 and Telecaster pickups under US Patent 7,022,909 [3]
The search for an acceptable solution to mains hum gained new impetus around 1995 as guitar players became
increasingly intolerant of degraded stacked single-coil sound. Fender was researching new techniques to solve the
loss of tone around that time and eventually came out with their Vintage Noiseless design circa 1998.[4]
Single coil 146

Notable single-coil pickups

There are several well-known single-coil pickups that have a distinctive sound:
Rickenbacker pickups (including the original 1930s "horseshoe"
pickup as used in lap steel and solidbody upright basses, and later 6
string electric guitars, pedal steels, and electric bass guitars; also the
"Toaster" and "Hi-Gain")
Gibson bar pickup (1935) later called the Charlie Christian
pickup (1938)
Gibson P-90 (1946)
Fender Telecaster, Stratocaster, Jazzmaster, Jaguar, and other
pickups
Danelectro Lipstick
Gretsch pickups (including the "HiLoTron")
"Lipstick"-style single coil pickups on a
DeArmond pickups (found on various 50s and 60s guitars by
Danelectro guitar
various manufacturers including Gretsch, Guild, Epiphone, Martin,
Kustom, Harmony, Regal, Premier, Silvertone, and others, but produced by the Rowe - DeArmond company of
Toledo, Ohio; the trade name is now owned by Fender; single coil models including the 200 aka Dynasonic, 2K,
and 2000, "mustache", various "gold foil" types, and many clip on, rail, or screw mount pickups designed for
acoustic guitars and other instruments). The Fender "Tele-Sonic" featured large DeArmond single coils.
Valco single coil pickups by Ralph Keller (1954) can be found in Airline, Supro, National, English Electronics,
Custom Kraft, and a few Gretsch models of guitar from the 50's, 60's, and 70's. The majority of these pickups
maintain the physical appearance of a larger, double coil humbucker pickup. Although consisting of a single coil,
the pickup contains a second, off-set magnet which cancels hum. Early variations on the Valco made over-strings
"horseshoe" pickup can be found on a number of similarly branded lapsteel guitars, such as Oahu.
Epiphone "New York" pickups
Lace Sensor pickups (1987)

References
Batey, Rick (2003). The American Blues Guitar. Hal Leonard. ISBN0-634-02759-X.
Duchossoir, A. R. (1998). Gibson Electrics: The Classic Years. Hal Leonard. ISBN0-7935-9210-0.
Millard, Andre (2004). The Electric Guitar: A History of an American Icon. Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN0-8018-7862-4.
Hirst, Tom (2003). Electric Guitar Construction. Hal Leonard. ISBN1-57424-125-7.
Smith, Richard R. (1987). The History of Rickenbacker Guitars. Centerstream Publications. pp.914.
ISBN0-931759-15-3.
Fjestad, Zachary R. (2005). Blue Book of Electric Guitars. Blue Book Publications, Inc. pp.397.
ISBN1-886768-57-9.
[1] http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1& Sect2=HITOFF& d=PALL& p=1& u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.
htm& r=1& f=G& l=50& s1=5,668,520. PN. & OS=PN/ 5,668,520& RS=PN/ 5,668,520
[2] http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1& Sect2=HITOFF& d=PALL& p=1& u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.
htm& r=1& f=G& l=50& s1=6,103,966. PN. & OS=PN/ 6,103,966& RS=PN/ 6,103,966
[3] http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1& Sect2=HITOFF& d=PALL& p=1& u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.
htm& r=1& f=G& l=50& s1=7,022,909. PN. & OS=PN/ 7,022,909& RS=PN/ 7,022,909
[4] Steve Cobham (June 1997). "NECK AND NECK - Gibson Les Paul and Fender Strat Compared" (http:/ / users. powernet. co. uk/ guitars/
axecopy1. htm). Sound On Stage. .
Single coil 147

External links
The (commercial) history of Gibson pickups (http://www.gibson.com/whatsnew/pressrelease/2001/jan11a.
html)
Science and measurements behind electro-magnetic guitar pickups (http://www.moore.org.au/pick001.htm)
Kinman Guitar Electrix - Impersonator 54 noiseless Strat pickup (http://www.kinman.com/guitar-pickups/
stratocaster/impersonator54/)

Humbucker
A humbucking pickup, or humbucker is a type of electric guitar
pickup that uses two coils to "buck the hum" (or cancel out the
interference), induced by the alternating current in single coil pickups.
All pickups use magnets to produce a magnetic field around the
strings, and induce an electrical current in the coils as the strings
vibrate. Humbuckers work by pairing a coil with the north poles of its
magnets oriented "up", (or toward the strings), with a coil which has
the south pole of its magnets oriented up. By connecting the coils in
"Open Coil" (uncovered) humbucker pickup
series and out of phase, noise and interference are significantly reduced
via common-mode rejection.

Hum is caused by the alternating magnetic fields created by

transformers and power supplies inside electrical equipment using
alternating current. While playing a guitar without humbuckers, a
musician would hear a slight but significant hum through their pickups
during quiet sections of music. Sources of studio and stage hum
include high-power amps, processors, mixers, motors, power lines, and
other equipment. Compared to single coil pickups, humbuckers
dramatically reduce hum, and produce higher output, because both
coils are connected in series. They do result in a different "tone" than
Covered humbucker pickup on Les Paul
single coil pickups.

History
The "humbucking coil" was invented in 1934 by Electro-Voice, an American professional audio company based in
South Bend, Indiana that Al Kahn and Lou Burroughs incorporated in 1930 for the purpose of manufacturing
portable public address equipment, including microphones and loudspeakers.[1]
To overcome hum problem for guitars, the humbucking pickup was invented by Joseph Raymond "Ray" Butts, but
Seth Lover of Gibson was also working on one himself. Ray Butts initially developed one on his own and later
worked with Gretsch. Who developed it first is a matter of some debate, but Ray Butts was awarded the first patent
(U.S. Patent 2,892,371) and Seth Lover came next (U.S. Patent 2,896,491). Ultimately, both men developed
essentially the same concept, but Ray Butts was never recognized as the one who produced it first.
A successful early humbucking pickup was the so-called PAF (literally "Patent Applied For") invented by Seth
Lover in 1955.[2] Because of this, and because of its use on the Gibson Les Paul guitar, the humbucker is strongly
associated with Gibson, although humbuckers have been used in many different guitar designs by many different
manufacturers. Humbuckers are also known as dual-coil, double-coil, or hum-canceling pickups. Rickenbacker
Humbucker 148

offered dual coil pickups arranged in a humbucking pattern beginning in late 1953 but dropped the design in 1954
due to the perceived distorted sound. The Gibson Les Paul was the first guitar to use humbuckers in substantial
production, but since then, even some models of Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters, traditionally fitted with
single-coil pickups, are factory-equipped with humbuckers. Stratocasters fitted with one humbucker in the bridge
position, resulting in a pickup configuration noted as H-S-S (starting at bridge pickup: H for humbucker, S for single
coil) are referred to as "Fat Strats", because of the "fatter", "rounder" tone offered by the humbucking pickup.

How humbuckers work

In any magnetic pickup, a vibrating guitar string, magnetized by a fixed magnet within the pickup induces an
alternating voltage across its coil(s). However, wire coils also make excellent antennae and are therefore sensitive to
electromagnetic interference caused by alternating magnetic fields from mains wiring (mains hum) and electrical
appliances like transformers, motors, and computer screens. Guitar pickups reproduce this noise, which can be quite
audible, sounding like a constant hum or buzz.
The direction of a voltage induced across a coil by the moving string depends on both the coil winding direction and
the direction of the fixed magnets. A humbucker has two coils wound in opposite directions, one clockwise and the
other counterclockwise. The magnets in the two coils are arranged in opposite directions so that the string motion
induces voltages across both coils in the same direction. Electromagnetic interference, on the other hand, induces
voltages in opposing directions across the coils because it is only sensitive to the winding direction. When the signals
from both coils are summed together, usually by connecting the coils in series, the two noise voltages cancel, while
the signal voltages add thus dramatically improving the signal-to-noise ratio. The technique has something in
common with what electrical engineers call common-mode rejection and is also found in balanced lines in audio
recording.

Alternative humbucker designs

Stacked humbuckers
Solid-body guitars, such as Fender Stratocasters,
usually feature cavities only for single-coil
pickups. Installing full-sized humbuckers requires
additional routing of the woodwork and cutting of
the pickguard (if the instrument has a pickguard).
If the process is not carefully done, the
instrument's body and pickguard may be
damaged. For most guitarists, this is
unacceptable; especially for expensive vintage
guitars where it is vital to preserve cosmetic Humbuckers on a Gibson Invader.

appearance. As a result, many pickup

manufacturers now produce humbucking pickups compacted into the size of a single coil, accomplished by vertically
"stacking" the coils instead of placing them side-by-side as in a regular humbucker. Many different kinds of stacked
humbuckers are available from several manufacturers, producing a wide range of different tones.
Humbucker 149

Rail humbuckers
Another design known as rail humbuckers divides a single coil-size pickup in half lengthwise, and the windings are
wound around two pole pieces, typically resembling a rail. These pickups look like a normal, albeit smaller,
humbucker. This, however, is typically used in conjunction with stacked humbuckers, to produce a high-output
pickup. This design can also extend to a "quadrail", by using a rail humbucker for each "single coil" of a normal
humbucker.
The same type of rails can also be found in a normal-size humbucker, however. Heavy metal guitarist Dimebag
Darrell made heavy use of this type of pickup wired in the bridge position. These tend to also sound fuller and have a
higher output and attack than the single coil-size version.

Coil splits
Some guitars which have humbucking pickups feature "coil splits", which allow the pickups to act as
"pseudo-single" coils by either short-circuiting or bypassing one coil. The electrical circuit of the pickup is reduced
to that of a true single coil so there is no hum canceling effect. Usually, this feature is activated using a miniature
toggle switch or a DPDT push-pull switch mounted on a potentiometer. Some guitars (e.g. the Peavey T-60 and the
Fender Classic Player Jaguar HH) make use of a variable coil split circuit that allows the guitarist to dial a variable
amount of signal from the second coil, from pure single-coil to full humbucker and everything in-between.
Coil splits are often wrongly referred to as a "coil tap". Coil taps are most commonly found on single coil pickups,
and involve an extra hook-up wire being included during the manufacture of the pickup so the guitarist can choose to
have all the windings of the pickup included in the circuit, for a fatter, higher output sound with more midrange; or
switch the output to "Tap" into the windings at a point that is less than the full coil for a brighter, lower output,
cleaner sound. By example: a full pickup coil may be 10,000 turns of wire and the "Tap" may be at 8000 turns.
Because of the confusion between coil splits and coil taps - and the rareness of coil taps in general - it is difficult to
find tappable single coil pickups for sale. However, pickup manufacturer Seymour Duncan offers tapped versions of
many of their Telecaster and Stratocaster pickups on their website [3] at an increased cost.

Notable humbucker designs

Gibson "PAF" - Seth Lover's original humbucker design
Fender Wide Range - Fender's first humbucker design, also by Seth Lover
Epiphone (and later Gibson) mini-humbucker - a smaller humbucker design with adjustable pole pieces. An
Epiphone design from the 1950's originally, they were later used most famously in their Les Paul Deluxe.
Gibson Firebird pickup - inspired by the Epiphone pickup, and shares its basic dimensions, but is different in
terms of design, appearance, and tone, utilizing single blade pole pieces.
Q-tuner: neodymium magnet humbuckers
EMG Pickups - Active pickups since 1976
Gretsch FilterTron - from 1957 to present; famously used on the Country Gentleman and other hollow-body
guitars.
Humbucker 150

Other noise-reducing pickup designs

While the original humbucker remains the most common noise-reducing pickup design, inventors have tried many
other approaches to reducing noise in guitar pickups.
Many instruments will use a combination of separate single coil pickups in a hum reducing configuration, where the
magnetic polarity is different and the coils are electrically reversed. This arrangement is similar to that of a
humbucking pickup and noise is effectively reduced. Some examples of this are the Fender Jazz Bass, introduced in
1960, which has used a pair of single coil pickups, one near the bridge and another one about half way between the
bridge and the neck, and many Stratocaster style guitars, which often have 3 pickups with the middle one reversed
electrically and magnetically. The (usually) 5-way selector switch allows 2 humbucking settings, where the reversed
middle pickup is used in parallel with either the bridge or neck pickup.
In 1957, Fender introduced a split pickup to its Precision Bass, which was wired in humbucking fashion, with one
coil serving the E and A strings, the other the D and G strings. Both coils pick up the same noise, but since each
string is only served by one coil, a single-coil sound is provided. The concept of this later expanded to G&L's Z-coil
pickup, which is used for standard guitars.
In 1985, Lace Music Products introduced the Lace Sensor pickups, which utilize a proprietary hum-screening
technique to eliminate noise while preserving single-coil tone.
In 1996, Kinman Guitar Electrix introduced replacement pickups for Stratocaster and Telecaster based on a
differential coil technology, essentially a stacked humbucker where the lower pickup coil functions solely as a noise
sensing coil, while only the upper pickup coil is able to sense the string vibrations. This was achieved by the use of
magnetic shields augmented by differential coils. These pickups are of the single pole type often referred to as single
coils. In mid 2011 Kinman released a range of innovative side-by-side humbuckers which incorporate new Patent
Applied For technology. Kinman claim their new humbuckers have greater dynamic range and increased clarity
compared to conventional humbuckers. [4]

External links
http://www.moore.org.au/pick001.htm Science and measurements behind electro-magnetic guitar pickups

References
[1] Mix, June 17, 2005. "Al Kahn (19062005)" (http:/ / mixonline. com/ news/ headline/ kahn-electro-voice-0617053/ ). Retrieved on August
24, 2009.
[2] http:/ / www. provide. net/ ~cfh/ seth. html
[3] http:/ / www. seymourduncan. com/ support/ faq/ frequently-asked/ installation-an/ what_is_a_coil/
[4] http:/ / www. kinman. com/ guitar-pickups/ humbucker/

US patent 2896491 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2896491), Seth Lover,

"Magnetic pickup for stringed musical instrument", issued 1959-07-28
Piezoelectricity 151

Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity ( /piezoilktrsti/) is the charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals,
certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied mechanical
stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or
piezein (), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (), which stands for amber, an
ancient source of electric charge.[2] Piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre
Curie.
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the
electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[3] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process
in that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting from
an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical
strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate
measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of the original dimension.
Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is
applied to the material. The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in production of ultrasonic sound waves.[4]
Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications such as the production and detection of sound, generation of high
voltages, electronic frequency generation, microbalances, and ultrafine focusing of optical assemblies. It is also the
basis of a number of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe microscopies such
as STM, AFM, MTA, SNOM, etc., and everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters and
push-start propane barbecues.

History

Discovery and early research

The pyroelectric effect, by which a material generates an electric potential in response to a temperature change, was
studied by Carl Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid-18th century. Drawing on this knowledge, both Ren Just
Hay and Antoine Csar Becquerel posited a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge; however,
experiments by both proved inconclusive.
The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques
Curie.[5] They combined their knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying crystal
structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of
tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and
Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity.
Piezoelectricity 152

The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect.
The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental
thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[6] The Curies
immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect,[7] and
went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of
electro-elasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals.

For the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained something of a

laboratory curiosity. More work was done to explore and define the
crystal structures that exhibited piezoelectricity. This culminated in
1910 with the publication of Woldemar Voigt's Lehrbuch der
Kristallphysik (Textbook on Crystal Physics),[8] which described the
20 natural crystal classes capable of piezoelectricity, and rigorously A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when
defined the piezoelectric constants using tensor analysis. deformed (change in shape is greatly
exaggerated)

World War I and post-war

The first practical application for piezoelectric devices was sonar, first developed during World War I. In France in
1917, Paul Langevin and his coworkers developed an ultrasonic submarine detector. The detector consisted of a
transducer, made of thin quartz crystals carefully glued between two steel plates, and a hydrophone to detect the
returned echo. By emitting a high-frequency chirp from the transducer, and measuring the amount of time it takes to
hear an echo from the sound waves bouncing off an object, one can calculate the distance to that object.
The use of piezoelectricity in sonar, and the success of that project, created intense development interest in
piezoelectric devices. Over the next few decades, new piezoelectric materials and new applications for those
materials were explored and developed.
Piezoelectric devices found homes in many fields. Ceramic phonograph cartridges simplified player design, were
cheap and accurate, and made record players cheaper to maintain and easier to build. The development of the
ultrasonic transducer allowed for easy measurement of viscosity and elasticity in fluids and solids, resulting in huge
advances in materials research. Ultrasonic time-domain reflectometers (which send an ultrasonic pulse through a
material and measure reflections from discontinuities) could find flaws inside cast metal and stone objects,
improving structural safety.

World War II and post-war

During World War II, independent research groups in the United States, Russia, and Japan discovered a new class of
synthetic materials, called ferroelectrics, which exhibited piezoelectric constants many times higher than natural
materials. This led to intense research to develop barium titanate and later lead zirconate titanate materials with
specific properties for particular applications.
One significant example of the use of piezoelectric crystals was developed by Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Following World War I, Frederick R. Lack, working in radio telephony in the engineering department, developed the
AT cut crystal, a crystal that operated through a wide range of temperatures. Lack's crystal didn't need the heavy
accessories previous crystal used, facilitating its use on aircraft. This development allowed Allied air forces to
engage in coordinated mass attacks through the use of aviation radio.
Development of piezoelectric devices and materials in the United States was kept within the companies doing the
development, mostly due to the wartime beginnings of the field, and in the interests of securing profitable patents.
New materials were the first to be developed quartz crystals were the first commercially exploited piezoelectric
Piezoelectricity 153

material, but scientists searched for higher-performance materials. Despite the advances in materials and the
maturation of manufacturing processes, the United States market had not grown as quickly. Without many new
applications, the growth of the United States' piezoelectric industry suffered.
In contrast, Japanese manufacturers shared their information, quickly overcoming technical and manufacturing
challenges and creating new markets. Japanese efforts in materials research created piezoceramic materials
competitive to the U.S. materials, but free of expensive patent restrictions. Major Japanese piezoelectric
developments include new designs of piezoceramic filters for radios and televisions, piezo buzzers and audio
transducers that can connect directly to electronic circuits, and the piezoelectric igniter, which generates sparks for
small engine ignition systems (and gas-grill lighters) by compressing a ceramic disc. Ultrasonic transducers that
transmit sound waves through air had existed for quite some time, but first saw major commercial use in early
television remote controls. These transducers now are mounted on several car models as an echolocation device,
helping the driver determine the distance from the rear of the car to any objects that may be in its path.

Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the
occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either
be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge
surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by
Piezoelectric plate used to convert audio signal to
molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization sound waves
(dimensionality [Cm/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by
summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic unit cell.[9] As every dipole is a vector, the
dipole density P is a vector field. Dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The
domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned using the process of poling (not the same as magnetic
poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated temperatures. Not
all piezoelectric materials can be poled.[10]

Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress.
This might either be caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation of
molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a
variation of the polarization strength, its direction or both, with the details depending on 1. the orientation of P
within the crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation
of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of the electrical field extending between the faces,
since the units of surface charge density and polarization are the same, [C/m2] = [Cm/m3]. However, piezoelectricity
is not caused by a change in charge density on the surface, but by dipole density in the bulk. For example, a 1cm3
cube of quartz with 2kN (500lbf) of correctly applied force can produce a voltage of 12500 V.[11]
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse piezoelectric effect, where the application of
an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.
Piezoelectricity 154

Mathematical description
Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the electrical behavior of the material:

where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric displacement), is permittivity and E is electric field
strength, and
Hooke's Law:

where S is strain, s is compliance and T is stress.

These may be combined into so-called coupled equations, of which the strain-charge form is:

where is the matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect and is the matrix for the converse piezoelectric effect.
The superscript E indicates a zero, or constant, electric field; the superscript T indicates a zero, or constant, stress
field; and the superscript t stands for transposition of a matrix.
The strain-charge for a material of the 4mm (C4v) crystal class (such as a poled piezoelectric ceramic such as
tetragonal PZT or BaTiO3) as well as the 6mm crystal class may also be written as (ANSI IEEE 176):

where the first equation represents the relationship for the converse piezoelectric effect and the latter for the direct
piezoelectric effect.[12]
Although the above equations are the most used form in literature, some comments about the notation are necessary.
Generally D and E are vectors, that is, Cartesian tensor of rank-1; and permittivity is Cartesian tensor of rank 2.
Strain and stress are, in principle, also rank-2 tensors. But conventionally, because strain and stress are all symmetric
tensors, the subscript of strain and stress can be re-labeled in the following fashion: 11 1; 22 2; 33 3; 23
4; 13 5; 12 6. (Different convention may be used by different authors in literature. Say, some use 12 4; 23
5; 31 6 instead.) That is why S and T appear to have the "vector form" of 6 components. Consequently, s
appears to be a 6 by 6 matrix instead of rank-4 tensor. Such a re-labeled notation is often called Voigt notation.
In total, there are 4 piezoelectric coefficients, , , , and defined as follows:
Piezoelectricity 155

where the first set of 4 terms correspond to the direct piezoelectric effect and the second set of 4 terms correspond to
the converse piezoelectric effect.[13] A formalism has been worked out for those piezoelectric crystals, for which the
polarization is of the crystal-field induced type, that allows for the calculation of piezoelectrical coefficients
from electrostatic lattice constants or higher-order Madelung constants.[9]

Crystal classes
Of the thirty-two crystal classes, twenty-one are non-centrosymmetric
(not having a centre of symmetry), and of these, twenty exhibit direct
piezoelectricity (the 21st is the cubic class 432). Ten of these represent
the polar crystal classes, which show a spontaneous polarization
without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole
moment associated with their unit cell, and which exhibit
pyroelectricity. If the dipole moment can be reversed by the application
of an electric field, the material is said to be ferroelectric.

Polar crystal classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 4, 4mm, 3, 3m, 6, 6mm.

Piezoelectric crystal classes: 1, 2, m, 222, mm2, 4, 4, 422, 4mm,
42m, 3, 32, 3m, 6, 6, 622, 6mm, 62m, 23, 43m.
For polar crystals, for which P 0 holds without applying a
mechanical load, the piezoelectric effect manifests itself by changing Any spatially separated charge will result in an
electric field, and therefore an electric potential.
the magnitude or the direction of P or both. For the non-polar, but
Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor.
piezoelectric crystals, on the other hand, a polarization P different from In a piezoelectric device, mechanical stress,
zero is only elicited by applying a mechanical load. For them the stress instead of an externally applied voltage, causes
can be imagined to transform the material from a non-polar crystal the charge separation in the individual atoms of
the material, .
class (P =0) to a polar one,[9] having P 0.

Materials
Many materials, both natural and synthetic, exhibit piezoelectricity:

Naturally occurring crystals

Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz
Sucrose (table sugar)
Quartz
Rochelle salt
Topaz
Tourmaline-group minerals
The action of piezoelectricity in Topaz can probably be attributed to ordering of the (F,OH) in its lattice, which is
otherwise centrosymmetric: Orthorhombic Bipyramidal (mmm). Topaz has anomalous optical properties which are
attributed to such ordering.[14]
Piezoelectricity 156

Bone
Dry bone exhibits some piezoelectric properties. Studies of Fukada et al. showed that these are not due to the apatite
crystals, which are centrosymmetric, thus non-piezoelectric, but due to collagen. Collagen exhibits the polar uniaxial
orientation of molecular dipoles in its structure and can be considered as bioelectret, a sort of dielectric material
exhibiting quasipermanent space charge and dipolar charge. Potentials are thought to occur when a number of
collagen molecules are stressed in the same way displacing significant numbers of the charge carriers from the inside
to the surface of the specimen. Piezoelectricity of single individual collagen fibrils was measured using
piezoresponse force microscopy, and it was shown that collagen fibrils behave predominantly as shear piezoelectric
materials.[15]
The piezoelectric effect is generally thought to act as a biological force sensor.[16][17] This effect was exploited by
research conducted at the University of Pennsylvania in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which established that
sustained application of electrical potential could stimulate both resorption and growth (depending on the polarity) of
bone in-vivo.[18] Further studies in the 1990s provided the mathematical equation to confirm long bone wave
propagation as to that of hexagonal (Class 6) crystals.[19]

Other natural materials

Biological materials exhibiting piezoelectric properties include:
Tendon
Silk
Wood due to piezoelectric texture
Enamel
Dentin
DNA
Viral proteins, including those from bacteriophage. One study has found that thin films of M13 bacteriophage can
be used to construct a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal display.[20]

Synthetic crystals
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic crystal
Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Synthetic ceramics
The family of ceramics with perovskite or tungsten-bronze structures
exhibits piezoelectricity:
Barium titanate (BaTiO3)Barium titanate was the first
piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
Lead titanate (PbTiO3)
Lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1x]O3 0x1)more commonly
known as PZT, lead zirconate titanate is the most common Tetragonal unit cell of lead titanate
piezoelectric ceramic in use today.

Potassium niobate (KNbO3)

Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)
Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Ba2NaNb5O5
Piezoelectricity 157

Pb2KNb5O15

Lead-free piezoceramics
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in lead-containing devices driven by the result of
restriction of hazardous substances directive regulations. To address this concern, there has been a resurgence in the
compositional development of lead-free piezoelectric materials.
Sodium potassium niobate ((K,Na)NbO3). In 2004, a group of Japanese researchers led by Yasuyoshi Saito
discovered a sodium potassium niobate composition with properties close to those of PZT, including a high
.[21]
Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for the replacement of lead-based ceramics.
Sodium niobate NaNbO3
Bismuth titanate Bi4Ti3O12
Sodium bismuth titanate Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3
So far, neither the environmental impact nor the stability of supplying these substances have been confirmed.

Polymers
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times greater than quartz. Unlike
ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined
long-chain molecules attract and repel each other when an electric field is applied.

Applications
Currently, industrial and manufacturing is the largest application market for piezoelectric devices, followed by the
automotive industry. Strong demand also comes from medical instruments as well as information and
telecommunications. The global demand for piezoelectric devices was valued at approximately US$14.8 billion in
2010. The largest material group for piezoelectric devices is piezocrystal, and piezopolymer is experiencing the
fastest growth due to its light weight and small size.[22]
Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways:

High voltage and power sources

Direct piezoelectricity of some substances, like quartz, can generate potential differences of thousands of volts.
The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a spring-loaded hammer to
hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage electric current that flows across a small spark
gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used to light gas stoves work the same way, and
many types of gas burners now have built-in piezo-based ignition systems.
A similar idea is being researched by DARPA in the United States in a project called Energy Harvesting, which
includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by piezoelectric generators embedded in soldiers' boots.
However, these energy harvesting sources by association have an impact on the body. DARPA's effort to harness
12watts from continuous shoe impact while walking were abandoned due to the impracticality and the
discomfort from the additional energy expended by a person wearing the shoes. Other energy harvesting ideas
include harvesting the energy from human movements in train stations or other public places[23][24] and
converting a dance floor to generate electricity.[25] Vibrations from industrial machinery can also be harvested by
piezoeletric materials to charge batteries for backup supplies or to power low power microprocessors and wireless
radios.[26]
A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer, which uses
magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses acoustic coupling. An input
Piezoelectricity 158

voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic material such as PZT, creating an alternating
stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency
is chosen to be the resonant frequency of the block, typically in the 100kilohertz to 1megahertz range. A higher
output voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect. Step-up ratios of
more than 1000:1 have been demonstrated. An extra feature of this transformer is that, by operating it above its
resonant frequency, it can be made to appear as an inductive load, which is useful in circuits that require a
controlled soft start.[27] These devices can be used in DC-AC inverters to drive cold cathode fluorescent lamps.
Piezo transformers are some of the most compact high voltage sources.

Sensors
The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical
dimension, transformed into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the
sensing element. Depending on the design of a sensor, different
"modes" to load the piezoelectric element can be used: longitudinal,
transversal and shear.
Detection of pressure variations in the form of sound is the most
common sensor application, e.g. piezoelectric microphones (sound
waves bend the piezoelectric material, creating a changing voltage) and
piezoelectric pickups for Acoustic-electric guitars. A piezo sensor
attached to the body of an instrument is known as a contact Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup
microphone.

Piezoelectric sensors especially are used with high frequency sound in

ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and also industrial
nondestructive testing (NDT).
For many sensing techniques, the sensor can act as both a sensor and
an actuator often the term transducer is preferred when the device
acts in this dual capacity, but most piezo devices have this property of
reversibility whether it is used or not. Ultrasonic transducers, for
example, can inject ultrasound waves into the body, receive the
Many rocket-propelled grenades used a
returned wave, and convert it to an electrical signal (a voltage). Most [28]
piezoelectric fuze. For example: RPG-7
medical ultrasound transducers are piezoelectric.

In addition to those mentioned above, various sensor applications include:

Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves.
Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment, sonochemistry and industrial processing).
Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors.
Piezos are sometimes used in strain gauges.
Piezoelectric transducers are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's sticks, and to
detect muscle movements in medical acceleromyography.
Automotive engine management systems use piezoelectric transducers to detect Engine knock (Knock Sensor,
KS), also known as detonation, at certain hertz frequencys. A piezoelectric transducer is also used in fuel injection
systems to measure manifold absolute pressure (MAP sensor) to determine engine load, and ultimately the fuel
injectors milliseconds of on time.
Ultrasonic piezo sensors are used in the detection of acoustic emissions in acoustic emission testing.
Piezoelectricity 159

Actuators
As very high electric fields correspond to only tiny changes in the
width of the crystal, this width can be changed with better-than-m
precision, making piezo crystals the most important tool for
positioning objects with extreme accuracy thus their use in
actuators. Multilayer ceramics, using layers thinner than 100 m, allow
reaching high electric fields with voltage lower than 150 V. These
ceramics are used within two kinds of actuators: direct piezo actuators
and Amplified piezoelectric actuators. While direct actuator's stroke is
generally lower than 100 m, amplified piezo actuators can reach
Metal disk with piezoelectric disk attached, used
millimeter strokes.
in a buzzer
Loudspeakers: Voltage is converted to mechanical movement of a
piezoelectric polymer film.
Piezoelectric motors: Piezoelectric elements apply a directional force to an axle, causing it to rotate. Due to the
extremely small distances involved, the piezo motor is viewed as a high-precision replacement for the stepper
motor.
Piezoelectric elements can be used in laser mirror alignment, where their ability to move a large mass (the mirror
mount) over microscopic distances is exploited to electronically align some laser mirrors. By precisely controlling
the distance between mirrors, the laser electronics can accurately maintain optical conditions inside the laser
cavity to optimize the beam output.
A related application is the acousto-optic modulator, a device that scatters light off of soundwaves in a crystal,
generated by piezoelectric elements. This is useful for fine-tuning a laser's frequency.
Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes employ converse piezoelectricity to keep the
sensing needle close to the probe.[29]
Inkjet printers: On many inkjet printers, piezoelectric crystals are used to drive the ejection of ink from the inkjet
print head towards the paper.
Diesel engines: High-performance common rail diesel engines use piezoelectric fuel injectors, first developed by
Robert Bosch GmbH, instead of the more common solenoid valve devices.
Active vibration control using amplified actuators.
X-ray shutters.
XY stages for micro scanning used in infrared cameras.
Moving the patient precisely inside active CT and MRI scanners where the strong radiation or magnetism
precludes electric motors.[30]
Crystal earpieces are sometimes used in old or low power radios.

Frequency standard
The piezoelectrical properties of quartz are useful as standard of frequency.
Quartz clocks employ a crystal oscillator made from a quartz crystal that uses a combination of both direct and
converse piezoelectricity to generate a regularly timed series of electrical pulses that is used to mark time. The
quartz crystal (like any elastic material) has a precisely defined natural frequency (caused by its shape and size) at
which it prefers to oscillate, and this is used to stabilize the frequency of a periodic voltage applied to the crystal.
The same principle is critical in all radio transmitters and receivers, and in computers where it creates a clock
pulse. Both of these usually use a frequency multiplier to reach gigahertz ranges.
Piezoelectricity 160

Piezoelectric motors
Types of piezoelectric motor include:
The traveling-wave motor used for auto-focus in reflex cameras
Inchworm motors for linear motion
Rectangular four-quadrant motors with high power density (2.5
watt/cm3) and speed ranging from 10nm/s to 800mm/s.
Stepping piezo motor, using stick-slip effect.
All these motors, except the stepping stick-slip motor work on the
same principle. Driven by dual orthogonal vibration modes with a
phase difference of 90, the contact point between two surfaces
vibrates in an elliptical path, producing a frictional force between the
surfaces. Usually, one surface is fixed causing the other to move. In
most piezoelectric motors the piezoelectric crystal is excited by a sine
A slip-stick actuator.
wave signal at the resonant frequency of the motor. Using the
resonance effect, a much lower voltage can be used to produce a high
vibration amplitude.

Stick-slip motor works using the inertia of a mass and the friction of a clamp. Such motors can be very small. Some
are used for camera sensor displacement, allowing anti shake function.

Reduction of vibrations and noise

Different teams of researchers have been investigating ways to reduce vibrations in materials by attaching piezo
elements to the material. When the material is bent by a vibration in one direction, the vibration-reduction system
responds to the bend and sends electric power to the piezo element to bend in the other direction. Future applications
of this technology are expected in cars and houses to reduce noise.
In a demonstration at the Material Vision Fair in Frankfurt in November 2005, a team from TU Darmstadt in
Germany showed several panels that were hit with a rubber mallet, and the panel with the piezo element immediately
stopped swinging.
Piezoelectric ceramic fiber technology is being used as an electronic damping system on some HEAD tennis
rackets.[31]

Infertility treatment
In people with previous total fertilization failure, piezoelectric activation of oocytes together with intracytoplasmic
sperm injection (ICSI) seems to improve fertilization outcome.[32]

Surgery
A recent application of piezoelectric ultrasound sources is piezoelectric surgery, also known as piezosurgery.[33]
Piezosurgery is a minimally invasive technique that aims to cut a target tissue with little damage to neighboring
tissues. For example, Hoigne et al.[34] reported its use in hand surgery for the cutting of bone, using frequencies in
the range 2529kHz, causing microvibrations of 60210m. It has the ability to cut mineralized tissue without
cutting neurovascular tissue and other soft tissue, thereby maintaining a blood-free operating area, better visibility
and greater precision.[35]
Piezoelectricity 161

References
[1] Holler, F. James; Skoog, Douglas A; Crouch, Stanley R (2007). "Chapter 1". Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Cengage Learning.
p.9. ISBN978-0-495-01201-6.
[2] Harper, Douglas. "piezoelectric" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=piezoelectric). Online Etymology Dictionary. .
[3] Gautschi, G (2002). Piezoelectric Sensorics: Force, Strain, Pressure, Acceleration and Acoustic Emission Sensors, Materials and Amplifiers..
Springer.
[4] J. Krautkrmer, and H. Krautkrmer (1990). Ultrasonic Testing of Materials. Springer.
[5] Jacques and Pierre Curie (1880) "Dveloppement par compression de llectricit polaire dans les cristaux hmidres faces inclines"
(Development, via compression, of electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces), Bulletin de la Socit minrologique de
France, vol. 3, pages 90 - 93. Reprinted in: Jacques and Pierre Curie (1880) Dveloppement, par pression, de llectricit polaire dans les
cristaux hmidres faces inclines," (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k30485/ f296. image) Comptes rendus ... , vol. 91, pages 294 -
295. See also: Jacques and Pierre Curie (1880) "Sur llectricit polaire dans les cristaux hmidres faces inclines" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/
ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k30485/ f385. image) (On electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces), Comptes rendus ... , vol. 91, pages
383 - 386.
[6] Lippman, G. (1881). "Principe de la conservation de l'lectricit" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k348640) (in French). Annales de
chimie et de physique 24: 145. .
[7] Jacques and Pierre Curie (1881) "Contractions et dilatations produites par des tensions dans les cristaux hmidres faces inclines" (http:/ /
gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3049g/ f1131. image) (Contractions and expansions produced by voltages in hemihedral crystals with
inclined faces), Comptes rendus ... , vol. 93, pages 1137 - 1140.
[8] Woldemar Voigt, Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SvPPAAAAMAAJ& pg=PR1#v=onepage& q&
f=false) (Berlin, Germany: B. G. Teubner, 1910).
[9] M. Birkholz (1995). "Crystal-field induced dipoles in heteropolar crystals II. physical significance" (http:/ / www. mariobirkholz. de/
ZPB1995b. pdf). Z. Phys. B 96 (3): 333340. Bibcode1995ZPhyB..96..333B. doi:10.1007/BF01313055. .
[10] S. Trolier-McKinstry (2008). "Chapter3: Crystal Chemistry of Piezoelectric Materials". In A. Safari, E.K. Akdogan. Piezoelectric and
Acoustic Materials for Transducer Applications. New York: Springer. ISBN978-0-387-76538-9.
[11] Sensor Sense: Piezoelectric Force Sensors (http:/ / machinedesign. com/ article/ sensor-sense-piezoelectric-force-sensors-0207).
Machinedesign.com (2008-02-07). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.
[12] Damjanovic, Dragan (1998). "Ferroelectric, dielectric and piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric thin films and ceramics". Reports on
Progress in Physics 61 (9): 12671324. Bibcode1998RPPh...61.1267D. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/61/9/002.
[13] Kochervinskii, V (2003). "Piezoelectricity in Crystallizing Ferroelectric Polymers". Crystallography Reports 48 (4): 649675.
Bibcode2003CryRp..48..649K. doi:10.1134/1.1595194.
[14] Akizuki, Mizuhiko, Martin S. Hampar, and Jack Zussman (1979). "An explanation of anomalous optical properties of topaz" (http:/ / rruff.
geo. arizona. edu/ doclib/ MinMag/ Volume_43/ 43-326-237. pdf). Mineralogical Magazine 43 (326): 237241.
doi:10.1180/minmag.1979.043.326.05. .
[15] M. Minary-Jolandan, and Min-Feng Yu (2009). "Nanoscale characterization of isolated individual type I collagen fibrils: Polarization and
piezoelectricity". Nanotechnology 20 (8): 085706. Bibcode2009Nanot..20h5706M. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/20/8/085706. PMID19417467.
[16] Lakes, Roderic. "Electrical Properties of Bone: A Review" (http:/ / silver. neep. wisc. edu/ ~lakes/ BoneElectr. html). University of
WisconsinMadison. .
[17] Becker, Robert O; Marino, Andrew A (1982). "Chapter 4: Electrical Properties of Biological Tissue (Piezoelectricity)" (http:/ / www. ortho.
lsuhsc. edu/ Faculty/ Marino/ EL/ EL4/ Piezo. html). Electromagnetism & Life. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
ISBN0-87395-560-9. .
[18] Pollack, S.R, Korostoff, E., Starkebaum, W. y Lannicone, W (1979). "Micro-electrical studies of stress-generated potentials in bone". In
Brighton, C.T., Black, J. and Pollack, S.R.. Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage. New York City: Grune & Stratton, Inc.
ISBN0-8089-1228-3.
[19] Fotiadis, D.I; Foutsitzi, G., and Massalas, C.V (1999). "Wave propagation modeling in human long bones" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ tr43l7562581u4q8). Acta Mechanica 137: 6581. doi:10.1007/BF01313145. .
[20] Lee, BY; Zhang, J; Zueger, C; Chung, WJ; Yoo, SY; Wang, E; Meyer, J; Ramesh, R; Lee, SW (2012-05-13). "Virus-based piezoelectric
energy generation.". Nature nanotechnology 7 (6): 3516. Bibcode2012NatNa...7..351L. doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.69. PMID22581406.
[21] Saito, Yasuyoshi; Takao, Hisaaki; Tanil, Toshihiko; Nonoyama, Tatsuhiko; Takatoril Kazumasa; Homma, Takahiko; Nagaya, Toshiatsu;
Nakamura, Masaya (2004-11-04). "Lead-free piezoceramics" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v432/ n7013/ abs/ nature03028.
html). Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 432 (7013): 8187. Bibcode2004Natur.432...84S. doi:10.1038/nature03028. PMID15516921. .
[22] "Market Report: World Piezoelectric Device Market" (http:/ / www. acmite. com/ market-reports/ materials/
world-piezoelectric-device-market-report. html). Acmite Market Intelligence (http:/ / www. acmite. com). .
[23] Richard, Michael Graham (2006-08-04). "Japan: Producing Electricity from Train Station Ticket Gates" (http:/ / www. treehugger. com/
files/ 2006/ 08/ japan_ticket_gates. php). TreeHugger. Discovery Communications, LLC. .
[24] Wright, Sarah H (2007-07-25). "MIT duo sees people-powered "Crowd Farm"" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 2007/ crowdfarm-0725.
html). MIT news. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. .
Piezoelectricity 162

[25] Kannampilly, Ammu (2008-07-11). "How to Save the World One Dance at a Time" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ International/
story?id=5358214& page=1). ABC. ABC. .
[26] http:/ / www. linear. com/ docs/ 29984
[27] Phillips, James R (2000-08-10). "Piezoelectric Technology: A Primer" (http:/ / www. techonline. com/ community/ ed_resource/
feature_article/ 8277). eeProductCenter. TechInsights. .
[28] Speck, Shane. (2004-03-11) How Rocket-Propelled Grenades Work by Shane Speck (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ rpg3. htm).
Science.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-04.
[29] Le Letty, R.; Barillot, F.; Lhermet, N.; Claeyssen, F.; Yorck, M.; Gavira Izquierdo, J.; Arends, H.; Barillot; Lhermet; Claeyssen; Yorck;
Gavira Izquierdo; Arends (2001). "The scanning mechanism for ROSETTA/MIDAS from an engineering model to the flight model".
Proceedings of the 9th European Space Mechanisms and Tribology Symposium, 1921 September 2001, Lige, Belgium. Compiled by R. A.
Harris. ESA SP-480, Noordwijk, Netherlands: ESA Publications Division 480: 7581. Bibcode2001ESASP.480...75L. ISBN92-9092-761-5.
[30] Simonsen, Torben R. Piezo in space (http:/ / elektronikbranchen. dk/ nyhed/
dansk-elektronikvirksomhed-goer-klar-til-rumeventyr-efter-koeb-af-piezoteknologi) Electronics Business (in Danish), 27 September 2010.
Retrieved: 28 September 2010.
[31] "Isnt it amazing how one smart idea, one chip and an intelligent material has changed the world of tennis?" (http:/ / www. head. com/
tennis/ technology. php?region=eu& tag=intelligence). HEAD. . Retrieved 2008-02-27.
[32] Baltaci, Volkan; Ayvaz, zge ner; nsal, Evrim; Akta, Yasemin; Baltac, Aysun; Turhan, Feriba; zcan, Sarp; Snmezer, Murat (2009).
"The effectiveness of intracytoplasmic sperm injection combined with piezoelectric stimulation in infertile couples with total fertilization
failure". Fertil. Steril. 94 (3): 9004. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.03.107. PMID19464000.
[33] Manbachi, A. and Cobbold R.S.C. (2011). "Development and Application of Piezoelectric Materials for Ultrasound Generation and
Detection". Ultrasound 19 (4): 187196. doi:10.1258/ult.2011.011027.
[34] Hoigne DJ, Stubinger S, Von Kaenel O, Shamdasani S, Hasenboehler P. (2006). "Piezoelectic osteotomy in hand surgery: first experiences
with a new technique". BMC Musculoskelet Disord 7: 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-7-36.
[35] Labanca M, Azzola F, Vinci R, Rodella LF. (2008). "Piezoelectric surgery: twenty years of use". Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 46 (4): 2659.
doi:10.1016/j.bjoms.2007.12.007. PMID18342999.

International standards
ANSI-IEEE 176 (1987) Standard on Piezoelectricity
IEEE 177 (1976) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators
IEC 444 (1973) Basic method for the measurement of resonance freq & equiv series resistance of quartz crystal
units by zero-phase technique in a pi-network
IEC 302 (1969) Standard Definitions & Methods of Measurement for Piezoelectric Vibrators Operating over the
Freq Range up to 30MHz

External links
Gautschi, Gustav H., 2002, Piezoelectric Sensorics, Springer, ISBN 3-540-42259-5,
Fundamentals of Piezoelectrics (http://www.amazon.com/
Fundamentals-Piezoelectric-Sensorics-Mechanical-Thermodynamical/dp/3540439668/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&
s=books&qid=1275053589&sr=1-2)
Piezo motor based microdrive for neural signal recording (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19163430)
History of Piezoelectricity (http://www.piezoinstitute.com/about/piezohistory/index.php)
Research on new Piezoelectric materials (http://www.scientificblogging.com/news_account/
research_new_piezoelectric_materials)
Piezo Equations (http://www.techonline.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=192201162&queryText=22)
Piezo in Medical Design (http://medicaldesign.com/motors-motion-control/precision-via-piezo-20100501/)
Video demonstration of Piezoelectricity (http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/195)
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package Piezoelectric Materials (http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/
piezoelectrics/index.php)
Piezo Motor Types
Neck (music) 163

Neck (music)
The neck is the part of certain string instruments that projects from the main body and is the base of the fingerboard,
where the fingers are placed to stop the strings at different pitches. Guitars, lutes, the violin family, and the mandolin
family are examples of instruments which have necks.
The word for neck sometimes appears in other languages in musical instructions. The French term is manche.

Guitar
The neck of a guitar includes the
guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners,
headstock, and truss rod. The wood
used to make the fretboard will usually
differ from the wood in the rest of the
neck. The bending stress on the neck is
considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see Strings and tuning), and the ability of the neck to
resist bending (see Truss rod) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when
strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of an instrument's
quality. Conversely, the ability to change the pitch of the note slightly by deliberately bending the neck forcibly with
the fretting arm is a technique occasionally used, particularly in the blues genre and those derived from it, such as
rock and roll. The shape of the neck's cross-section can also vary from a gentle curve to a more pronounced "V"
shape. (The fretboard is typically gently rounded across its width.)

Marker dots (see Inlay (guitar)) on the face of the fretboard are usually placed at frets 3, 5, 7, 9, 12 (double dot to
indicate the octave), 15, 17, 19, 21, 24 (double dot to indicate the second octave). It's also common that there are
marker dots on the side of the neck, near the edge of the fretboard, where the player can easily see which fret he or
she is on. Sometimes the dots are replaced with bars, the octave positions having a wider bar. Classical guitars
almost never feature position markers, especially on the fretboard's face, whereas electric guitars usually do. This is
due to several factors:
1) Electric guitars do not rely on a resonating body chamber to produce sound and therefore the inert bodywood may
be carved more deeply to allow better access to higher frets.
2) Electric guitars also sport an extended high-end range, due to the above reason. Typically, up to 24 frets are used.
3) Electric guitars vary greatly in terms of scale length, depth of lower and - if present - upper rout and where these
connect to the neck at its heel, and number of frets (usually between 21 and 24). In contrast, classical guitar
dimensions are standardised, with the 12th fret aligning with the neck-end of the body, use of only 19 frets, and scale
length of 25.6".
While it may be perceived that position markers are featured on popular instruments to accommodate their typically
lesser-educated users (in contrast to classical instruments), on the contrary, for the above reasons, position markers
are of much help to electric guitarists of any level of competence.

Violin
The neck of a violin is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. The shape of the
neck and fingerboard affect how easily the violin may be played. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse
curve, and have a small lengthwise "scoop," or concavity, slightly more pronounced on the lower strings, especially
when meant for gut or synthetic strings. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly
increased angle, and lengthened by about a centimeter. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a
Neck (music) 164

Baroque violin when bringing its neck to conformance with modern standard.

Other instruments
The neck of a lute is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood (usually ebony) to provide durability for the
fretboard beneath the strings.

Attachment
The method of connecting the neck to the body of the instrument varies according by instrument. This ranges from
necks that are simply screwed onto the body of the instrument (such as in electric guitars like the Fender
Stratocaster) to various types of glued joints.
There are basically four ways of attaching the neck to the body using glued joints:
With a dovetail joint, where the dovetail is cut into the end of the neck assembly and fits into a mating mortise in
the instrument's endblock. This is typically used on acoustic and hollow-body electric guitars.
With a simpler mortise and tenon joint, which is similar to a dovetail joint, except that the tenon is straight
instead of tapered. Sometimes these joints are reinforced with screws, nails or pins. Since this joint is inherently
weaker than a dovetail joint, it is usually only found on violins and similar instruments with less string tension.
With a neck that ends in a "foot" that is glued to the instrument body proper. This method is mostly used in
building classical and flamenco guitars. The "foot" is on the bottom of the neck, and affords a large gluing surface
to the back of the instrument.
By making the neck part of the body. This method is used on some solid-body electric guitars, where the piece of
wood that is the neck runs the entire length of the instrument and is laminated to the rest of the body. This makes
an extremely strong joint.
The two factors in deciding what type of neck joint to use are:
1. Strength: will the joint hold under the instrument's string tension without pulling out?
2. Repairability: can the joint be easily repaired if needed? While the latter two methods (using a "foot" and
laminating the neck into the instrument) create very strong joints, they are not very repairable, and require tearing
the instrument apart if repairs are needed.

External links
Carving the Neck for the Flattop Guitar [1] - Step by step instructions for the construction of the acoustic guitar
neck, on the Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. liutaiomottola. com/ construction/ NeckCarve. htm
[2] http:/ / www. liutaiomottola. com
Fingerboard 165

Fingerboard
The fingerboard (also known as a fretboard on fretted instruments) is a part of most
stringed instruments. It is a thin, long strip of material, usually wood, that is laminated to the
front of the neck of an instrument and above which the strings run. In the playing of such an
instrument, a musician presses the strings down towards it in order to change their vibrating
lengths, causing changes in pitch. This is called "stopping" the strings.
The word "fingerboard" in other languages sometimes occurs in musical directions. In Italian
it is called either manico or tasto, the latter especially in the phrase sul tasto, a direction for
bowed string instruments to play with the bow above the fingerboard.

Fretted guitar
fingerboard
Fingerboard 166

Fretless violin
fingerboard

Frets
A fingerboard may be fretted, having raised strips of hard material
perpendicular to the strings against which the strings are stopped. Frets easily
and consistently allow a musician to stop the string in the same place, and
they allow for less damping of the vibrations than fingers alone. Frets may be
fixed, as on a guitar or mandolin, or movable, as on a lute. Fingerboards may
also be unfretted, as they usually are on bowed instruments, where damping is
generally not a problem due to the prolonged stimulation of the strings.
Six strings Bass guitar fingerboard
Unfretted fingerboards allow a musician more control over subtle changes in
pitch than fretted boards, but are generally considered harder to master where
intonation is concerned. Fingerboards may also be, though uncommon, a hybrid of these two. Such a construction is
seen on the sitar, where arched frets attach at the edges of the fingerboard; unfretted strings run below the frets, while
fretted ones run above. The frets are sufficiently high that pressing strings against the fingerboard is unnecessary for
the frets to stop their vibrations so that the lower strings' sympathetic vibrations are uninterrupted.

Frets may be marked by inlays to make navigation across the fingerboard easier. On 6-string guitars and bass guitars,
the markers are typically single smallish dots marking the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th frets, and their octaves higher up the
neck, with a double dot or some other variation marking the 12th fret and 24th frets. Variations on the standard dot
shape can be used to make a guitar more distinctive. Position markers are sometimes made luminescent (through
using paint or replacement with light emitting diodes) to make them more visible on stage. Position markers are also
sometimes repeated on the edge of the fretboard for easy viewing.
Fingerboard 167

Over time, frets tend to wear out, resulting in buzzing and "deadness" to the sound of the instrument. This requires a
re-fretting job to take place. Not having frets carefully and properly aligned with the fingerboard may result in a
severe intonation issue as well as constant detuning. The ultimate way of determining the source of the buzz and
detuning problem is to measure the degree to which the frets are level. If you put a straightedge on the neck
positioning it so that it is in the "lie" of one of the strings, it would make contact with the top of every fret.
Variation: A variation of the straight fret is the Curved or bent frets that were patented by Andres Thidell of
Sweden. The "bending" of the frets allows the plucked strings open pitch to be exactly in tune with that of a fretted
note on an entirely different place of the keyboard. In short this system allows the guitar or any other instrument it is
used on to play in tune.
This invention has let to several "temperaments" that would otherwise be impossible on a fretted instrument
including the Thidell formula 1 as well as the Die Wohltemperirte Gitarr based on what was believed to be J.S.
Bach's temperament.

Materials
On bowed string instruments, (such as violin, viola, cello, and double bass), the fingerboard is usually made of
ebony, rosewood or some other hardwood. On some guitars a maple neck and fingerboard are made from one piece
of wood. A few modern innovative luthiers have used lightweight, non-wood materials such as carbon-fiber in their
fingerboards.[1]

Parameters
Typically, the fingerboard is a long [plank] with a
rectangular profile. On a guitar, mandolin, ukulele, or
similar plucked instrument, the fingerboard appears flat
and wide, but may be slightly curved to form a
cylindrical or conical surface of relatively large radius
compared to the fingerboard width. The radius quoted
in the specification of a string instrument is the radius
of curvature of the fingerboard at the head nut.

Many bowed string instruments use a visibly curved

fingerboard, nut and bridge in order to gain bow
clearance on each individual string.
The length, width, thickness and density of a
Fingerboard profile looking from nut to bridge. Scheme and essential
fingerboard can affect the timbre of an instrument.
parameters
Most fingerboards can be fully described by the
following parameters:
w1 width at nut (close to headstock);
w2 width at half of scale length (if fretted, usually the 12th fret);
h1 profile height (thickness) at nut;
h2 profile height (thickness) at half of scale length;
r radius (may be non-constant);
Fingerboard 168

Radius
Depending on values of radius r and their transition
over the length of the fingerboard, all fingerboards
usually fit into one of the following four categories:

Graphs of r(x) function for typical fingerboard profiles

1 Flat Both nut and bridge are flat. The strings are all in one plane, and the instrument does not have a
radius (the radius is in a sense infinite).

2 Cylindrical The fingerboard has a constant radius, and the fingerboard, the nut and the bridge all have the
same nominal radius (that of the fingerboard is strictly speaking a little smaller than that of nut
and bridge).

3 Conical The fingerboard has a varying radius, usually linearly progressing from to . Sometimes it
[2]
is also called a compound radius. The nut and bridge are both curved but the nut radius is
smaller than that of the bridge.

4 Compound While not strictly conical, with a curved nut and linear bridge. All parts of the fingerboard will , usually
have some curvature, but the fingerboard shape is not strictly a cone.

Notes:
is a scale.
designates a place on fingerboard, changes from 0 (at nut) to (at bridge).
describes radius depending on place on fingerboard.
is a non-linear function.
The larger the radius, the flatter the fretboard. Looking down from the headstock, the fingerboard can be seen as a
surface section of a larger cylinder. The fret has a slight curve to it, and that arc can be extrapolated to a circle with a
center point. The radius is the distance to that point. If you draw a perpendicular line from the middle of the fret to
the center point of the theoretical cylinder, you can visualize the outer circle. The fret wire is a section of the
circumference of that circle. A 12" radius means the center point is 12 inches from the fret. Thats a smaller circle
than one with a 17" radius, and the outside surface of the larger circle is flatter.
Classical guitars, some 12-string guitars, banjos, dobros, pedal steel, and a few steel stringed acoustic guitars have
flat fingerboards. Almost all other guitars have at least some curvature. However some recent five and six string
electric basses have flat fingerboards.
For guitars, smaller radii (7.2510") are said to be more comfortable for chord and rhythm playing, while larger radii
(12"-16" and up to infinite radius) are more appealing to fast soloing. Conical and compound radius fingerboards try
to merge both of these features. The nut end of the fingerboard has a smaller radius towards the nut to ease in
Fingerboard 169

forming chords. The bridge end of the fingerboard has a larger radius to make soloing more comfortable and prevent
"fretting out" (having the string press against a higher fret during a bend).
A Brief History Of Discovering The Conical Fingerboard in 1978 by luthier Denny Rauen can be found in American
Lutherie #8/Winter 1986 and String Instrument Craftsman May/June 1988 under the title "Multi-Radius
Fingerboards". This special radiusing is a standard on many of Denny's custom built guitars and refret work
beginning in 1978. Articles by Denny Rauen about the "Multi Radius Fingerboard" are the first published documents
detailing the initial use of a conical fingerboard for the specific purpose of improving string bending while still
retaining the ability for comfortable chording while playing guitar.
Bowed string instruments tend to have curved fingerboards, to allow single strings to be played. Those of the modern
violin family and the double bass are strongly curved, however those of some archaic bowed instruments are flat.

Examples
Examples of some instruments' fingerboard radius parameters:

Model r w1 w2

Modern Fender Stratocaster [2] 111/16"

9.5" (241mm)
American guitar (42.8mm)

Vintage Fender Stratocaster [2]

7.25" (184.1mm)
guitar

Gibson Les Paul guitar 12" (305mm) 1.68"

(43.053mm)

Ibanez guitars RG and S series: 15.75"-17" (400-430mm). Artcore: 12" (305mm).

Jackson guitars [2]

16" (406mm) or compound, from 12" (nut) to 16" (heel). A compound
radius is common on their newer models

Warmoth guitars [2]

Compound, from 10" at nut to 16" at heel.

[3] 10" (254mm) 121/32" 2.25"

PRS Guitars Regular
(42mm) (57.1mm)

PRS Guitars Wide Fat and 111/16" 2.25"

Wide Thin (42.8mm) (57.1mm)

PRS Guitars 513 143/64" 23/16"

(42.4mm) (55.5mm)

PRS Guitars Hiland 121/32" 27/32"

(42mm) (56.3mm)

PRS Guitars Santana 111/2" (292mm) 121/32 2.25"

(42mm) (57.1mm)

PRS Guitars Custom 22/12 111/2" (292mm) 147/64" 219/64"

(44mm) (58.3mm)

Most electric guitars with LSR [2]

9.5" to 10" (241mm to 254mm)
roller nuts

Most electric guitars with Floyd 10" (254mm)[2]

Rose bridge

Traditional Classical guitars flat (no radius) Variable by Variable by

maker model

Martin acoustic guitars 16" (406.4mm) Variable by

model

Gibson acoustic guitars 12" (305mm)

Fingerboard 170

Full size (4/4) violin 42mm 24mm 40mm

Radius printable samples

6 7 9 10

11 12 16 20

Scalloping
A fretted fingerboard can be scalloped by "scooping out" the wood
between each of the frets to create a shallow "U" shape. The result is a
playing surface wherein the players' fingers come into contact with the
strings only, and do not touch the fingerboard.
The process of "scalloping" a fingerboard well, if done by hand, is
tedious work, usually done by careful filing of wood between the frets,
and requires a large investment of time. Consequently, it is relatively Scalloped fingerboard of Yngwie Malmsteen
Stratocaster
expensive to have done. Generally scalloping of fingerboards is done
by a special milling machine which has 22 or 24 (according to the neck
dimensions and number of frets) wood cutting tools. This equipment saves time to the process and dimensional
stability like scalloping the wood in the neck's radius same in all fret spaces.

Scalloped fingerboards are most commonly used by shred guitarists, most notably, Yngwie Malmsteen, who, like
Ritchie Blackmore (of Deep Purple) uses scalloped fret boards, and had a signature model of Yngwie Malmsteen
Stratocaster developed with Fender. Ibanez JEM series guitars, designed and played by Steve Vai, come standard
with the last 4 frets scalloped. In 2008 Ibanez made available their E-Gen model, a Herman Li signature, which
includes four scalloped frets (21st to 24th). Karl Sanders of the death metal band Nile also uses several guitars with
scalloped frets, including several Deans, and KxK Guitars.
In the 1970s, English guitarist John McLaughlin played with Shakti (band), along with Indian violinist L. Shankar,
using an acoustic guitar with a fully scalloped fretboard. McLaughlin explained that this feature increased the ease
and range of string bends by eliminating friction between finger and fretboard. The scalloped fretboard also made
possible the use of rapid, microtonal variation which is so important in Indian music, as exemplified by classical
Indian Sitar music.
Experimental luthier Yuri Landman made an electric guitar for John Schmersal of Enon called the Twister with a
partial scalloped neck for only the thin strings, (like little playground slides).
Other examples of lutes with scalloped fretboards include the South Indian veena and Vietnamized guitar (called n
ghi-ta, lc huyn cm, or ghi-ta phm lm).The Japanese multi-instrumentalist and experimental musical instrument
builder Yuichi Onoue made a deeply scalloped electric guitar for Vietnamese microtonal playing techniques.[4]
Scalloping can be:[5]
Full, i.e. all frets from the first to the last are scalloped.
Fingerboard 171

Partial, when some of the top frets are scalloped for fast soloing. Popular examples include half scalloping (12th
to the last fret, used by Kiko Loureiro of Angra,[6] among others) or few top frets scalloping (1924, 1722, etc.),
utilized by such guitarists as Steve Vai. When done by hand, sometimes fretboards can be scalloped half below D
or G string, as in the case for Turkish luthier Kenan Turgut.
Note that filing the wood while scalloping also touches inlays, thus fingerboards with complex and intricate inlays
usually aren't conducive to scalloping, as it would damage the artwork. Simple dot or block markers survive the
procedure well.

Advantages and disadvantages

The "scooped out" nature of scalloped fingerboards creates a number of changes in the way the guitar plays.
Most obvious, is that the fingertip only comes into contact with the string, not the fingerboard itself, creating less
friction for bends and vibratos, which results in more overall control while playing.
However, that is also one of the main disadvantages. Many players, especially new players, may find a scalloped
fingerboard to be too different to play easily if the strings are light for the player and/or the player has the
tendency to press too hard on the fingerboard, it does take practice to play in tune on a scalloped fingerboard. The
player must first become accustomed to not actually touching the fingerboard, which may take some time. Playing a
scalloped fingerboard requires a careful application of pressure: too much can change the pitch of the fretted note, as
during a bend, and too little pressure can cause fret buzz. As a result, the majority of guitar players choose to use a
traditional fingerboard on their instruments.[7]

Scoop of fretless bowed-string fingerboards

Fretless bowed-string fingerboards are usually scooped lengthwise in a smooth curve, so that if a straight edge is
held next to the board parallel to a string, some daylight will show between them, towards the centre of the board.
Usually the scoop is slightly greater on the bass side, less on the treble side of the fingerboard. Different string
materials or different styles of playing may call for differing amounts of scoop; with gut strings requiring the most,
and solid steel-core strings the least. A typical full-size (4/4) violin with synthetic-core G, D, and A strings will show
0.75mm of scoop under the G string, and between 0.5mm and zero scoop under the E, which generally has a solid
steel core on instruments with modern set-up.
On guitars, specifically steel-string and electric guitars, the relief (or "dip") is adjustable by altering the tension on
the steel truss rod inside the neck. Relaxing the truss rod allows the pull of the strings to increase the dip, and
vice-versa. Classical guitars do not need truss rods due to the lower tension of nylon strings, but should still exhibit
some degree of dip.

Notes
[1] Luthier David Rivinus' site (http:/ / www. rivinus-instruments. com/ DesignConcepts. htm#Weight. . . and conscience) explanation of why he
doesn't use ebony fingerboards
[2] Guitar neck radius (http:/ / www. warmoth. com/ guitar/ necks/ necks. cfm?fuseaction=radius) article at Warmoth
[3] PRS Guitars FAQ: What are the differences between necks you offer? (http:/ / www. prsguitars. com/ csc/ faq. html)
[4] Yuichi Onoue on hypercustom.com (http:/ / www. hypercustom. com/ yuichionoue. html)
[5] Scalloping (http:/ / www. warmoth. com/ guitar/ necks/ necks. cfm?fuseaction=scalloping) article at Warmoth
[6] (http:/ / www. espguitars. co. jp/ artist/ kiko_loureiro/ index. html)
[7] Ross, Michael (1998). Getting Great Guitar Sounds: A Non-technical Approach to Shaping Your Personal Sound. Hal Leonard Corporation.
p.15. ISBN978-0-7935-9140-4.
Fingerboard 172

References
Stringworks U (http://www.stringworks.com/care_maintenance.htm#fingerboard) brief description of
fingerboard for violins, violas, & cellos
Violin construction detailed specification sheet by Alan Goldblatt (http://www.alangoldblatt.com/specs/
Violin.pdf) (PDF, 18KB)
Ibanez website gives specific neck/fingerboard dimensions (http://www.ibanez.com)
The Scalloped Fretboard Guitar (http://www.ancient-future.com/guitar/scallop.html) article
Free professional information about modern luthery (by Stewart MacDonald) (http://www.stewmac.com/
freeinfo.html)

Fret
A fret is a raised portion on the neck of a stringed instrument, that
extends generally across the full width of the neck. On most modern
western instruments, frets are metal strips inserted into the fingerboard.
On historical instruments and some non-European instruments, pieces
of string tied around the neck serve as frets.
Frets divide the neck into fixed segments at intervals related to a
musical framework. On instruments such as guitars, each fret
represents one semitone in the standard western system where one
octave is divided into twelve semitones. The neck of a guitar showing the nut (in the
"To fret" is often used as a verb, meaning simply "to press down the background, coloured white) and first four metal
frets.
string behind a fret." Fretting often refers to the frets and/or their
system of placement.

Explanation
Pressing the string against the fret reduces the vibrating length of the string to that between the bridge and the next
fret between the fretting finger and the bridge. This is damped if the string were stopped with the soft fingertip on a
fretless fingerboard.
An advantage of frets is that they make it much easier to achieve an acceptable standard of intonation since the
positions for the correct notes are given by the frets. Furthermore, playing chords are much easier on a fretted
fingerboard.
A disadvantage of using frets is that the player is restricted by the temperament given by the position of the frets.
Some influence on the intonation is still possible, however. The string can be pulled to the side to increase the string
tension and the pitch. This technique (commonly called 'bending') is often used by electric guitarists of all genres and
is a very important part of sitar playing. On instruments with thicker frets, the string tension and pitch will vary with
the pressure of the finger behind the fret. Sometimes it is also possible to pull the string toward the bridge or nut,
thus lowering or raising the string tension and pitch, respectively. However, with the exception of instruments like
the sitar, where extensive pulling of the string is possible, much less influence on the intonation is possible than on
unfretted instruments.
Since the intonation of most modern western fretted instruments is equal tempered, the ratio of the distances of two
consecutive frets to the bridge is , or approximately 1.059463. Theoretically, the twelfth fret should divide the
string in two exact halves. To compensate for the increase in string tension when the string is pressed against the
frets, the bridge position can be adjusted slightly so that the 12th fret plays exactly in tune.
Fret 173

Many instruments' frets are not spaced according to the semitones of

equal temperament, including the Appalachian dulcimer (with frets in a
diatonic scale), the Turkish Saz (with frets spaced according to the
Makam system of Turkish folk music), the Arabic Buzuq (with frets
spaced according to the Arabic maqam system), and the Persian setar
and tar (with frets spaced according to the Persian Dastgah system),
and the Turkish tanbur (with as many as 5 frets per semitone, to cover
all of the commas of the Turkish Makam system).

Frets tied on to the neck of a saz; note microtonal

Variations frets between semitones.

Fan frets (or fanned frets, or slanted frets): Most frets are
perpendicular to the instrument's neck centerline and parallel to each other. On a fanned fret board the frets are
spread out like a fan - with only one center fret perpendicular to the necks centerline and the rest angled - in order to
give the lowest strings more length and the higher strings shorter length (comparable to a piano or a harp where the
different strings also have different lengths). The idea is to give more accurate tuning and deeper bass. And some
think that fanned frets might be more ergonomic. Fanned frets first appeared on the 16th century Orpharion, a variant
of the cittern, tuned like a lute. Rickenbacker offered them in the late 60's, and Novax Guitars among others offers
such guitars today. The appearance of angled frets on these modern instruments belies the antiquity of this technique.

Scalloped fretboard: Scalloping involves the wood between some or all of the frets being scooped out. This allows
a lighter touch for a more precise playing while executing bends or vibratos (since there's no contact between the
fingertips and the wooden part of the fingerboard). It has some popularity with musicians playing heavy metal music,
although the concept can also be seen in ancient instruments such as the sitar.

Semi-fretted instruments
It is also possible to find semi-fretted instruments; examples include the Malagasy kabosy and the Afghan Rubab.
Semi-fretted versions of guitars and other fretted string instruments, however, are usually one-off, custom
adaptations made for players who want to combine elements of both types of sound. One arrangement is for the frets
to extend only part of the way along the neck so that the higher notes can be played with the smooth expression
possible with a fretless fingerboard. Another approach is the use of frets that extend only partway across the
fretboard so that some courses of strings are fretted and others fretless, for example Ryszard Latecki's Latar [1].

Fret intonation
Instruments with straight frets like guitars require a special compensation on the saddle and nut. Every time a string
is fretted it is also stretched, and as it stretches the string rises in pitch, making all fretted tones sound sharp. When
the saddle is positioned properly, however, the fretted tones all sound sharp to the same degree as long as the
distances between the frets are correct. With the right nut compensation, the pitch of the unfretted string can be
raised by the same amount. As a result, when the tension of the strings is lowered, the pitches of all notes, both
fretted and unfretted, becomes correct.
Fret 174

Fret wear
On instruments equipped with steel strings, such as folk guitars and electric guitars, frets are eventually bound to
wear down as the strings cut grooves into them. When this happens, the instrument may need refretting (the frets are
removed and replaced) or, in less severe cases, "fret dressing" (the frets are leveled, polished, and possibly
recrowned). Often, a few fret dressings can be performed on a guitar before it requires complete refretting.
Tied gut frets, used on instruments such as the lute or viol, wear quickly, and must be replaced regularly.

Fret buzz
Fret buzz is one of the many undesirable phenomena that can occur on a guitar or similar stringed instrument. Fret
buzz occurs when the vibrating part of one or more strings physically strikes the frets that are higher than the fretted
note (or open note). This causes a "buzzing" sound on the guitar that can range from a small annoyance, to severe
enough to dampen the note and greatly reduce sustain. Sometimes, fret buzz can be so minute that there is only a
small change in the tone (timbre) of the note, without any noticeable buzzing. Fret buzz can be caused by different
things:[2]
Low action
Improperly installed frets (some frets are higher than others)
Strings too loose
Improper relief of guitar neck
Fret buzz is evident in some famous recordings; an example is "Friends" by Led Zeppelin (although this example is
undoubtedly caused by alternate open tunings that reduce string tension). In some core songs, such as "My Last
Serenade" by Killswitch Engage, the guitars are tuned to Dropped C and the low tension of the strings are used to
create fret buzz by the bass player, to create a dirty sound.

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. unfretted. com/ loader. php?LINK=/ profs/ ryszard
[2] "Buzz Diagnosis" (http:/ / www. frets. com/ FRETSPages/ Luthier/ Technique/ Setup/ BuzzDiagnosis/ buzzintro. html). .

External links
Konrad Schwingenstein: Intonation of stringed instruments with straight frets, http://www.pepithesecond.com
Calculating Fret Positions (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/formulae/fret.htm) An article on calculating fret
positions for any equal tempered instrument on the Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website (http://www.
liutaiomottola.com/).
How to replace frets (http://www.e-odyssey.biz/guitar_craft/02_repair_file/026_Morris_W-80/index.html)
Photo story
Installing the Frets in a Fretted Stringed Musical Instrument (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/construction/
FretInstall.htm) An article on fret installation for a new instrument on the Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information
Website (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/).
Dressing the Frets in a Fretted Stringed Musical Instrument (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/construction/
FretDressing.htm) An article on fret dressing on the Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website (http://www.
liutaiomottola.com/).
Fretless guitar 175

Fretless guitar
A fretless guitar is a guitar without frets. It operates in the same manner as most other stringed instruments and
traditional guitars, but does not have any frets to act as the lower end point (node) of the vibrating string. On a
fretless guitar, the vibrating string length runs from the bridge, where the strings are attached, all the way up to the
point where the fingertip presses the string down on the fingerboard. Fretless guitars are fairly uncommon in most
forms of western music and generally limited to the electrified instruments due to decreased acoustic volume and
sustain in fretless instruments. However, the fretless bass guitar has gained fairly widespread popularity and many
models of bass guitar can be found in fretless varieties. Fretless Electric Bass is particularly popular among Jazz,
Funk and R&B players due to the similarity in feel and sound to the acoustic double bass.

Advantages and disadvantages

Fretless guitars are not constrained with particular
musical tunings, tuning systems or temperaments,
as is the case with fretted instruments. This
facilitates the playing of music in other than
12-tone scales; these scales are typically found in
non-Western or experimental music. Fretless
guitars produce a different sound than their fretted
counterparts as well, because the fingertip is
relatively soft (compared to a fret) and absorbs
energy from the vibrating string much more
quickly. The result is that the pizzicato on a
fretless guitar has a more dampened sound. One
can finger notes with one's nail like an Indian
sarod player. This will sustain and brighten the
sound. One can also combine bottleneck slide
guitar with fretless fingered guitar playing to add
an additional range of tonal possibilities that
allows for more melodic and harmonic/chordal
possibilities than some of the constraints common
to traditional standard and open tuning slide
guitar techniques.

Some players seem to choose the fretless guitar

mainly for its ability to get in more direct contact Fretless bass guitar

with the note played (since finger tip and not the
fret decides the string length). However, playing a fretless instrument usually requires much more training of the
fretting hand for exact positioning and shifts, and more ear training to discern the minute differences in intonation
that fretless instruments permit. To make this easier, many fretless guitars and basses have lines in place of frets and
side position markers (dots or lines), indicating half-tone increments.

Acoustic fretless guitars produce less volume than their fretted counterparts, which is usually addressed by the use of
pickups and amplification. Fretless bass guitars, which have much heavier strings and a bigger body, are also
typically amplified.
On fretless basses the fingerboard is usually made of a hard wood, such as ebony. To reduce fingerboard wear from
round-wound strings a coat of epoxy may be applied. Other strings, such as flat-wound, ground wound or nylon
Fretless guitar 176

tape-wound strings, can also be used to reduce fingerboard wear.

Fretless instruments
Fretless guitars are typically modified versions of factory-made traditionally "fretted" guitars, the frets being
removed by the player or a professional luthier. There are also professional builders specialising in custom-made
fretless guitars.
Fretless bass guitars are much more common than fretless guitars, and there are many manufacturers offering these
as standard models.

Famous users
In no particular order:

Fretless guitar
Rambo Amadeus Social satirist/Comedian and experimental jazz/rock musician,among other things,he is known
for playing fretless guitar in his performances.
Maartin Allcock Multi-stringed intrumentalist with Fairport Convention, Jethro Tull and Bully Wee Band.
Session Work with Eddi Reader, Robert Plant & Beverley Craven and many others
Adrian Belew has used fretless guitars on a few recordings in the '80s.
Matt Bellamy of Muse now uses a custom Manson double neck with one neck fretless live for two songs.
John Cale used a fretless guitar on the 1965 album Stainless Gamelan - a very early recording of fretless guitar.
Ned Evett plays a variety of fretless guitars, typically with a glass fingerboard.
David Fiuczynski plays fretless guitar extensively in his instrumental project KiF.
John Frusciante used a fretless Stratocaster on the recording of Blood Sugar Sex Magik (most notably on the
guitar solo of Mellowship Slinky in B major); he now uses custom made fretless guitars with glass fingerboards.
Nigel Gavin regularly uses a Godin Glissentar in live performance and for several pieces on his albums Thrum
and Visitation.
Guthrie Govan plays a Vigier fretless guitar.
Aziz Ibrahim plays Godin and Vigier fretless guitars.
Benn Jordan, a.k.a. The Flashbulb, plays a fretless guitar on the track Steel for Pappa from the album Soundtrack
to a Vacant Life.
Pat Metheny plays a fretless classical guitar on the title track of the album Imaginary Day.
Issei Noro has used fretless guitar from professional debut year in 1979, the user of the most famous Japanese
guitarist, and most user are using.
Erkan Our (Turkish pioneer of the fretless guitar) makes nearly all his music with self-made fretless guitars.
Hasan Cihat rter composer and instrument is playing more than twenty.
Yannick Robert plays his Ibanez signature model on "Vaci Utca" and "Dix cordes de nuit".
Karl Sanders plays a double necked guitar which has an 11-string fretless setup on the top neck, which he used on
many of the tracks on Nile's album Ithyphallic.
Elliott Sharp has occasionally used fretless guitars, such as on his 1996 album Sferics.
Ron Thal (also known as Bumblefoot) has used fretless guitars extensively.
Steve Vai played a triple neck (12-string, 6-string and 6-string fretless) guitar during live shows many years ago.
Franck Vigroux plays fretless guitar on Push the triangle's album "repush" and live acts.
Vindsval of Blut Aus Nord used fretless guitars on the microtonal MoRT album and other albums.
Frank Zappa used fretless guitars on a few albums in the early and mid 1970s.
Fretless guitar 177

Fretless bass
Jaco Pastorius (bassist for Weather Report, considered by many to be the most influential bass player of all time)
used a customized fretless Fender Jazz Bass that he modified himself.
Dann Glenn (solo bassist/composer) has a signature model fretless bass by Hotwire Basses, and also plays Fender
Jazz and LightWave fretless basses.
Juan Alderete (bassist for The Mars Volta, and previously Racer X) has constantly used fretless basses over his
career including using a custom fretless Fender Jazz Bass as his main bass of the album Frances the Mute.
Bill Wyman, (former bassist of The Rolling Stones), was the first bass player to use a self-made fretless
Fender/electric bass that he created after stripping down a standard bass. He removed the frets from his
second-hand bass because they were rattling.[1] This can be heard on many of the early Rolling Stones records.
Rick Danko (of The Band and later, Danko/Fjeld/Andersen) used a fretless bass starting around 1970, heard on
the 1971 Cahoots studio album and the Rock of Ages album recorded live in 1971.[2][3][4]
Freebo (session musician known mostly for his work with Bonnie Raitt) has used a fretless bass live and on many
recordings.
Brent Liles (bassist for Social Distortion and Agent Orange)
Jonas Hellborg (solo bassist) extensively used fretless bass both on his solo bass recordings and with other
projects, currently has a signature bass co designed by him from Warwick.
Pedro Aznar, bassist and composer who has played with Ser Girn and The Pat Metheny Group
Laurence Cottle British session fretless/fretted bass player who has worked with such diverse artist as Sting, Cher,
Eno, Eric Clapton and Black Sabbath
John Myung of Dream Theater can be seen performing on a fretless six string in Metropolis 2000: Scenes from
New York during the song Through Her Eyes.
Steve Bailey, a session bassist, performs on the six string fretless bass guitar.
Jack Bruce (of Cream) uses a fretless Warwick bass guitar.
Sean Malone (of Cynic, et al.), wrote an analytical teaching book on Jaco Pastorius' playing and also plays the
Chapman Stick
Gary Willis (of Tribal Tech), has a signature model fretless bass by Ibanez.
Marnie Jaffe (of Live Skull) played a fretless bass in the band Live Skull.
Steve DiGiorgio (one of the few fretless bassists in the metal scene) usually plays a five string fretless bass.
John Paul Jones (bassist for Led Zeppelin) plays fretless bass on several Led Zeppelin songs, most notably on "In
My Time of Dying".
Colin Edwin (of British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree).
John Deacon (bassist of Queen) plays fretless bass on several Queen songs.
Mick Karn (former bassist of Japan and avantgarde musician) has used fretless bass guitar since the late 1970s.
Karn has mainly used Travis Bean during his early Japan years and Wal (bass) since 1981.
Tony Levin was made famous because of the fretless bass parts on Peter Gabriel's "Sledgehammer" and on a large
amount of his solo album work. Like Sean Malone, Levin also plays the Chapman Stick.
Tony Franklin has been instrumental in bringing the fretless bass to heavy music recordings. Franklin is generally
associated with the fretless Fender Precision Bass; he has a signature model. During the 80's he was also seen
with Jaydee basses.
Pino Palladino, a session bassist, has developed a fretless bass method. The bulk of Pino's fretless work was
played with a pre Ernie Ball Music Man StingRay.
Percy Jones bass player with Brand X and Tunnels. Percy initially played a fretless Fender Precision Bass then a
Wal (bass) and finally an Ibanez EDA905. Jones started playing fretless bass in 1971[5]
Bunny Brunel had used a fretless bass on many recordings since the 1970s, usually a signature Carvin BB75
(bass).
Fretless guitar 178

Victor Wooten uses a custom five-string fretless bass on several of his own songs as well as several Bela Fleck
and the Flecktones songs.
Sting (bassist and leader of The Police) used a variety of fretless basses with The Police
Jeroen Paul Thesseling, fretless bassist, currently plays progressive/technical death metal for the band Obscura, as
well as microtonal world music. He uses six-string fretless Warwick basses.
Jandek, outsider musician, has recorded entire albums of only vocals and fretless electric bass.
Jeff Ament, (bassist of Pearl Jam) uses fretless basses on some Pearl Jam songs as well his other projects. Jeff is
normally seen play Wal (bass) basses when using a fretless.
Paul Simonon from The Clash used a fretless Fender Precision Bass in 1981, during the period of their
Sandinista! album.
Mo Foster is a highly regarded UK session bassist whose 'voice' is a fretless Fender Jazz bass.
Stomu Takeishi is a Japanese jazz bassist.
Geddy Lee, of the Canadian rock trio Rush has played fretless bass on and off since the 1970s. He used a Fender
Jaco Pastorius tribute bass to play the bass line for the instrumental Malignant Narcissism from 2007's Snakes &
Arrows.
Les Claypool (of Primus and his many other side projects) uses a variety of fretless basses, most commonly an
upright 5 string, and more famously his Carl Thompson (luthier) 4 string fretlesses and 6 string fretless Rainbow
Bass.
Colin Moulding, bass player with XTC uses fretless bass to achieve their distinctive sound. Almost all songs on
the XTC album English Settlement use fretless bass.
Martin Mendez, bassist for Opeth used a fretless bass on Still Life.
David Gilmour, Pink Floyd guitarist, plays a fretless bass on Hey You. And their bassist and songwriter Roger
Waters plays fretless bass on the track "A Pillow of Winds" from the 1971 Meddle album.
Michel Hatzigeorgiou, Aka Moon is a Belgian bassist.
Michael Manring, solo bassist, plays Zon Hyperbass (TM) fretless basses for his experimental virtuoso music.
Stu Hamm, studio/solo bassist, can be seen playing a fretless on the song Rubina on Joe Satriani's Live in San
Francisco DVD.
Tom Jenkinson, also known as Squarepusher, sometimes performs using fretless bass.
Morty Black, former bass player for TNT has used fretless bass on songs such as Forever Shine On and Without
Your Love.
Kristoffer Gildenlw, former bass player for Pain of Salvation has extensively used fretless bass by ESP in many
album recordings, such as BE and One Hour by the Concrete Lake.
John Taylor, bass player with Duran Duran occasionally uses fretless bass, having used one notably on the Duran
Duran song "Lonely In Your Nightmare" from their hit album "Rio" and also on the song "Tiger Tiger" from their
third album "Seven And The Ragged Tiger".
Fretless guitar 179

Events
Festivals featuring live fretless guitar music have been held for several years both in the US and in Europe. In New
York, the first NYC Fretless Guitar Festival was held in 2005. In Holland, the Dutch Fretless Guitar Festival has
taken place since 2008.

References
[1] Roberts, Jim (2001). 'How The Fender Bass Changed the World' or Jon Sievert interview with Bill Wyman, guitar player magazine December
(1978)
[2] Bacon, Tony (2010). 60 Years of Fender. Backbeat Books. p. 50. ISBN 0-87930-966-0
[3] Trynka, Paul (1996). Rock Hardware. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 113. ISBN 0-87930-428-6
[4] Bacon, Tony; Moorhouse, Barry. (2008). The bass book: a complete illustrated history of bass guitars. Hal Leonard Corporation, second
edition. p. 96. ISBN 0-87930-924-5
[5] http:/ / www. fretlessbass. com/ JonesPercyInterview-01. html

External links
Unfretted.com (http://www.unfretted.com) - fretless guitar resource: history, news, reviews, tips, FAQs, MP3s,
lists, dictionary, etc.
NYC Fretless Guitar Festival (http://www.fretlessguitarfestival.com) - The New York Fretless Guitar Festival
features the best fretless players from around the world.
Ned Evett (http://www.nedevett.com) The home of the glass guitarist.
"Iki keklik" by Erkan Ogur (http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewprofile&
friendID=52218190)
A beautiful Erkan Ogur piece (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2_4uxCt20U)
Turkish fretless guitar virtuoso Erkan Ogur in concert (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bYlZRG6hgM)
Scale (string instruments) 180

Scale (string instruments)

For the musical (rather than instrumental) scale, see Pythagorean tuning.
String instruments produce sound through the vibration of their strings. The range of tones these strings can produce
is determined by three primary factors: the mass of the string (related to its thickness as well as other aspects of its
construction: density of the metal/alloy etc.), the tension placed upon it, and the instrument's scale length. When
referring to stringed instruments, the scale length (often simply called the "scale") is considered to be the maximum
vibrating length of the strings to produce sound, and determines the range of tones that string is capable of producing
under a given tension. In the classical community, it may be called simply "string length" or less often "mensure."
On instruments in which strings are not "stopped" or divided in length (typically by frets, the player's fingers, or
other mechanism), such as the piano, it is the actual length of string between the nut and the bridge.
On many, but not all, instruments, the strings are at least roughly the same length, so the instrument's scale can be
expressed as a single length measurement, as for example in the case of the violin or guitar. On other instruments,
the strings are of different lengths according to their pitch, as for example in the case of the harp or piano.
On most modern fretted instruments, the actual string length is a bit longer than the scale length, to provide some
compensation for the "sharp" effect caused by the string being slightly stretched when it is pressed against the
fingerboard. This causes the pitch of the note to go slightly sharp (higher in pitch). Another factor in modern
instrument design is that, at the same tension, thicker strings are more sensitive to this effect, which is why saddles
on acoustic (and often electric) guitars are set on a slight diagonal. This gives the thicker strings slightly more length.
All other things being equal, increasing the scale length of an instrument requires an increase in string tension for a
given pitch.
A musical string may be divided by the twelfth root of two , approximately 1.059463094 and the result taken as
the string-length position at which the next semitone pitch (fret position) should be placed from the previous fret (or,
in case this is the first calculation, the nut (instrumental) or zero fret) of the instrument. This quotient is then divided
again by itself to locate the next semitone higher, and so on.

Alternatively, the string may be divided by , approximately 17.817, and the quotient taken as the location of
the next semitone pitch from the nut of the instrument. The remainder is again divided by 17.817 to locate the next
semitone pitch higher, and so on. For centuries the divisor 18 was used instead; this "Eighteen Rule" produced a sort
of rough compensation. Actual fret spacing on the fretboard was often done by trial and error method (testing) over
the ages. However, since the nineteenth century the availability of precision measuring instruments has allowed frets
to be laid out with mathematical accuracy.
In many instruments, for example the violin, the scale of a full-sized instrument is very strictly standardised. Smaller
scale instruments are still often used:
By younger players.
By smaller advanced players.
To obtain a particular tone or effect.
For convenience when travelling.
Larger scale instruments are rare, but may be used by experimental and avant-garde players, or specially made for
soloists with particularly extended reach.
In other instruments, for example the viola and the electric guitar, the scale of a full-sized instrument varies a great
deal.
Scale (string instruments) 181

Bowed strings

Violin family
The two most famous violin makers, Antonio Stradivari (16441737) and Giuseppe Guarneri del Ges (16981744),
both used an open string length of 12.8 in (327mm) for their violins, which had already been established a
generation before by Jacob Stainer (c. 16171683). Later makers have been unwilling to deviate from this.
Smaller scale instruments are used extensively to teach younger players. The size of these is described by a
"conventional" fraction that has no mathematical significance. For example, a 7/8 violin has a scale of about
317mm, a 3/4-size instrument a scale of 307mm, a half-size one 287mm, and a quarter-size one 267mm. 1/8, 1/10,
1/16 and 1/32 and even 1/64 violins also exist, becoming progressively smaller, but again in no proportional
relationship. (A full-size instrument is described as 4/4.)
Cellos exist in a smaller range of sizes than violins, with 4/4, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, and 1/10 being reasonably common.
As with the violin, the Stradivarius scale is regarded as standard for orchestral work; This is about 27.4 in (695mm).
Violas are commonly described in terms of their body length rather than by a conventional fraction. There are two
reasons for this. Firstly, unlike that of the violin and the cello, the viola scale length has not standardised, but rather
an advanced player will use whatever scale length best suits them. Secondly, student sizes are not as often required,
as most viola players who start learning at a young age would start on the violin. Common sizes include 17 in
(43cm), 16.5 in (42cm), 16 in (41cm), 15.5 in (39cm), 15 in (38cm), 14 in (36cm), and less commonly 12 in
(30cm), smaller than a standard violin; These measurements are nominal and approximate. At least one of the
surviving Stradivarius violas has a scale length of 14.25 in (362mm).

Double bass
There is some variation in the scale length of an orchestral double bass, generally in the range 42.3"-43.3"
(10501100mm). There are also smaller versions of this "full scale" double bass with the same scale length but with
a smaller sound box, intended for other musical idioms. Smaller scale instruments are also quite commonly used by
full-sized players in jazz, folk music and similar ensembles.
The system of conventional fractions is taken to its logical conclusion with string bass sizes, in that a full-size (4/4)
bass is uncommon. Most basses are 3/4 or 7/8, and younger players can use 1/2 or even 1/4 size instruments.

Classical guitar
Like that of the violin, the scale of the classical guitar was standardized by the work of its most famous maker.
Antonio De Torres (18171892) used a scale length of 25.6 in (650mm), and later makers have followed suit.
However, from the mid- 20th Century luthiers seeking increased volume have moved to a 26 in (660mm) scale,
which is now the standard for such leading makers as Ramirez.
Unlike Stradivarius, Torres had no strong tradition on which to build regarding scale length, so the 25.6 in figure can
be attributed to him with confidence.
Scale (string instruments) 182

Steel-string acoustic guitar

The steel-string acoustic guitar typically has a scale slightly shorter than the classical instrument, the most common
scales ranging between 24.6 in and 25.4 in.

Electric guitar
The scale length of an electric guitar affects both its playability and its tone. Regarding playability, a shorter scale
length allows more compact fingering and favors shorter fingers and hand-span. A longer scale allows more
expanded finger and favors longer fingers and hand-span. With regard to tone, a longer scale (e.g. Fender Telecasters
with 25.5inch (648mm) scale length) favors "brightness" or cleaner overtones and more separated harmonics versus
a shorter scale (e.g. Gibson Les Paul with 24.75 in (629mm) scale length) which favors "warmth" or more muddy
overtones. According to Dave Hunter's "Tone Manual" (2011), each scale length has its characteristic sound and
tone, which is individual from other sounds in the tone chain: strings, pickups, pedals, amplifiers, speakers, and
cabinets.

History
Most Fender electric guitars, including the Stratocaster, Telecaster, Esquire, and Jazzmaster use a scale length of
25.5 in (648mm). A few Fender models such as the Jaguar use a scale length of 24 in (610mm). Fender has also
built some 3/4-size student guitars with a scale length of 22.5 in (572mm) or shorter.
Gibson uses a scale length of 24.75 in (629mm) on many of its electric guitars, including the Les Paul, Flying V,
Explorer, SG, and ES-335. Gibson has used other scale lengths on various models through the years.

Summary
20.7 in (527mm):
Squier Bullet Mini
Rickenbacker Electro (student model) Es-16, Rickenbacker 1996, 320 and 325, notably John Lennon's most
famous guitar
22.5 in (572mm), known as "3/4 scale" in Fender sales literature:
Fender Musicmaster
Fender Duosonic
Fender Mustang
Some Musicmaster II and Duosonic II
22.72 in (577mm):
Fender Stratocaster Junior
22.75 in (578mm):
Gibson 3/4 scale Les Paul Junior and Gibson Melody Maker
23.5 in (597mm):
Gibson Byrdland
24 in (610mm), confusingly called "full scale" in Fender sales literature:
Fender Jaguar
Fender Mustang most models, including current production
Fender Jag-Stang
Most Musicmaster II and Duosonic II
Fender Bronco
Scale (string instruments) 183

Brian May Red Special

24.5 in (622mm):
Mosrite guitars
Paul Reed Smith 245 series guitars
24.6 in (625mm):
Gretsch most electric guitars
24.75 in (629mm):
Gibson most electric guitars (including Les Paul, most Les Paul Juniors, Flying V, Explorer, SG, Firebird,
ES-175, ES-330, ES-335)
Gibson ES-150 (original version)
Epiphone most electric guitars (including Casino, G-310, G-400)
Fender Cyclone
Rickenbacker most electric guitars (including 330, 340, 350, 360, 370, 380, 620, 650, 660)
Godin most electric guitars
Guild most electric guitars
ESP Maverick now it calls ESP MV
Fender Tele-Sonic
Fender Stratosonic
25 in (635mm)
Danelectro guitars
Dobro resonator guitars
Paul Reed Smith most electric guitars
Patrick Eggle most electric guitars
25.125 in (638mm):
Vox Virage II
Vox Virage Series 77, 55, 33, 22
25.2 in (640mm):
Selmer Maccaferri Grande Bouche Model
25.5 in (648mm), closest to the classical guitar scale:
Fender most electric guitars (including Esquire, Telecaster, most Stratocasters, Jazzmaster)
Fender Stagemaster 24 Fret Guitars
Gibson L-5
Gibson Super 400
Gibson Johnny Smith Model
Gretsch some models
Ibanez most electric guitars
Jackson most electric guitars
Kramer Striker
Schecter most electric guitars
Squier most electric guitars
26.38 in (670mm):
Selmer Petit Bouche Model and most Mirecourt-era Gypsy Jazz guitars
27 in (686mm)
Fender Jaguar Baritone Special HH (tuned B-B)
Scale (string instruments) 184

Ibanez RG2228 8-string guitar (tuned F#-B-E-A-D-G-B-E)

Jim Soloway guitars
Gibson Buckethead Signature Les Paul (24 fret oversized Les Paul opposed to traditional 22 fret)
29.25 in (743mm)
Gretsch G6144 Spectra Sonic Baritone

Electric bass

History
The first electric basses were upright electric basses built in the 1930s by fitting an otherwise normal double bass
with electric pickups, and so had a scale length of about 43" (109cm).
In 1951 the Fender Precision Bass shortened this to 34" (86cm). This is still often regarded as the standard length for
a bass guitar.
On a modern bass guitar, 30" (76cm) or less is considered short scale, standard (also called long) scale is 34"
(86cm) for a 4-string and 35" (89cm) for a B-E-A-D-G 5-string, and extra-long scale basses of 36" (91cm) also
exist.
Quite an uncommon scale construction using the Novax Fanned-Fret system [1] that "fan outward" for the ability to
play in tune with the unequal scale lengths of each string that is used to find the optimal equal tonal response and
equal string tension from string-to-string for easier playing is represented by Dingwall Basses [2], who uses a 37" to
34" span on their Prima, Z1, Z2, and Afterburner original designs and a shorter 34.25" to 32" span for their "Super J"
Jazz Bass design.

Summary
25 in
Airline Supro pocket Bass
28.5 in (724mm)
Fender Jaguar Bass VI Custom
30 in (762mm)
Fender Mustang Bass, Fender Bronco Bass, Fender Musicmaster Bass
Fender Bass VI, Stagg AB203 Acoustic Bass
30.25 in (768mm)
Hofner 500 Beatle Bass
Mosrite basses
30.5 in (775mm)
Gibson EB-1, EB-0, EB-2, and Gibson SG bass(EB-3)
Hamer B8S 8-string bass
33.25 in (845mm)
Rickenbacker 4000 Series basses
34 in (864mm)
Fender Precision Bass, Jazz Bass, Jaguar Bass
Gibson Thunderbird Bass
Most Ibanez basses
Steinberger basses
Scale (string instruments) 185

34.5 in (876mm)
Gibson EB-0L and other EB-xL basses
35 in (889mm)
Ibanez BTB series basses
Yamaha TRB series
36 in (914.4mm)
Overwater C Bass (1982) followed by various 5 and 6 string basses
39.55 in (1004.57mm)
Knuckle Guitar Works Quake bass
42.343.3 in (1074.421100mm) full-scale double bass (for comparison; see above about fractional sizes of
bowed instruments).

Other chordophones
Mandola: 20.2 in (51cm)
Mandolin: 14.1 in (36cm)
Octave mandolin: 22.75 in (58cm)
Ukulele:
Soprano ukulele: 13.6 in (35cm)
Concert ukulele: 14.75 in (37cm)
Tenor ukulele: 17 in (43cm)
Baritone ukulele: 20.1 in (51cm)

Piano
The scale length of a piano is quoted as the length of the longest string. As this is normally the lowest bass note, it
will be a single string.

Grand piano
Concert grand pianos range in scale from about 7ft 6 in (229cm) to 9ft (274cm) or occasionally more. Notable
concert grands include:
The Steinway Model D, at 8ft 11-3/4 in (272cm).
The Imperial Bsendorfer, at 9-1/2 feet (290cm) with 97 keys.
The Fazioli F308 at 10ft 2 in (310cm).
Smaller grand pianos vary in naming. The larger models, about 6ft (183cm) or more in scale length, may have the
full grand piano action, and are used in smaller concert spaces. Others are intended for larger homes, and may have a
simplified action lacking the repeat lever that is only useful for advanced players.
Baby grand pianos are the smallest, intended for homes, restaurants and similar applications where the grand style
of piano is desired even at the expense of the longer scale and better sound that an upright format would permit in
the available space.
Scale (string instruments) 186

Pythagorean scaling
For the musical (rather than instrumental) scale, see Pythagorean tuning.
Pythagorean scale refers to the relative lengths of strings within an instrument.[3] This kind of scaling dictates that
the ratio of string lengths should be equal to the harmonic ratio of their pitches. It is a logarithmic scale which
doubles at each octave. This type of scaling was offered under the assumption that by keeping all other factors
consistent (esp. string thickness and tension) and changing only length, the sound of the instrument would be
homogeneous across its full range.
Because the length of strings increases so quickly in the bass register, it often would produce an instrument of such
length as to be impractical. If pythagorean scaling were applied to the stringed instruments, the double bass would be
extremely cumbersome. In pianos and harpsichords, generally less tension or thicker strings are used in the lower
register to avoid the need for such large dimensions as demanded by a Pythagorean scale.

Additional reading
"Lutherie Info Measuring Scale Length of Stringed Instruments" [4] by R.M. Mottola, on the Liutaio Mottola
Lutherie Information Website [2].
"Fender's 3/4 Scale Guitars", a two-part article by Tim Pershing in 20th Century Guitar magazine, December
1996 and January 1997.

External links
WA's Scale Lengths page [5] -- guitar, bass guitar, mandolin and other stringed instruments.
Instrument plans index [6] giving some scale lengths.
Discussion [7] of the effect of scale length.
Bass guitar buying guide [8] discusses scale length.
Vintage guitars [9] with dimensions.
Listing of some orchestral basses [10] giving both body and scale lengths.
Real Guitar Solo [11]

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. novaxguitars. com/ info/ concept. html
[2] http:/ / www. dingwallguitars. com/ html/ products. html
[3] Pythagoras and the Scale Design of Early Harpsichords (http:/ / www. harpsichord. org. uk/ guests/ dw/ wraight. htm)
[4] http:/ / www. liutaiomottola. com/ formulae/ scale. htm
[5] http:/ / members. cox. net/ warren. allen/ Scale_Lengths/ scale_lengths. htm
[6] http:/ / www. elderly. com/ books/ 611. htm
[7] http:/ / www. 12fret. com/ fret/ fv4n7. htm
[8] http:/ / www. sweetwater. com/ shop/ bass-guitars/ bass-guitars/ buying-guide. php
[9] http:/ / www. provide. net/ ~cfh/ index. html
[10] http:/ / www. contrabass. co. uk/ cstopquality. htm
[11] http:/ / realguitarsolo. com
Strings (music) 187

Strings (music)
A string is the vibrating element that produces sound in string
instruments such as the guitar, harp, piano, and members of the violin
family. Strings are lengths of a flexible material that a musical
instrument holds under tension so that they can vibrate freely, but
controllably. Strings may be "plain" (consisting only of a single
material, like steel, nylon, or gut). "Wound" strings have a "core" of
one material, with an overwinding of other materials. This is to make
the string vibrate at the desired pitch, while maintaining a low profile
Flatwound strings on a fretless bass guitar
and sufficient flexibility for playability.

String construction
The end of the string that mounts to the instrument's tuning mechanism is usually plain. Depending on the
instrument, the string's other, fixed end may have either a plain, loop, or ball end (actually a short brass cylinder) that
attaches the string at the end opposite the tuning mechanism. Strings for some instruments may be wrapped with silk
at the ends to protect the string. The color and pattern of the silk often identifies attributes of the string, such as
manufacturer, size, intended pitch, etc.

Wound strings
There are several varieties of wound strings.

Roundwound

The simplest wound strings are

roundwoundwith round wire
wrapped in a tight spiral around either
a round or hexagonal core. Such
strings are usually simple to
manufacture and the least expensive.
They have several drawbacks,
however:

Roundwound strings have a bumpy surface profile (the bumps of the winding) that produce friction on the
player's fingertips. This causes squeaking sounds when the player's fingers slide over the strings. (Some artists use
this sound creatively.)
A non-flat, high-friction surface profile may hasten fingerboard and fret wear.
When the core is round, the winding is less secure and may rotate freely around the core, especially if the winding
is damaged after use.
Strings (music) 188

Flatwound

Flatwound strings also have either a

round or hex core. However, the
winding wire has a rounded square
cross-section that has a shallower
profile (in cross-section) when tightly
wound. This makes for more
comfortable playing, and decreased
wear for frets and fretboards (this makes them a popular choice for fretless instruments). Squeaking sounds due to
fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly. Flatwound strings also have a longer playable life
because of fewer and smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in.

On the other hand, flatwound strings sound less bright than roundwounds and tend to be harder to bend. Flatwounds
also usually cost more than roundwounds because of less demand, less production, and higher overhead costs.
Manufacturing is also more difficult, as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained (some
rotation of the winding on roundwound strings is acceptable).[1][2]

Halfwound, ground wound, pressure

wound

Halfwound strings, ground wound

strings, or pressure wound strings
are a cross between roundwound and
flatwound. Such strings are usually
made by winding round wire around a
round or hex core first, then polishing,
grinding (thus the name, ground wound) or pressing the exterior part of the winding until it is practically flat. This
results in the flat, comfortable playing feel of flatwounds, along with less squeaking, with a brightness generally
between roundwounds and flatwounds. The polishing process removes almost half of the winding wire's mass, thus,
to compensate for it, manufacturers use winding wire of a heavier gauge. Because of the extra manufacturing process
involved they are normally more expensive than roundwounds, but less than flatwounds.
Strings (music) 189

Hexcore
Hexcore strings are composed of regular hexagonal core and a tight (usually round) winding. The "points" of the
hexagonal cross-section prevents the winding from slipping around the corewhich can occur with round core
strings.

Gauge
Bowed instrument strings, such as those for the violin or cello, are
usually described by tension rather than gauge. The discussion here
primarily concerns fretted instruments.
The tone of a string depends partly on its weight, and, therefore, on its
diameterits gauge. Usually, string diameter is measured in
thousandths of an inch (0.001in = 0.0254mm). The larger the
diameter, the heavier the string. Heavier strings require more tension
for the same pitch and are, as a consequence, harder to press down to
A wound acoustic guitar string (phosphor bronze
the fingerboard. A fretted instrument that is restrung with different
wound around steel) with a ball end, 0.044"
string gauges may require adjustment to the string height above the gauge
frets (the "action") to maintain playing ease or keep the strings from
buzzing against the frets. The action height of fretless instruments is also adjusted to suit the string gauge or material,
as well as the intended playing style.

Steel strings for six-string guitar usually come in sets of matched strings. Sets are usually referenced either by the
gauge of the first string (e.g., 9), or by pair of first and last (e.g., 9-42). Some manufacturers may have slightly
different gauge sequences; the sample data below comes from D'Addario string charts for regular, round-wound,
nickel-plated strings.

Electric guitar
(Note: strings in dark gray boxes are wound. All others are plain.)

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6
(E) (B) (G) (D) (A) (E)

Extra super light (8-38) .008 .010 .015 .021 .030 .038

Extra super light plus (8.5-39) .0085 .0105 .015 .022 .032 .039

Super light (9-42) .009 .011 .016 .024 .032 .042

Super light plus (9.5-44) .0095 .0115 .016 .024 .034 .044

Regular light (10-46) .010 .013 .017 .026 .036 .046

Extra light w/heavy bass (9-46) .009 .013 .016 .026 .036 .046

Medium (11-48/49) .011 .014 .018 .028 .038 .048/49

Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10-52) .010 .013 .017 .032 .042 .052

Medium w/wound G string (11-52) .011 .013 .020 .030 .042 .052

Heavy (12-54) .012 .016 .020 .032 .042 .054

Extra heavy (13-56) .013 .017 .026 .036 .046 .056

Strings (music) 190

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6
(E) (B) (G) (D) (A) (E)

Extra super light (8-38) 0.2032 0.2540 0.3810 0.5334 0.7620 0.9652

Extra super light plus (812.7-39) 0.2159 0.2667 0.3810 0.5588 0.8128 0.9906

Super light (9-42) 0.2286 0.2794 0.4064 0.6096 0.8128 1.0668

Super light plus (9-44) 0.2413 0.2921 0.4064 0.6096 0.8636 1.1176

Regular light (10-46) 0.2540 0.3302 0.4318 0.6604 0.9144 1.1684

Extra light w/heavy bass (9-46) 0.2286 0.3302 0.5334 0.7366 0.9144 1.1684

Medium (11-48/49) 0.2794 0.3556 0.4572 0.7112 0.9652 1.2192~1.2446

Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10-52) 0.2540 0.3302 0.4318 0.8128 1.0668 1.3208

Medium w/wound G string (11-52) 0.2794 0.3302 0.5080 0.7620 1.0668 1.3208

Heavy (12-54) 0.3048 0.4064 0.5080 0.8128 1.0668 1.3716

Extra heavy (13-56) 0.3302 0.4318 0.6604 0.9144 1.1684 1.4224

(Diameter in mm)

Acoustic guitar
(Note: strings in dark gray boxes are bronze wound. All others are plain. These are for steel string guitars, not
classical nylon/gut strings.)

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6
(E) (B) (G) (D) (A) (E)

Extra light (10-47) .010 .014 .023 .030 .039 .047

Custom light (11-52) .011 .015 .023 .032 .042 .052

Light (12-53) .012 .016 .025 .032 .042 .053

Light/Medium (12.5-55) .0125 .0165 .0255 .0335 .0435 .055

Medium(13-56) .013 .017 .026 .035 .045 .056

Bass guitar
Bass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long
(sometimes called super long) scale. Typical bass guitar strings come in the following gauges:

Name 1 2 3 4 5
(G) (D) (A) (E) (B)

Light or "soft" (40-100) .040 .060 .080 .100 .120

Medium (45-105) .045 .065 .085 .105 .125

Heavy (50-110) .050 .075 .095 .110 .130

Note that some string manufacturers produce other sets of strings. The figure above merely lists the most common
combinations.
Sometimes, they use combinations of the numbers above. For example, a manufacturer might use a .045 and a .065
(both from Medium) for the G and D strings, respectively. They might use a .080 and .100 (both from light) for the
A and E strings, respectively. For a five-string bass, they might use a .130 (from heavy) for the B string.
Strings (music) 191

Bowed strings
Since the 20th century, with the advent of steel and synthetic core strings, most bowed instrument string makers
market their strings by tension rather than by diameter. They typically make string sets in three tension levels:heavy,
medium, and light (German stark, mittel, and weich). These tension levels are not standardized between
manufacturers, and don't correlate to specific diameters. One brand's medium strings may have quite a different
tension than another brand's medium. Based on available historical records, gut strings were sold before 1900 in a
similar way.
On the other hand, modern gut core strings with metal winding, typically have been sold either ungauged for less
expensive brands, or by specific gauge. The Gustav Pirazzi company in Germany introduced the Pirazzi meter (PM)
measurement early in the 20th century. One PM equals .05mm. For example, a 14 1/2 PM gauge string has is
.725mm in diameter. Pirazzi (now known as Pirastro) continues to sell its Olive, Eudoxa, and Passione brand
premium gut core strings by PM gauge. Each string is available in 5 or more discrete gauges. Manufacturers of
traditional plain gut strings, often used in historically informed performance, sell their products by
light/medium/heavy, by PM, by mm or some combination.

Materials

Core
Steel forms the core of most metal strings. Certain keyboard instruments (e.g., harpsichord) and the Gaelic harp use
brass. Other natural materials, such as silk or gutor synthetics such as nylon and kevlar are also used for string
cores. (Steel used for strings, called music wire, is hardened and tempered.) Some violin E strings are gold-plated to
improve tone quality.
Sheep and beef gut (called catgut, though cats were never used) were the original core materials for violin family
strings. Gut strings are subject to changes in humidity, which cause them go out of tune, and they also break more
easily than other core materials. However, even after the introduction of metal and synthetic core materials, many
players still use gut strings, believing that they provide a warmer tone. Players who perform ancient music or on
historical instruments often prefer gut strings as historically accurate. Modern gut strings are usually wrapped in
metal.
For players of plucked instruments, Nylgut strings are a recently developed alternative to gut strings. They are made
from a plastic material and purport to offer the same acoustic properties as gut strings without the tuning problems.
Silk was extensively used in China for traditional Chinese musical instruments until replaced by metal-nylon strings
in the 1950s. Only silk strings used for the guqin are still produced. The quality in ancient times was high enough
that one brand was praised as 'ice strings' for their smoothness and translucent appearance.[3]
Currently, stranded nylon is one of the most popular materials for the cores of violin, viola, cello, and double bass
strings. It's often sold under the trade name of Perlon. Nylon guitar strings were first developed by Albert Augustine
Strings in 1947.[4]
Most jazz and folk string players prefer steel-core strings for their faster response, low cost, and tuning stability.
Most classical string players prefer synthetic-core strings (Nylon, Perlon etc.) for their "warmer" tone. Most baroque
string players still prefer gut-core strings.
Strings (music) 192

Winding
Aluminum, silver, and chrome steel are common windings for bowed instruments like violin and viola, whereas
acoustic guitar and piano strings are usually wound with bronze. Classical guitar strings are typically nylon, with the
basses being wound with either silver or bronze. Electric guitar strings are usually wound with nickel plated steel;
pure nickel and stainless steel are also used. Bass guitar strings are most commonly wound with stainless steel or
nickel. Copper, gold, silver, and tungsten are used for some instruments. Silver and gold are more expensive, and are
used for their resistance to corrosion and hypoallergenicity.
Some "historically-informed" strings use an open metal winding with a "barber pole" appearance. This practice
improves the acoustic performance of heavier gauge gut strings by adding mass and making the string thinner for its
tension. Specimens of such open wound strings are known from the early 18th century, in a collection of artifacts
from Antonio Stradivari. "Silk and steel" guitar strings are overwound steel strings with silk filaments under the
winding.

String vibration
A string vibrates in a complex harmonic pattern. Every time the player sets a string in motion, a specific set of
frequencies resonate based on the harmonic series. The fundamental frequency is the lowest (and loudest), and it is
determined by the density, length and tension of the string. This is the frequency we identify as the pitch of the
string. Above that frequency, overtones (or harmonics) are heard, each one getting quieter the higher it is. For
example, if the fundamental pitch is 440Hz (A above middle C), the overtones for an ideal string tuned to that pitch
are 880Hz, 1320Hz, 1760Hz, 2200Hz, etc. The note names for those pitches would be A, A, E, A, C, etc. Due to
the physical nature of the strings, however, the higher up the overtones go, the more out of tune (or "false") they are
to the fundamental. This is an important consideration for piano tuners, who try to stretch the tuning across the piano
to keep overtones more in tune as they go up the keyboard.

String corrosion
Metal strings are susceptible to oxidation and corrosion. Wound strings that use metals such as brass or bronze in
their winding eventually corrode, as moisture and salts and acids from the player's fingers build up and help oxidize
the string. As a result, the string loses its brilliance over time.[5] To help solve this problem, some string
manufacturers apply a metal plating or polymer coating to protect the string from corrosion, and some companies
sell special lubricating oils that they say slow oxidation.

References
[1] Houston Bass Lessons: Bassist FAQ on strings (http:/ / www. houstonbasslessons. com/ bassist_faq_about_strings. html)
[2] Joey's Bass Notes: Other notes: Bass string types (http:/ / www. joeysbassnotes. com/ Other notes. htm#bst)
[3] Through Qin Strings, Inquiring about the Guqin's Past, Present and Future Path of Development" (http:/ / www. silkqin. com/ 03qobj/ strings/
shuchee1. htm)
[4] " From Gut to Nylon (http:/ / albertaugustine. net/ history. html)", Ivor Mairants, 1980
[5] "Professor String (Musical String Research)" (http:/ / www. professorstring. com/ archives/ guitar_string_tone_curve. htm). .

External links
Identify strings by their silk patterns (http://www.quinnviolins.com/qv_stringidsearch.shtml)
The vibrations of strings with both ends fixed (http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/string/Fixed.html)
Guitar Strings From The Nineteenth Century To The Advent Of Nylon (http://www.aquilacorde.com/index.
php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56&Itemid=585&lang=en)
How to Change the Strings on a Fender Stratocaster (http://www.guitarbitz.com/
how-to-restring-an-electric-guitar-i64)
Strings (music) 193

Historical types of string (http://www.nrinstruments.demon.co.uk/About.html)

String Calculation; String Measurement; Mass Per Unit Length (http://web.archive.org/web/20091028181430/
http://geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/7049/strmpl.htm)
Custom String Gauge Design (http://terrydownsmusic.com/technotes/StringGauges/STRINGS.HTM) Terry
Downs
String Tension (http://www.liutaiomottola.com/formulae/tension.htm) - technical information on string
tension, with tension calculator

Nut (string instrument)

The nut of a string instrument is a small piece of hard material which supports the strings at the end closest to the
headstock or scroll. The nut marks one end of the speaking length of each open string, sets the spacing of the strings
across the neck, and usually holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard. Along with the bridge, the
nut defines the vibrating lengths (scale lengths) of the open strings.

Violin Mandolin Guitar Erhu

Compensated nut on Music Man

Bongo 5 bass guitar

The nut may be made of ebony, ivory, cow bone, brass, Corian or plastic, and is usually notched or grooved for the
strings. The grooves are designed to lead the string from the fingerboard to the headstock or pegbox in a smooth
curve, to prevent damage to the strings or their windings. Bowed string instruments in particular benefit from an
application of soft pencil graphite in the notches of the nut, to preserve the delicate flat windings of their strings.

Etymology
The word is thought to have come from the German Nut (pronounced "noot"), meaning "groove" or "slot".

Variations
Not all string instruments have nuts as described:
Some guitars and mandolins, for example, have nuts that are just string spacers, with deep notches. These
instruments use a zero fret, which is a fret at the beginning of the scale where a normal nut would be, which is
higher than the other frets to provide the correct string clearance. The zero fret is often found on cheaper
instruments, as it's much easier to set up an instrument this way; to make a proper nut requires that each string
Nut (string instrument) 194

notch be carefully cut to the proper depth so that the string is neither too high, affecting overall string height and
intonation of fretted notes, nor too low which causes a plucked or picked string to buzz against the frets. With a
zero fret, the fret merely needs to be the right height. However, a zero fret also makes the sound of the open string
very similar to the fretted note, where the nut itself, being made of a different material, has a different timbre if it
is used instead of a zero fret. It is thus used for this reason on some high-end instruments.:[1]
Some fretted instruments have a compensated nut. This type of nut allows for better tuning across the instrument.
The principle: given that strings are different thicknesses and have different tensions, the temperament of each
fret is not 100% accurate for an equal temperament instrument. This is especially evident on the first few frets of
an electric guitar. Many guitar players will note how 'open position' chords (Such as E, A, C, D and G) will never
sound in tune with each other. A compensated nut aims to correct this, by staggering the starting position of each
string according to thickness. While not a complete solution such as a True Temperament fretboard, there is a
noticeable difference in tuning within chords. Many guitar companies, such as Music Man, and ESP include
compensated nuts as standard on most of their instruments, and companies such as Earvana provide retrofittable
types.
Another type is a Locking Nut. This nut, usually used in conjunction with a locking vibrato system such as a
Floyd Rose or Kahler, clamps the string before the node point. This results in a massive increase in tuning
stability when using the vibrato bar. One large drawback however, is that the Locking Nut must be loosened using
an Allen wrench should tuning need to be adjusted outside the range provided by the fine tuners on the bridge (if
present)
The erhu does not use a hard nut to define the speaking length of the open string, but rather a qin jin ( ) : a
loop of string, or, less commonly, a metal hook.

References
[1] "Parts of the Mandolin: The Nut" (http:/ / fstylemandolin. info/ mandolin-parts-nut/ ). .
Machine head 195

Machine head
A machine head (also referred to as a tuner, or gear head) is a geared apparatus for tuning stringed musical
instruments by adjusting string tension. Machine heads are used on mandolins, guitars, double basses etc., and are
usually located on the instrument's headstock. Non-geared tuning devices that are used on violins, violas, cellos,
lutes, older Flamenco guitars, ukuleles etc., are known as tuning pegs.

Construction and action

Traditionally, a single machine head consists of a cylinder or capstan,
mounted at the center of a pinion gear, a knob or "button" and a worm
gear that links them. The capstan has a hole through the far end from
the gear, and the string is made to go through that hole, and is wrapped
around the capstan. To complete the string installation, the string is
tightened by turning the capstan using the tuning knob. The worm gear
ensures that the capstan cannot turn without a movement on the knob; The machine heads on a Squier Stratocaster
it also allows precise tuning. electric guitar headstock.

Banjos usually employ a different mechanism using planetary gears - in this case the knob and the capstan both
rotate on the same axis. A few guitars (e.g. the original Gibson Firebird, early Gibson basses and Mario Maccaferri's
plastic instruments) have used this design.
The guitarist adjusts the tension of the various strings using the knobs so that they are correctly tuned: a higher
tension yields a sharper pitch, a lower tension a flatter pitch. Typical tensions for steel-string acoustic guitars with
"light" tension strings are 10.5kgf (23.3lbf, 103 N) to 13.8kgf (30.2lbf, 135 N).

Varieties
Normally, worm gears provide a gear ratio of 14:1. Versions with an
18:1 gear ratio also exist, trading better accuracy in fine tuning against
slower initial string winding.

Schaller BM tuning machines on Music Man

Bongo 5
Machine head 196

Several kinds of machine head apparatus exist:

on classical guitars (with nylon strings), the worm gears are
generally exposed; the strings are wound on the pins inside grooves
in the head;
on steel-string guitars, including "folk" acoustic guitars and electric
guitars, the worm gears are generally placed in individual sealed
enclosures with permanent lubrication, although budget models may The machine heads on a classical guitar. Note the
have exposed gears fixed on plates housing a row of gears; several exposed gears and the decorations.
machine head placements are possible, depending on the shape of
the headstock:

rectangular head, 2 rows of 3 pins (or 6 pins for 12-string guitars): found on most "Folk" and "Jazz" guitars
and on Gibson Les Paul guitars;
a single diagonal row of 6 pins: found on Fender Telecaster and Stratocaster guitars;
one diagonal row of four pins and one diagonal row of two pins: found on Music Man guitars;
on bass guitars, where string tension is extremely high, larger, heavier-duty machine heads than those used on
guitars are used. Bass tuners generally feature larger knobs than guitar tuners as well; often these are distinctively
shaped, and known as "elephant ears." Gear ratios of 20:1 are used often. Exposed gears are much more common
in premium bass guitars than in six string non-bass instruments.
Since 1950s, guitar performance techniques evolved, and aggressive
usage of tremolo arm became widespread. However, the original
machine heads couldn't withstand the rigors of constant string tension
changing, and strings got out of tune after using tremolo several times.
Several manufacturers, including Grover and Floyd Rose, introduced a
new design, commonly named locking machine heads nowadays: a
machine head with additional mechanism to lock it in place and
stabilize tuning while playing and using tremolo. However, such
machine heads reached limited success, mostly because of their price:
The reverse of the machine heads on a "folk"
as of 2006, locking ones are about 50% more expensive than original. steel-string acoustic guitar. Note the enclosed
Many break strings when tension is increased while the mechanism is gears.
locked and later unlocked, which frequently happens in music stores.

Note that on some guitars, such as those with Floyd Rose bridge, string tuning may be also conducted using
microtuning tuners located at guitar bridge. In this case, main machine heads at headstock may be missing entirely,
as well as the headstock itself.
Likewise, 'headless' guitars and basses, notably those designed by Steinberger and their licensed imitations, such as
the Hohner Jack Bass, and unlicensed imitations such as the Washburn Bantam, have the machine heads at the body
end. Steinbergers and Hohners require specialist double-ball end strings, whereas the Washburn Bantam can take
regular strings.
Machine head 197

Notable designs
Several manufacturers established well-known designs of knobs and
whole machine heads. These designs are subject to copy and reference:
Rodgers
Grover-style
Schaller-style
Kluson-style
Gotoh-style
Wilkinson-style
Fender-style
Martin EB18 Headstock showing Martin open
Gibson-style type machine heads.

Music Man-style
Speedwinder
Sperzel-style
Dean - style
ESP - style

References
There are several US patents on machine heads, mostly covering various aspects of locking:
US patent 5285709 [1], John D. Grant, "Machine head for tuning a stringed instrument, especially a guitar or the
like", issued 1994-02-15
US patent D388817 [2], Han Soo Kang, "Machine head for a guitar", issued 1998-01-06
US patent D389508 [3], Han Soo Kang, "Machine head for guitar", issued 1998-01-20
US patent 6078001 [4], Han Soo Kang, "Machine head for guitars", issued 2000-06-20
US patent 6580022 [5], Han Soo Kang, "Machine head for guitar", issued 2003-06-17

References
[1] http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US5285709
[2] http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=USD388817
[3] http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=USD389508
[4] http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US6078001
[5] http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US6580022
Detuner 198

Detuner
Detuners or "Xtenders" (Hipshot's brand name) are mechanical
devices used to simplify the tuning of a stringed instrument during
performance. This allows musicians to quickly and accurately reach
notes outside the normal range of their instruments. These devices are
also known by other names including 'drop head' and 'hipshot'.
They can be fitted at either or both ends of any or all of the strings. For
example, a relatively common arrangement on the bass guitar is to use
a detuner on the lowest string to allow the bassist to switch between
'standard tuning' (E A D G) and 'drop D' (D A D G). The latter Bass guitar headstock with detuner set to D
provides two extra notes (D and D# / Eb) that are particularly useful in position.
several common keys.

However, there are many possible variants - for example, bass guitarist Michael Manring has made extensive use of
detuners in some of his compositions and has a four-stringed bass guitar with multiple detuners. Adrian Legg is a
popular guitarist making use of rapid tuning changes. He was prominent in the late 1980s.
The idea may have originated from the double bass extenders.
 199

Playing techniques

Pizzicato
Pizzicato ( /ptskto/; Italian: pizzicato, translated as
pinched, and sometimes roughly as plucked)[1] is a playing
technique that involves plucking the strings of a string instrument.
The exact technique varies somewhat depending on the type of
stringed instrument.
On bowed string instruments it is a method of playing by
plucking the strings with the fingers, rather than using the bow.
This produces a very different sound from bowing, short and
percussive rather than sustained.
On a keyboard string instrument, such as the piano, pizzicato
may be employed (although rarely seen) as one of the variety of
techniques involving direct manipulation of the strings known
collectively as "string piano".
On the guitar, it is a muted form of plucking, which bears an
audible resemblance to pizzicato on a bowed string instrument
with its relatively shorter sustain. For details of this technique,
see palm mute.
When a string is struck or plucked, as with pizzicato, sound waves
Jazz bass walking bass lines are traditionally played
are generated that do not belong to a harmonic series as when a
with pizzicato. Jazz pizzicato technique, shown above,
string is bowed.[2] This complex timbre is called inharmonicity. is different from traditional pizzicato technique.
The inharmonicity of a string depends on its physical
characteristics, such as tension, stiffness, and length. The
inharmonicity disappears when strings are bowed because the
bow's stick-slip action is periodic, so it drives all of the resonances
of the string at exactly harmonic ratios, even if it has to drive them
slightly off their natural frequency.[3]

History
Middle C, pizzicato Play.
The first known use of pizzicato in classical music is in Claudio
Monteverdi's Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (around 1638), in which the players are instructed to use two
fingers of their right hand to pluck the strings. Later, in 1756, Leopold Mozart in his Versuch einer grndlichen
Violinschule instructs the player to use the index finger of the right hand. This has remained the most usual way to
execute a pizzicato, though sometimes the middle finger is used. The bow is held in the hand at the same time unless
there is enough time to put it down and pick it up again between bowed passages.
Pizzicato 200

Use in various styles of music

In jazz and bluegrass, and the few popular music styles which use double bass (such as psychobilly and rockabilly),
pizzicato is the usual way to play the double bass. This is unusual for a violin-family instrument, because regardless
whether violin-family instruments are being used in jazz (e.g., jazz violin), popular, traditional (e.g., Bluegrass
fiddle) or Classical music, they are usually played with the bow for most of a performance. In Classical double bass
playing, pizzicati are often performed with the bow being held in the hand; as such, the string is usually only plucked
with a single finger. In contrast, in jazz, bluegrass, and other non-Classical styles, the player is not usually holding a
bow, so they are free to use two or three fingers to pluck the string.
In classical music, however, string instruments are most usually played with the bow, and composers give specific
indications to play pizzicato where required. Pieces in classical music that are played entirely pizzicato include:
J. S. Bach: the ninth movement of the Magnificat (1723-1733)
Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss: Pizzicato Polka (1869).
Lo Delibes: the "Divertissement: Pizzicati" from Act 3 of the ballet Sylvia (1876)
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: the third movement of the 4th symphony (1877-78)
Bla Bartk: the fourth movement of the String Quartet No. 4 (1927)
Benjamin Britten: the second movement of the Simple Symphony (1934)
Leroy Anderson: Plink, Plank, Plunk! (1951).
Antonio Vivaldi, in the "Ah Ch'Infelice Sempre" section of his cantata Cessate, omai cessate, combined both
pizzicato and bowed instruments to create a unique sound. He also included pizzicato in the second movement of
"Winter" from The Four Seasons.

Notation
In music notation, a composer will normally indicate the performer should use pizzicato with the abbreviation pizz.
A return to bowing is indicated by the Italian term arco. A left hand pizzicato is usually indicated by writing a small
cross above the note, and a Bartk pizzicato is often indicated by a circle with a small vertical line through the top of
it above the note in question or by writing Bartk pizz. at the start of the relevant passage.

Bowed string instrument technique

Practical implications
If a string player has to play pizzicato for a long period of time, the performer may put down the bow. Violinists and
violists may also hold the instrument in the "banjo position" (resting horizontally on the lap), and pluck the strings
with the thumb of the right hand. This technique is rarely used, and usually only in movements which are pizzicato
throughout. A technique similar to this, where the strings are actually strummed like a guitar, is called for in the 4th
movement of Rimsky-Korsakov's Capriccio Espagnol (Scena e canto gitano), where the violins and cellos are
instructed to play pizzicato "quasi guitara"; the music here consists of three- and four-note chords, which are
fingered and strummed much like the instrument being imitated.
Pizzicato 201

Other pizzicato techniques

Another colorful pizzicato technique used in the same Rimsky-Korsakov piece mentioned above is two-handed
pizzicato, indicated by the markings m.s. and m.d. (for mano sinistra, left hand, and mano destra, right hand); here,
the open E string is plucked alternately in rapid succession by the left and right hands.
One can also use the left hand fingers for pizzicato, either when they are not in use or as they are leaving their
previous position. This allows pizzicati in places where there would not normally be time to bring the right hand
from or to the bowing position. Use of left-hand pizzicato is relatively uncommon and is most often found in the
violin solo repertoire; two famous examples of left-hand pizzicato are Paganini's 24th Caprice and Sarasate's
Zigeunerweisen. Left hand pizzicato can also be used while bowed notes are being held, an effect appearing
primarily in repertoire of the late 19th century and beyond. Examples of this technique can be found in the works of
Wieniawski, Berg (Violin Concerto), Stravinsky (Three Pieces for String Quartet) and many others.
Maurice Delage calls for slurred pizzicati in the cello part of his Quatre pomes hindous for soprano and chamber
orchestra . This is achieved by playing one note, and then stopping a new note on the same string without plucking
the string again. This technique (known as "hammering-on" to guitarists) is rarely used on bowed instruments.
A further variation is a particularly strong pizzicato where the string is
plucked vertically by snapping and rebounds off the fingerboard of the
instrument. This is sometimes known as the Bartk pizzicato (or colloquially
as "slapping" or "snap pizzicato"), after one of the first composers to use it
extensively. Gustav Mahler famously employs a Bartok pizzicato in the third
movement of his Seventh Symphony, in which he provides the violins with
the footnote 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood'. On the double bass,
this style of snap pizzicato, which is called "slapping", was used in jazz since
the 1920s and later used in rockabilly. Because an unamplified double bass is
Music notation for Bartk pizzicato
generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s
and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they
make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than
simply plucking the strings, and allowed the bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording
equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies.

Bartk also made use of pizzicato glissandi, executed by plucking a note and then sliding the stopping finger up or
down the string. This technique can be heard in his Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.

References
[1] "Pizzicato" (http:/ / dictionary. cambridge. org/ define. asp?dict=CALD& key=60336& ph=on). Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
Cambridge University Press. . Retrieved 2008-02-08.
[2] Matti Karjalainen (1999). "Audibility of Inharmonicity in String Instrument Sounds, and Implications to Digital Sound Systems" (http:/ /
www. acoustics. hut. fi/ ~hjarvela/ publications/ icmc99. pdf)
[3] Neville H. Fletcher (1994). "Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Musical Instruments" (http:/ / www. complexity. org. au/ ci/ vol01/ fletch01/
html/ ). Complexity International.
Guitar pick 202

Guitar pick
A guitar pick is a plectrum used for guitars. A pick is generally
made of one uniform material; examples include plastic, nylon,
rubber, felt, tortoiseshell, wood, metal, glass, and stone. They are
often shaped in an acute isosceles triangle with the two equal
corners rounded and the third corner rounded to a lesser extent.

Styles
Pick shapes started with guitarists shaping bone, shell, wood,
cuttlebone, metal, amber, stone or ivory to get the desired shape.
Most of today's guitar pick shapes were created by the company
that made the first plastic pick in 1922, D'Andrea Picks. The Various guitar picks. Clockwise from top: A standard
nylon pick; An imitation tortoise-shell pick; A plastic
plastic pick was an idea that Luigi, and his young son Tony, Sr.,
pick with high friction coating (black areas); A
had after purchasing sheets of tortoise shell-like celluloid from a stainless steel pick; A pick approximating a Reuleaux
street vendor. It appeared similar to the real tortoise shell picks triangle; and a Tortex "shark's fin" pick
used in their Greenwich Village neighborhood. They were very
useful.

Sound
Playing guitar with a pick produces a bright sound compared to
plucking with the fingertip. Picks also offer a greater contrast in
tone across different plucking locations; for example, the
difference in brightness between plucking close to the bridge and
close to the neck is much greater when using a pick compared to a
A guitar pick with a custom
fingertip.[1] Conversely, the many playing techniques that involve drawing
the fingers, such as those found in fingerstyle guitar, slapping,
classical guitar, and flamenco guitar, can also yield an extremely broad variety of tones.
Guitar pick 203

Thickness
Guitar picks vary in thickness to accommodate different playing
styles and kinds of strings. Thinner plectra are more flexible and
tend to offer a wider range of sounds, from soft to loud, and
produce a "click" that emphasizes the attack of the picking.
However, depending on material, heavier picks are also capable of
producing a bright sound.
In rock and heavy metal, while playing electric guitar with hi-gain
amplification or distortion, thinner picks produce muddier,
heavier, less controllable sound and thicker picks produce more
delicate, more controlled and well-shaped tone. Thinner picks also
tend to rip or tear more often if used too forcefully, whereas a
thicker one is less likely to wear down. Thicker picks are generally
used in more discrete genres, such as heavy metal or power metal.
However, there are many exceptions to these stereotypes,
especially as there is an element of guitarist preference involved in
selecting pick thickness. Many death metal musicians only use
picks thicker than 1.5mm, because it allows more control over
heavy gauge strings. Thinner picks tend to give less attack and do
not give as much control when doing fast tremolo picking. Also,
they tend to wear much faster when used with heavier gauge An extra heavy pick 2 mm thick

strings.

Jazz guitar players tend to use quite heavy picks, as they also tend to favor heavy gauge flat-wound strings. Gypsy
jazz guitarists favor very thick (up to 3.5mm) picks combined with light strings.[2]Bass players tend to prefer thick
picks because their strings are far thicker and farther apart than those of guitarists.
Most pick manufacturers print the thickness in millimeters or thousandths of an inch on the pick. Some other brands
use a system of letters or text designations to indicate thickness. Approximate guidelines to thickness ranges are
presented in the following table:

Text description Approximate thickness Other possible marks

mm inch

Extra light/thin 0.44 0.017 "Ex Lite" or "Extra Light"

Light/thin 0.450.69 0.0180.027 "T" or "Thin" / "L" or "Light"

Medium 0.700.84 0.0280.033 "M" or "Medium"

Heavy/thick 0.851.20 0.0350.047 "H" or "Heavy"

Extra heavy/thick 1.50 0.060 "XH" or "Extra Heavy"

While most pick manufacturers adhere to the above thickness schedule, one company, Red Bear Trading Co. makes
their picks a bit thicker. For instance, RBTCO's "light gauge" starts at 1mm and extends up to 1.1mm or so.
Guitar pick 204

Materials

Plastics
Most common picks are made out of various types of plastic. Most popular plastics include:
Celluloid. Historically, this was the first plastic ever used to produce picks, and it is still of some use today,
especially for guitarists aiming for vintage tone.
Nylon. A popular material, it has a smooth and slick surface, so most manufacturers add a high-friction coating to
nylon picks to make them easier to grip. Nylon is flexible and can be produced in very thin sheets. Most thin and
extra-thin picks are made out of nylon. However, nylon loses its flexibility after 12 months of extensive use,
becomes fragile and breaks.
Acetal. Acetal is a highly durable class of plastics. Delrin is DuPont's trademarked name for a type of acetal.
Delrin is hard, glossy and durable, and can also be doped to produce a matte texture. The friction between a steel
or nickel guitar string, and smooth, glossy acetal is very low. Glossy delrin picks literally glide across the string
and therefore have a fast release, producing very little pick noise, while delivering a rounded tone emphasizing
the lower order harmonics.
Ultem. This plastic has the highest stiffness of all plastic picks. Produces a bright tone, popular among mandolin
players.
Lexan. Glossy, glass-like, very hard, but lacking durability. Used for thick and extra-thick picks (> 1mm).
Usually has a high-friction grip coating.
Acrylic. Tough, light, clear, seamless polymer with great resistance to impact and weathering. V-Picks [3] is the
trademarked name for Acrylic picks with characteristic non-slip properties. Acrylic is not brittle and does not
yellow or crack. Can be molded and cut to almost any shape and thickness.
Delrex. This is a plastic that is used to replace tortoiseshell since the trade of tortoiseshell was banned in the late
1970s. Delrex is used as the material for Dunlop's "gator" picks.

Metal
Picks made out of steel produce a much brighter sound than plastic. They do however wear the strings quickly and
can easily damage the finish on the guitar if used for strumming, especially on acoustic guitars. Some metal picks are
even made from coins, which give players a unique tone as the alloys used in various coinage from around the world
will vary greatly.

Wood
Each guitar pick made of wood has its own unique properties and signature sound as a result of differences in
density, hardness and cellular structure. Most wood picks will produce a warmer tone than plastics or metals. In
order to withstand the rigors of picking and strumming only the hardest woods are used for picks, including
hardwoods like African Blackwood, Bocote, Cocobolo, Lignum vitae, Rosewood, and Zebrawood. While the thick
and sometimes rough edge of a wooden pick may create a fair amount of drag at first, wooden picks are generally
easy to break in and may even do so quicker than plastic picks. After a couple hundred strokes, the metal guitar
strings will wear down the edge and create a smoother pass over the strings.
Guitar pick 205

Glass
Glass is relatively hard and heavy in comparison to metal or plastic and therefore produces a greater range of tone
than these materials. Glass can be polished to a smooth or rough texture depending on the grit of sandpaper used.
Likewise, factors such as size, shape, and weight have a much more dramatic effect on the overall tone making each
individual glass pick sound and feel unique.

Other
Agate picks range in thickness from 1mm (very rare) up to 5mm, and are extremely inflexible. As they are harder
than the metal guitar strings, they resonate the strings more completely.
New Tortis is an alternative to natural tortoise, made of polymerized animal protein. It is hard, smooth, thick, and
has only slight tip flexibility.
Felt picks are mainly used with the ukulele.
PHD is a "kind of" high-pressure laminate material consisting of layers of cellulose fibers impregnated with
thermosetting resins and bonded under high pressure. This material is extremely tough and durable and is
currently being used by luthier Patrick Hufschmid (Hufschmid Guitars) who introduced it in 2008. In Jully 2012,
Patrick Hufschmid also introduced the very first plectrums entirely made from high performance thermoplastics
TIVAR (UHMWPE), TECHTRON (PPS) and KETRON (PEEK).

Shapes
Some picks have small protrusions to make them easier to keep hold if the fingers start to sweat, which is very
common on stage due to the hot lights. Some picks have a high-friction coating to help the player hold on to them.
The small perforations in the stainless steel pick serve the same function. Many players will often have spare picks
attached to a microphone stand or slotted in the guitar's pickguard.
The equilateral pick can be easier for beginners to hold and use since each corner is a playing edge.
The shark's fin pick can be used in two ways - normally employing the blunt end or the small perturbations can be
raked across the strings producing a much fuller chord or used to employ a "pick scrape" down the strings producing
a very harsh, scratching noise.
The sharp edged pick is used to create an easier motion of picking across the strings.
Bass players who use a pick normally use much heavier picks than guitar players. Some players prefer slightly
thinner picks to increase speed and endurance.
Some guitar pick shapes are patented. Usually those patents claim ornamental design.

Innovations
Some picks are made of semi-precious gemstones including jasper, tiger eye, jade, quartz, and others.
Some picks are constructed of compound layers of plastic, connected to form a flexible central section, allowing the
guitarist to adjust the pick tip's flexibility by applying various pressure to this central section: a hard grip yields hard
pick (thicker one) to play lead, a soft grip yields soft pick (thinner one) to play rhythm.
Picks are constructed of a handblown borosilicate glass that can double as a guitar slide.
D'Andrea Picks was the first company to create custom pick imprinting in 1938, allowing customers to order
imprinting up to 12 block letters. One of the first to make the player imprint popular was guitarist Nick Lucas in the
early 1930s.[4]
Jellifish Picks are a unique innovation to guitar picks that add a plucked, bowed, or chorus like sound to picking by
using multiple metal tines that strike the strings at different times.[5]
Guthrie Thomas Picks was the first to introduce multicolor imprinting on guitar picks.
Guitar pick 206

Technique
Picks are usually gripped with two fingersthumb and indexand are played with pointed end facing the strings.
However, it's a matter of personal preference and many notable musicians use different grips. For example, Eddie
Van Halen holds the pick between his thumb and middle finger (leaving his first finger free for his tapping
technique); James Hetfield, Jeff Hanneman and Steve Morse hold a pick using 3 fingersthumb, middle and index;
Pat Metheny and The Edge also hold their picks with three fingers but play using the rounded side of the plectrum.
George Lynch also uses the rounded side of the pick. Stevie Ray Vaughan also played with the rounded edge of the
pick, citing the fact that the edge allowed more string attack than the tip. His manic, aggressive picking style would
wear through pickguards in short order, and wore a groove in his Fender Stratocaster, Number One, over his years of
playing. Jimmy Rogers and Freddie King had a special kind of technique utilizing two picks at once. Noted 80's
session guitarist David Persons is known for using old credit cards, cut to the correct size, angle, and thickness and
using them without a tip.[6]
The motion of the pick against the string is also a personal choice. George Benson and Dave Mustaine, for example,
hold the pick very stiffly between the thumb and index finger, locking the thumb joint and striking with the surface
of the pick nearly parallel to the string, for a very positive, articulate, consistent tone. Other guitarists have
developed a technique known as circle picking, where the thumb joint is bent on the downstroke, and straightened on
the upstroke, causing the tip of the pick to move in a circular pattern, which can allow speed and fluidity. The angle
of the pick against the string is also very personal and has a broad range of effects on tone and articulation. Many
rock guitarists will use a flourish (called a pick slide or pick scrape) that involves scraping the pick along the length
of a round wound string (a round wound string is a string with a coil of round wire wrapped around the outside, used
for the heaviest three or four strings on a guitar).
The two chief approaches to fast picking are alternate picking and economy picking. Alternate picking is when the
player strictly alternates each stroke between downstrokes and upstrokes, regardless of changing strings. In economy
picking, the player will use the most economical stroke on each note. For example, if the first note is on the fifth
string, and the next note is on the fourth string, the pick will use a downstroke on the fifth string, and continue in the
same direction to execute a downstroke on the fourth string. Some guitarists learn economy picking intuitively and
find it an effort to use alternate picking. Conversely, some guitarists maintain that the down-up "twitch" motion of
alternate picking lends itself to momentum, and hence trumps economy picking at high speeds.

References
[1] http:/ / leaningdoormusic. blogspot. com/ 2011/ 02/ life-of-strings-day-8. html
[2] Django Swingpage--click on "Playing" (http:/ / www. hotclub. co. uk)
[3] http:/ / www. v-picks. com
[4] Hoover, Will (November 1995). Picks!: The Colorful Saga of Vintage Celluloid Guitar Plectrums. Backbeat Books. pp.8485.
ISBN978-0-87930-377-8.
[5] "Jellifish FAQs" (http:/ / www. jellifish. com/ faq/ index. html). . Retrieved 3/18/2012.
[6] Interview in Austin Music Weekly, December 1981 issue

Hoover, Will (November 1995). Picks!: The Colorful Saga of Vintage Celluloid Guitar Plectrums (http://
surfpick.com/history). Backbeat Books. ISBN978-0-87930-377-8.
Guitar pick 207

External links
Pick Collecting Quarterly (http://www.pickcollecting.com/) An online periodic magazine for guitar pick
collectors.
D'Andrea Picks (http://www.dandreapicks.com/) The History of the Plastic Pick
Guitar Plectrums (http://www.igdb.co.uk/pages/beginners/plectrum.htm) An brief article discussing the
various aspects of guitar plectrums.
Surfpick.com (http://www.surfpick.com/history), The History of the Guitar Pick
Tuck Andress - Pick and Finger Techniques (http://www.tuckandpatti.com/pick-finger_tech.html), Tuck
Andress - Pick and Finger Techniques
Learn all the Techniques on how to build your picking speed. (http://www.shredguitarschool.com/
speed-picking) Shred Guitar School.com

Palm mute
The palm mute is a playing technique
for guitar and bass guitar, executed by
placing the side of the picking hand
below the little finger across the strings
to be plucked, very close to the bridge,
and then plucking the strings while the
[1]
Ska stroke Play: features palm muted downbeat downstrokes and dampened upbeat
damping is in effect. This produces a
upstrokes.
muted sound. The name is a slight
misnomer, as the muting is performed
by the side of the hand, not the palm.[2]

Palm muting is a standard technique

used in classical guitar performance
(under the name of pizzicato, as it
Though notated with quarter notes, the Ska stroke sounds like sixteenth notes due to
creates a sound similar to that of a [1]
muting or dampening.
bowed string instrument when finger
picked, despite a very different
construction from that of a guitar) and by electric guitarists who play with a pick. Palm muting is so widely used as
to be idiomatic in heavy metal, and particularly in thrash, speed and death metal, but it is often found in any style of
music that features electric guitars with distortion in the signal's preamplification stage. It is responsible for the
characteristic "chugging" sound of distorted guitar music. Palm muting can also be used in conjunction with a wah
pedal to produce the distinctive scratching sound often heard in disco music.

Palm-muting is also used by electric bassists in order to obtain a warm, "thumpy" tone that is sometimes similar to
that of a finger picked double bass (as noted above). The strings may be plucked with the thumb, or with a pick
which gives a more percussive tone.
Palm mute 208

Aspects of performance
There are many ways to perform palm muting, but, generally the following are recognized:
Applied pressure. Amount of applied pressure tends to vary the sound a lot. Slight touch makes light muting,
thus producing more pronounced, fuller sounds. Pressing the hand down intensively makes heavy muting,
enhancing staccato effect, adding percussion and making notes less recognizable. Certainly, with some
amplification gain, heavily muted notes sound quieter than lightly muted, but given a fair amount of compression,
loudness levels become the same and heavily muted notes sound less muddy, with fewer overtones and tonal
characteristics than lightly muted.
Hand position. The most common way to play with palm muting is placing the edge of picking hand near the
bridge, dampening the strings when necessary. However, moving the hand further from the bridge and closer to
the neck changes the effect drastically. Moving the hand closer to the bridge (and even resting part of edge on
the bridge) makes palm muting lighter. Moving the hand farther from bridge (going up to the neck) makes
palm muting heavier. Note that resting the palm on the bridge is usually considered a bad practice among
guitarists (other than for performing palm muting) for the following reasons:
Ergonomic: it is generally not very ergonomic to play this way; maintaining the picking hand edge always
strictly parallel to the bridge rivets the motions and encumbers performance of most advanced techniques;
Metal part corrosion: while playing intensively, hands usually become sweaty; sweat coming in contact with
metal bridge hastens its corrosion; metal strings corrode too, but strings are considered a consumable, while
the bridge is more expensive.
Tremolo interference: when using floating tremolo bridge, such as Floyd Rose, applying pressure to the
bridge may affect the pitch of played strings.
Amount of amplification (gain).
Muted notes / chords. Generally, it's recognized that full chords (with 3') sound muddy with large amounts of
amplification and distortion, unlike single notes and power chords.[3] Sustain sound coming from each string
simultaneously makes large amounts of overlapping overtones after distortion and thus a chord loses its clarity.
Palm muting of such chords helps to alleviate this problem, giving notes chuggier, more distortion-friendly sound.
Palm muting is a basis for many other techniques, especially those specific to electric guitars, such as sweep picking
or alternate picking.

Notation
In guitar tablature, palm mutes are rendered with a "P.M." or "PM", and a dashed or dotted line for the duration of
the phrase to be muted. If the pitches of the muted notes are discernible, the fret numbers are given accordingly,
otherwise they are represented with an X in lieu of a tab number. (If an X appears in lieu of a tab number but there is
no P.M. directive, this usually means to mute the string using the fretting hand, not the picking hand.)

P.M.------------|
e |------------------|
B |--8-------8-------|
G |--7-------7-------|
D |--6-------6-------|
A |--7-------7-------|
E |----0-0-0---0-0-0-|
Palm mute 209

Recorded examples
One popular song with palm muting is "Basket Case" by Green Day, where power chords are accented then muted to
create a sense of energy and urgency.

> PM--------| > PM-| < PM--| > PM-| < PM- > PM> PM-| < PM--| <
d# |-----------------|-------------------|-----------------|-------------------|
A# |-----------------|-------------------|-----------------|-------------------|
F# |-9---------------|-------------------|-----6-----6-----|-------------------|
C# |-9-9-9-9-9-9-9-9-|-----9-------9-x-x-|-6-6-6-6-6-6---6-|-----6-------6-x-x-|
G# |-7-7-7-7-7-7-7-9-|-9-9-9-9-9-9-9-x-x-|-4-4-4-4-4-4-6-6-|-6-6-6-6-6-6-6-x-x-|
D# |---------------7-|-7-7-7-7-7-7-7-x-x-|-------------4-4-|-4-4-4-4-4-4-4-x-x-|

More aggressive styles of palm muting grew out of thrash metal in the mid-late 1980s with bands such as Metallica,
Slayer, Anthrax and Megadeth. The technique was fused with fast alternate picking, under high gain, to create a
driving, percussive effect. Other uses of palm muting can be heard in post-punk bands like Gang of Four and Talking
Heads, as well as in contemporary musicians such as Isaac Brock of Modest Mouse. Another example would be
"Paranoid" by Black Sabbath, which uses palm muting for much of the song.

References
[1] Snyder, Jerry (1999). Jerry Snyder's Guitar School, p.28. ISBN 0-7390-0260-0.
[2] Cross, Dan. "Guitar Lesson 10 - Palm Mute" (http:/ / guitar. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa062401b. htm). About.com. . Retrieved
30-01-2012.
[3] Power chords (http:/ / www. guitaralliance. com/ guitar_lessons/ power_chords/ index. htm) lesson at Guitar Alliance

External links
Guitar Lesson - Palm Muting in Rock & Heavy Metal (http://www.fretjam.com/palm-mute-guitar.html) Learn
how to apply the palm mute technique on guitar
Slapping 210

Slapping
In music, the term slapping or popping is often used to refer to two different playing techniques used on the double
bass and on the (electric) bass guitar.

Double bass
On double bass it refers to the technique that is a more vigorous version of pizzicato, where the string is plucked so
hard that when released it bounces off the finger board, making a distinctive sound. A percussive sound is also made
by smacking the strings with all four fingers on the right hand, usually in time with the snare drum.
The earliest players of this technique in American music include Steve Brown,[1] Bill Johnson, Pops Foster,[2]
Wellman Braud, and Chester Zardis.
Slapping the bass is a technique used by many bands since at least the 1920s; it came into popular use in the 1940s.
Slap bass provides a strong downbeat when the string is plucked and a strong back beat when it slaps back onto the
fingerboard of the bass. It creates a very percussive sound and adds a lot of drive that is particularly good for dance
music.[3]
Yet another explanation is that snapping the strings against the wood of the instrument supplies a crisp, intense
sound which can supply the foundation of a dance band.[2]
Slap bass was used by Western Swing and Hillbilly Boogie musicians, and became an important component of an
early form of rock and roll that combined blues and what was then called hillbilly musica musical style now
referred to as rockabilly. The technique inspired the George and Ira Gershwin song "Slap That Bass".

Bass guitar
On bass guitar, slapping usually refers to a percussive playing technique most commonly used in funk, disco, soul,
jazz, Latin, pop, and many other genres. The style sounds much more percussive than regular fingering of notes with
the plucking hand, and is also usually louder (although on an electric instrument, the volume can be adjusted with the
volume knob or through compression) and more distinct than the sound of a bass guitar played with the usual
plucking techniques. The slap sound comes from the combination of two elements: striking the string with the side of
the bony joint in the middle of the thumb, a harder surface than the pads of the fingers (used in plucked fingering);
and intentionally allowing the vibrating string to come into contact with the metal frets, producing a "toney" or
buzzing sound that is normally avoided in plucked/fingered bass.
In the slap technique, the bassist replaces the usual plucking motion of the index and middle fingers with "slaps" and
"pops". In the slap, the bassist uses the thumb to strike the strings (usually the lower E and A strings) near the base of
the guitar's neck. In the pop, the bassist will use the index or middle finger of the plucking hand to snap the strings
(usually the higher D and G strings) away from the body of the bass, causing them to bounce off the fretboard; this
produces a prominent buzzing tone with a sharp attack and more high-frequency vibrations than present in plucked
bass. The bassist can play many notes quickly by rotating the forearm, alternately slapping and popping: during the
pop, the hand moves away from the fretboard, "winding up" or getting in position for the next slap. The slap and pop
techniques are commonly used with pull-offs and hammer-ons with the fretting (usually left) hand, to further
increase the rate at which notes may be played. Ghost notes, or notes played with the string damped, are also
commonly played in slap bass to increase the percussive feel of the technique.
The invention of slap on electric bass guitar is generally credited to funk bassists Larry Graham and Louis
Johnson.[4] Graham has stated in several interviews that he was trying to emulate the sound of a drum set before his
band had found its drummer. Graham himself refers to the technique as Thumpin' and Pluckin'.[4]
Slapping 211

Some prominent bass guitar players known for their use of slapping in their playing include Bootsy Collins (solo
artist; Bootsy's Rubber Band, Funkadelic, Parliament, Praxis), Flea (Red Hot Chili Peppers), Larry Graham (Sly and
the Family Stone, Graham Central Station), Marcus Miller (solo artist, Miles Davis, David Sanborn, Luther
Vandross), Louis Johnson (The Brothers Johnson, Quincy Jones, Michael Jackson), Nick Beggs (Kajagoogoo), Mark
King (Level 42), Mike Gordon (Phish), Les Claypool (solo artist, Primus), Fieldy (Korn), Jayen Varma (solo artist),
Tetsuya (L'Arc-en-Ciel).
For a longer list, see List of slap bass players (electric bass).

Variants
There are numerous variants of the slapping technique.
Some bassists use other fingers of the strumming hand to achieve this sound, such as bassist Abraham Laboriel, Sr.,
who uses his thumb to pop the strings, and his other four fingers to slap the strings. Bassist Victor Wooten uses a
double thump technique which is like a slap, but utilizes both sides of the thumb for all the strings, fast enough to
produce the equivalent of a drumroll on the bass guitar. Funk fingers invented by progressive rock bass player Tony
Levin create a similar sound by using a hard surface to strike the strings and intentionally cause string contact with
the fretboard. Spank bass developed from the slap and pop style and treats the electric bass as a percussion
instrument, striking the strings above the pickups with an open palmed hand.
The slap technique bears some resemblance to tambour, a percussive technique used in flamenco and classical guitar,
although the tonal quality produced in this technique is quite different from that of a slapped electric bass.

References
[1] Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Cary Ginell. 1994. University of Illinois Press. page 252. ISBN 0-252-02041-3 see also:
The Jazz Book.Double Bass Hill. 1975. p 278-84; The Complete Encyclopedia of Popular Music and Jazz House. 1974. p 923-24
[2] Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Cary Ginell. 1994. University of Illinois Press. page 252. ISBN 0-252-02041-3 see also:
The Jazz Book. Hill. 1975. p 278-84; The Complete Encyclopedia of Popular Music and Jazz House. 1974. p 923-24
[3] text from Experience Music Project in Seattle, WA
[4] Bass Player magazine, Apr 07 (http:/ / www. bassplayer. com/ article/ larry-graham-trunk/ apr-07/ 26994)

External links
Slap Bass Audio & Video Samples from FunkyChops (http://funkychops.com/pages/101.html)
Free Examples with Audio and TAB from Slap It! (http://www.slapit.com/example.html?=wiki)
Free Slap Bass Video Tutorial (http://www.howtoslapbass.com/slap-bass-tutorial/?=wiki)
Slap Lessons from BerkleeShares (http://www.berkleeshares.com/bass/basic_bass_guitar_slapping)
Music Man Stingray audio and photo (http://howtoslapbass.com/1980-stingray/)
Tapping 212

Tapping
Tapping is a guitar playing technique, where a string is fretted and set
into vibration as part of a single motion of being pushed onto the
fretboard, as opposed to the standard technique being fretted with one
hand and picked with the other. It is similar to the technique of
hammer-ons and pull-offs, but used in an extended way compared to
them: hammer-ons would be performed by only the fretting hand, and
in conjunction with conventionally picked notes; whereas tapping
passages involve both hands and consist of only tapped, hammered and
pulled notes. Tapping is used exclusively by some players (such as
Tapping
Stanley Jordan) and is standard on some instruments, such as the
Chapman Stick.

Description
Tapping may be performed either one-handed or two-handed. It is an extended technique, executed by using one
hand to 'tap' the strings against the fingerboard, thus producing legato notes. Tapping usually incorporates pull-offs
or hammer-ons as well, where the fingers of the left hand play a sequence of notes in synchronization with the
tapping hand. For example, a right-handed guitarist might hammer down on fret twelve with the index finger of the
right hand and, in the motion of removing that finger, pluck the same string already fretted at the eighth fret by the
little finger of his/her left hand. This finger would be removed in the same way, pulling off to the fifth fret. Thus the
three notes (E, C and A) are played in quick succession at relative ease to the player. It is often used on electric
guitar but may be performed on almost any string instrument.
The Chapman Stick is an instrument built primarily for tapping, and is based on the Free Hands two-handed tapping
method invented in 1969 by Emmett Chapman where each hand approaches the fretboard with the fingers aligned
parallel to the frets. The Hamatar, Mobius Megatar, Box Guitar, and Solene instruments are other instruments
designed for the same method. The Bunker Touch-Guitar, developed by Dave Bunker in 1958, is designed for the
two-necked tapping technique, but with an elbow rest to hold the right arm in the conventional guitar position. The
NS/Stick and Warr Guitars are also built for tapping, though not exclusively. The harpejji is a tapping instrument
which is played on a stand, like a keyboard, with fingers typically parallel to the strings rather than perpendicular.
All of these instruments use lower string tension and low action to increase the string's sensitivity to lighter tapping.
Some guitarists may choose to tap using the sharp edge of their pick instead of fingers to produce a faster, more rigid
flurry of notes closer to that of trilling, with a technique known as pick tapping.

History
Tapping has existed in some form or another for centuries. Niccol Paganini utilized similar techniques on the violin.
A similar technique, called selpe, is used in Turkish folk music on the instrument called the balama [1]. Tapping
techniques and solos on various stringed acoustic instruments such as the banjo have been documented in early film,
records, and performances throughout the early 20th century. The clavichord was an early acoustic keyboard
instrument that used a mechanical hammer to "fret" a string for each key. It was followed by an amplified version,
the Hohner Clavinet, in 1968.
Roy Smeck used the two-handed tapping technique on a Ukulele in the 1932 film Club House Party.[2] Jimmie
Webster made recordings in the 1950s using the method of two-handed tapping he described in 'Touch Method for
Electric and Amplified Spanish Guitar', published in 1952. Webster was a student of electric pickup designer Harry
DeArmond, who developed two-handed tapping as a way to demonstrate the sensitivity of his pickups. The
Tapping 213

two-handed tapping technique was also known and occasionally used by many 1950s and 1960s jazz guitarists such
as Barney Kessel, who was an early supporter of Emmett Chapman.
In August 1969, Los Angeles jazz guitarist Emmett Chapman discovered a new way of two-handed tapping with
both hands held perpendicular to the neck from opposite sides, thus enabling equal counterpoint capabilities for each
hand for the first time. Chapman redesigned his 9-string long-scale electric guitar, calling it the Electric Stick. In
1974 he founded Stick Enterprises, Inc. and began building instruments for other musicians. With over 5,000
instruments produced as of 2006, The Chapman Stick is the most popular extant dedicated tapping instrument.
Chapman influenced several two-handed tapping guitarists, including Steve Lynch of the band Autograph, and
Jennifer Batten.
One of the first rock guitarists to record using the two-handed tapping technique was Steve Hackett from Genesis.
Two examples of Hackett's complex Bach like tapping can be heard on the song "Dancing with the Moonlit Knight",
from 1973, and "The Return of the Giant Hogweed", from 1971.[3]
Harvey Mandel utilized extensive two-handed tapping techniques on his 1973 album Shangrenade. Ritchie
Blackmore has said that he saw Harvey Mandel utilize two-handed fretboard tapping as early as 1968 at the Whisky
a Go Go.[4]
Randy Resnick of the Pure Food and Drug Act used two-handed tapping techniques extensively in his performances
and recordings between 1969 and 1974. Resnick was mentioned in the Eddie Van Halen biography[5] for his
contribution to the two-handed tapping technique. Lee Ritenour mentioned in Guitar Player Magazine January 1980
that
Randy was the first guitarist I ever saw who based his whole style on tapping
in reference to Randy playing with Richard Greene And Zone at the Whisky a Go-Go in 1974. Resnick also recorded
using the two-handed tapping technique in 1974 on the John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers album "Latest Edition" and
has said that he was attempting to duplicate the legato of John Coltrane's "Sheets of Sound".
Various other guitarists such as Frank Zappa, Billy Gibbons from ZZ Top, Brian May from Queen, Duane Allman[6]
from The Allman Brothers Band, Larry Carlton (Kid Charlemagne 1976), and Leslie West from Mountain were
using the two-handed tapping technique in the early and mid 1970s as well. Ace Frehley and Frank Zappa used a
guitar pick for their style of two-handed tapping.
Eddie Van Halen helped popularize the two-handed tapping technique for the modern audience and influenced many
guitarists to start utilizing two-handed tapping techniques. His explanation is that he was inspired to use two-handed
tapping after hearing the fluid left-hand only pull-offs in Jimmy Page's guitar solo for "Heartbreaker", and expanded
this technique by adding his right hand finger(s) out of necessity in reaching higher notes.
George Lynch has said in an interview that he and Eddie Van Halen saw Harvey Mandel utilize two-handed tapping
techniques at the Starwood Club in the 1970s. From a March 2009 Metal Den George Lynch interview,
We both witnessed Harvey Mandel from Canned Heat do a neo classic tapping thing at a club called the
starwood in Hollywood back in the 70s. Other people were doing it to a limited extent, Brian May from Queen
dabbled George Van Eps was doing it in the 50s.[7]
Perhaps the most well-known employment of two-handed tapping is "Eruption" on the first Van Halen album.
Released in 1978, it featured very fast two-handed tapping triads and formed the blueprint for heavy metal lead
guitar playing throughout the 1980s.
During the 1980s two-handed tapping developed much further with many players such as Stanley Jordan and Enver
Izmaylov using a 2 or more finger tapping technique.
Two-handed tapping on the bass guitar was not as popular as the guitar, but in some cases was done before Eddie
Van Halen popularized the technique. Jaco Pastorius, Billy Sheehan, Victor Wooten, Stuart Hamm, John Myung,
Les Claypool, Cliff Burton, Alex Webster, Sean Beasley and Arif Mirabdolbaghi used two-handed tapping
techniques on the bass guitar.
Tapping 214

One-handed tapping
One-handed tapping, performed in conjunction with normal fingering by the fretting hand, facilitates the
construction of note intervals that would otherwise be impossible using one hand alone. It is often used as a special
effect during a shredding solo. With the electric guitar, in this situation the output tone itself is usually overdriven
although it is possible to tap acoustically with drive serving as a boost to further amplify the non-picked (and thus
naturally weaker) legato notes being played. Because of the amount of distortion generally present, the player should
also focus on reducing unnecessary noise during tapping; for instance, by using the palm of the tapping hand to mute
any open strings that might otherwise ring out.
The actual passages that can be played using this one-handed technique are virtually limitless. The note intervals
between both hands can be shifted up or down the neck, or onto different strings, to form familiar scalar patterns, or
even 'outside' tones by randomly streaming through any chosen notes for mere show (often by using chromatics or
otherwise dissonant intervals).
As far as the actual technique goes, there are many ways of performing a one-handed tapping passage. The most
common technique involves rapidly repeated triplets played at a rate of sixteenth notes, using the following
sequence: Tap pull-off pull-off
In this case, the right hand index or middle finger sounds the first note on a string by sharply hammering onto it
once, then pulling off (often with a slight, sideways 'flicking' movement so as to strengthen the note) to a lower note
held by one of the left hand fingers, that of which is then finally pulled off to the last note held by another left hand
finger. From there, the cycle is repeated. If one breaks that down even further, the very first part can be seen as the
actual 'tapping' motion itself, whereas the second part involving the left hand acts as a way of embellishing the
passage with additional notes. Overall, this could be considered an extended trill. The overall aim is to maintain
fluidity and synchronization between all the notes, especially when played at speed, which can take some practice to
master.
Alternatively, different sequences can be used. One common variation is to reverse the action of the left hand and
instead add the second left-hand note as a hammer-on at the end: Tap pull-off hammer-on
The above variation can be heard to good effect on the famous guitar solo, "Eruption", in which Eddie Van Halen
uses the above tappullhammer method to create a lengthy cascade of tapped notes. In addition to the
aforementioned triplets, tapping can be played using sixteenth notes (four notes to one beat as opposed to three), or
even though rarely heard quintuplets (five notes to one beat). This, especially the latter, can result in even
more complex-sounding passages, with some guitarists choosing to use it as a form of neo-classical phrasing to
further deepen the musical possibilities of the technique. Again, there are a number of ways of doing so, but some
examples of sixteenth-note tapping could be broken down as:
If looked at in scalar terms, the above sequences would follow the intervallic forms of a minor scale and a blues
scale respectively. The same concept can therefore be applied to virtually any scale imaginable, making tapping a
very diverse technique with constant room for experimentation.
Tapping 215

Two-handed tapping
Two-handed tapping can be utilized to play polyphonic and
counterpoint music on a guitar by using eight (and even nine) fingers.
For example, the right hand plays the treble melody while the left hand
plays an accompaniment. Therefore, it is possible to produce music
written for a keyboard instrument, such as J.S. Bach's Two-part
Inventions.

The method increases the flexibility of the instrument, in that it makes

it possible to play more types of music on a guitar. The main
disadvantage is the lack of change of timbre. As it produces a "clean
tone" effect, and since the first note usually sounds the loudest
(unwanted in some music like jazz), dynamics are a main concern with
this technique, though Stanley Jordan and many Stick players are
successful tappers in this genre. It is common to use a compressor
effect to make notes more similar in volume.

Depending on the orientation of the player's right hand, this method Joe Becker two-hand tapping
can produce varying degrees of success. Early experimenters with this
idea like Harry DeArmond, his student Jimmie Webster, and Dave
Bunker held their right hand in a conventional orientation, with the
fingers lined up parallel with the strings. This limits the kind of
musical lines the right hand can play.

Emmett Chapman was the first acknowledged to tap on guitar with his
right hand fingers lined up parallel to the frets, as on the left hand, but
from the opposite side of the neck (see photo). His discovery, in
August 1969, led to complete counterpoint capability and a new
instrument, the Chapman Stick, and to a new method Chapman called Erik Mongrain two-hand tapping
the "Free Hands" method.

Eddie Van Halen popularized this method on a six-string guitar, with

his song "Eruption" off the album Van Halen. He created a following
trend of tapping guitarists like Joe Satriani and Steve Vai.

References
[1] Erdal Erzincan and Erol Parlak are playing an Azeri tune using the selpe technique.
(http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=XkDPYpY9XCM)
[2] Roy Smeck tapping in the 1932 film Club House Party (http:/ / www. youtube. com/
watch?v=RcQYt7xvA8M)
[3] Steve Hackett (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=f59EKHdeyKc)
[4] Ritchie Blackmore Interview (http:/ / www. thehighwaystar. com/ interviews/
blackmore/ rb199102xx. html)
[5] Sanchez, Abel. Van Halen 101 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=0GRwmDdFE8IC& dq=van+ halen+ 101). .
[6] Duane Allman tapping (http:/ / www. florida-cracker. org/ archives/ 001641. html)
[7] George Lynch Interview (http:/ / themetalden. com/ index. php?p=198)

Emmett Chapman - Free Hands method 1969

Double stop 216

Double stop
In music, a double stop is the act of playing two notes simultaneously
on a melodic percussion instrument (like a marimba) or stringed
instrument (for example, a violin or a guitar). In performing a double
stop, two separate strings are depressed ("stopped") by the fingers, and
bowed or plucked simultaneously (without a string change).
A triple stop is the same technique applied to three strings; a Cello double stops from the opening of Breval's
quadruple stop applies to four strings. Double, triple, and quadruple Sonata in C major for cello and piano. Play

stopping are collectively known as multiple stopping.

The invention of the double-stop is generally credited to violinist Carlo
Farina, whose Capriccio Stravagante (1627) was published in Dresden
while he was Court-Violinist at Saxony.[1]
Chuck Berry popularized the double stop riff as a cornerstone of rock
guitar. [2]

The beginning of Mozart's Eine Kleine

Nachtmusik (1787). The First and Second Violins
have a triple stop notated, meaning the low D is
only played to let ring, then shortly thereafter the
B and G are played like normal.

Technique
On instruments with a curved bridge, it is difficult to bow more than two strings simultaneously.
The style of bow used until around the end of the 18th century, particularly in Germany, had the
wood curved outwards (away from the hair), which made it somewhat easier to play three notes at
the same time. However, most treatises written around the time make it clear that composers did not
expect three notes to be played at once, even though the notes may be written in a way as to suggest
Cello bridge this. Playing four notes at once is almost impossible, even with older bows. The normal way of
holds strings playing three or four note chords is to sound the lower notes briefly and allow them to ring while the
over the
bow plays the upper notes (a broken chord). This gives the illusion of a true triple or quadruple stop.
finger and
sounding In forte, however, even with a modern violin and bow it is quite possible to play three notes at once,
boards. especially when played a little more towards the fingerboard. Obviously, with this technique, a little
more pressure than usual is needed on the bow, so this cannot be practiced in softer passages. Of
course, great skill is needed for the player to keep a beautiful sound. This technique is mainly used in music with
great force, such as the cadenza-like solo at the beginning of the last movement of Tchaikovsky's violin concerto.

Josephine Trott's Melodious Double-Stops, Book I for Violin [3] has been a classic string exercise book for decades.
A more recent innovative teaching method for learning to play double stops, one which uses duets, was developed by
Martha Yasuda; please see her Christmas Melodies: Double Stop Solos and Duets For Violin, Volume I [4]. Martha
Yasuda describes the theoretical underpinnings of this double stop method in her article entitled Double Stop Solos:
How to Teach and Play using the Yasuda Double Stop Solos and Duets Approach [5].
Double stop 217

Bach bow
A 20th century invention by Emil Telmnyi called the "Bach bow" uses a system of levers to temporarily slacken the
bow hair and allow sustained three- or four-note chords; this design has no historical precedent, and is no more
authentic than an ordinary modern bow for playing baroque music.

Bridge curvature
In addition to the style of bow, the curvature of the bridge is an
important factor in the ease of multiple stopping. On most classical
instruments, the bridge is curved enough to make it difficult to play
three strings at once, but on some violins the bridge is shaved down
until almost flat, making it far easier to triple stop, as well as to
alternate double stopping on different pairs of strings (DA to AE for A violin bridge blank (unfinished) and the
finished bridge.
example). The compromise is that more skill is needed to avoid
playing a double stop when none is called for.

Percussion stops
Multiple stops are also used in tuned percussion, such as on the vibraphone or marimba, and more rarely, timpani. A
percussion double stop simply consists of striking both bars or timpani with two separate mallets.

Sources
[1] Cecil Forsyth, William Bolcom (1982). Orchestration, p.315. ISBN 0-486-24383-4.
[2] http:/ / www2. gibson. com/ Lessons/ Arlen-Roth-Lessons/ Lesson-Of-The-Week/ Chuck-Berry-Double-Stops. aspx
[3] http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/ JOSEPHINE_TROTT_MELODIOUS_DOUBLE_STOPS. html?id=nT44AAAACAAJ
[4] http:/ / www. doublestopsduetsandmore. com/ christmas-melodies-double-stop-solos-and-duets-for-violin-volume-i-with-cd-bpbs/
[5] http:/ / www. doublestopsduetsandmore. com/ articles/ double-stop-solos-and-duets/
 218

Bass amplification

Bass instrument amplification

Bass instrument amplification, used for the bass guitar, double bass and similar
instruments, is distinct from other types of amplification systems due to the
particular challenges associated with low-frequency sound reproduction. This
distinction affects the design of the loudspeakers, the speaker cabinet and the
preamplifier and amplifier. Speaker cabinets for bass instrument amplification
usually incorporate larger (or more) loudspeakers than those used for the
amplification of other instruments. The loudspeakers themselves must also be
sturdier to handle the higher power levels.

Bass instrument speaker cabinets are typically more rigidly constructed and
heavily braced than those for non-bass instrument amplification. They usually
include tuned bass reflex ports or vents for increased efficiency at low frequencies.
Preamplifier sections have equalization controls that are designed for the deeper
frequency range of bass instruments, and can extend down to 40Hz or below.
Bass instrument amplifiers are more likely to be designed with cooling fans than
regular guitar amplifiers, due to the high power demands of bass instrument
A 2 10" bass speaker cabinet
amplification. They are also more commonly equipped with limiter circuitry to
stacked on top of a 15" cabinet,
prevent overloading the power amplifier and to protect the speakers from damage. with a separate amplifier "head"
unit

History

1950s1960s
When the Fender company invented the first widely-produced electric bass guitar (the Fender Precision Bass) they
also developed a bass amplifier, the Fender Bassman, first produced in 1952. This was a 50-watt tube amplifier with
a single 15" speaker. In 1954, the Bassman was redesigned to use four 10" speakers. The circuit design also
underwent repeated modifications. The "5F6A" circuit introduced in 1958 is widely regarded as a classic amplifier
design and was copied by many other manufacturers, such as Marshall.
Bass instrument amplification 219

The Ampeg Bassamp Company, founded in 1949, also produced bass

amplifiers that were widely used by electric bass guitarists in the 1950s
and 1960s. The first bass amplifier offered by Ampeg was an 18-watt
model with a single 12" speaker and a rear ventilation port called the
Super 800. In 1951, they introduced a 20-watt version with a 15-inch
speaker. In 1960, they introduced the B-15 Portaflex, a flip-top 25-watt
bass amplifier with a single 15" speaker. In the late 1960s, the 300-watt
Super Vacuum Tube (SVT) amplifier head, which was intended for
large performance venues. The SVT was intended for use with one or
two speaker cabinets containing eight 10" speakers.

A Kustom 200 bass amplifier from 1971,
featuring a separate amp head on top of a 2 x 15"
speaker cabinet.
and treble but a single 12-inch speaker. The Versatone was used by well-known bassists such as Jack Casady and
Carol Kaye.
In the mid-1960s John Entwistle, the bassist for The Who, was one of
the first major players to make use of Marshall stacks. At a time when
most bands used 50 to 100-watt amplifiers with single cabinets,
Entwistle used twin stacks with new experimental prototype 200-watt
amplifiers. This, in turn, also had a strong influence on the band's
contemporaries at the time, with Cream and the Jimi Hendrix
Experience both following suit. Entwistle also experimented
throughout his career with "bi-amplification," where the high and low
registers of the bass sound are sent to separate amplifiers and speakers.
This allows for more control over the tone, because each register can
then be modified (e.g., in terms of tone, added overdrive, etc.)
individually. The Versatone Pan-O-Flex amplifier used a different
approach to bi-amplification, with separate amplifier sections for bass

1970s2000s
As PA systems improved, horn-loaded "bass bins" and subwoofers
were added and were often well-equipped to amplify directly-fed bass
guitar and keyboard frequencies. As well, in the 1980s and 1990s,
monitor systems were substantially improved, which allowed sound
engineers to provide on-stage musicians with a loud, clear, and
full-range reproduction of their instruments' sound.

A bass rack from a professional bass player's

touring setup. The bass amplifier is the lowest
chassis in the rack; above it are a wireless
receiver, several pre-amp devices, and a power
conditioner.
Bass instrument amplification 220

As a result of the improvements to PA systems and monitor systems,

bass players in the 2000s no longer need to have huge, powerful
amplifier systems. Instead, contemporary bass amplifiers usually have
preamp-out jacks that can be patched to the PA. In the 2000s, virtually
all of the sound reaching the audience in large venues comes from the
PA system. As well, in the 2000s on-stage instrument amplifiers are
more likely to be kept at a low volume, because high volume levels on
In this 2007 photo of The Police's singer-bassist
stage makes it harder to control the sound mix and produce a clean
Sting, several 8x10" Ampeg cabinets can be seen
on the left side. sound. As a result, in many large venues much of the on-stage sound
reaching the musicians now comes from the monitor speakers, not
from the instrument amplifiers. Stacks of huge speaker cabinets and amplifiers are still used in concerts in some
genres of music, especially heavy metal, but they tend to be used more for the visual effect than for sound
reproduction.

Types
Different types of equipment are used to amplify the electric bass and other
bass instruments, depending on the performance setting and style of music,
and the sound desired by the bassist. For rehearsals, recording sessions, or
small club performances, electric and upright bass players typically use a
"combo" amplifier, which combines amplifier and speaker in a single cabinet.
For larger venues such as large clubs and outdoor music festivals, or for
music genres that use bass instruments with an extended low range (e.g.,
metal), bass players often use a more powerful amplifier (300 to 1000 watts)
and separate speaker cabinets in various combinations.
Separate bass amplifiers, often called 'heads' or 'amp heads' are usually
integrated units, with preamplifier and power amplifier combined in a single
unit. Some players use separate preamplifer/power amplifier setups, where
one or more preamplifiers drive one or more power amplifiers. The small combo amplifier in this picture
is an example of a bass "practice amp";
its low wattage and low volume make it
mostly suited to individual practice.

Amplifier technology
Amplifiers may be based on thermionic ("tube" or "valve") or solid
state (transistor) technology.

Tube amplification
Vacuum tubes were the dominant active electronic components in bass
A MesaBoogie bass amplifier "head"; note the
amplifiers manufactured until the early 1970s, and tubes continue to be
graphic equalizer sliders on the right side
used for higher-end units. Tube amplifiers for bass almost always use
class AB1 topology for efficiency reasons. Many bass players believe that tube amplifiers produce a "warmer" or
more "natural" sound than solid state amplifiers when lightly or moderately driven, and more pleasing distortion
characteristics when overdriven. Some also believe that they have a greater level of perceived loudness for a given
Bass instrument amplification 221

amount of amplifier power. Even though tube amplifiers produce more heat than solid state amplifiers, few
manufacturers of tube amplifiers include cooling fans in the amplifiers' chassis. Usually adequate cooling is provided
by passive convection. Adequate airflow is needed to prevent excessive heat from shortening the tubes' lifespan or
producing tonal inconsistencies.[1]

Solid state amplification

By the 1960s and 1970s, semiconductor transistor-based amplifiers began to become popular. This was in large part
because solid state amplifiers are less expensive, lighter weight, and require less maintenance than tube amplifiers. In
some cases, tube and solid state technologies are used together, usually with a tube preamplifier driving a solid state
power amplifier. There are also an increasing range of products that use digital signal processing and digital
modeling technology to simulate many different combinations of amp and cabinets.
The output transistors of solid state amplifiers can be passively cooled by using metal fins called heat sinks to radiate
away the heat. For high-wattage amplifiers, a fan is often used to move air across internal heatsinks.[2] Since
transistor bass amplifiers used for large venues need to produce a high output, this usually means that bass amplifiers
are very heavy. Most powerful transistorized bass amplifiers use class AB or so-called "push-pull" topology. These
need heavy transformers and require large metal heat sinks for cooling. However, Class D amplifiers (also called
"switching amplifiers") are more efficient than conventional Class-AB amplifiers, and so are lighter in weight and
smaller. The Acoustic Image Focus head, for example, produces 800watts of power and weighs 2.2 kilograms.
Class-D amplifiers use MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors) rather than 'ordinary'
(bipolar) transistors, and generate a pulse-width modulated signal that is filtered before it reaches the speaker.[3]

Loudspeakers
The lowest note on the double bass or four-stringed electric bass is E1,
two octaves below middle C (approximately 41Hz), and on a
five-string it is B0 (approximately 31Hz).[4] The requirement to
reproduce low frequencies at high sound pressure levels means that
most loudspeakers used for bass guitar amplification are designed
around large diameter, heavy-duty drivers, with 10", 12" and 15" being
most common. The choice of speaker represents a compromise: while
some speakers more effectively reproduce low frequencies, they may
have poorer midrange and transient response.

Bassists who want powerful low end may use a subwoofer cabinet
designed for a PA system. Subwoofers can only produce frequencies
up to about 150 or 200Hz, so a subwoofer cabinet must be paired with
a full range speaker to obtain the full tonal range of an electric bass or
upright bass.

Music store display showing a variety of bass

"combo" amplifiers and speaker cabinets.
Bass instrument amplification 222

Cabinet design
Most bass speaker cabinets employ a vented bass-reflex design, which use
a port or vent. Others use acoustic suspension designs with sealed cabinets;
these are relatively uncommon because they tend to be less efficient. Some
cabinets use a transmission-line design similar to bass-reflex, and some
large cabinets use horn-loading of the woofers.

Bass reflex speaker enclosures, which have

a vent or port cut into the cabinet, are widely
used for bass cabinets.

Tweeters
High frequency tweeters, typically horn-loaded, are included in
some bass instrument speaker cabinets. Vox's 1960s-era "Super
Beatle" amplifier was an early enclosure that used horn tweeters.
During the late 1960s Acoustic's 260 Series guitar amp used a
treble horn in the dual 15" 261 guitar enclosure, and Kustom's
nearly 5-foot-tall (1.5m) 2J + 1H guitar enclosure used two 15"
speakers and a 15" diameter treble horn. Horn-equipped cabinets
were not available for bass players until much later.

In the early 1980s, some performers began using two-way or

three-way cabinets that used 15" woofers, a vented midrange
driver and a horn/driver, with a crossover directing the signal to
the appropriate driver. Folded horn bass guitar rigs have remained
more the exception than the rule due to their size and weight. As
well, since the 1990s, most clubs have PA systems with
subwoofers that can handle the low range of the bass guitar.
A 150-watt "combo" bass amp with a horn-loaded
Extended range designs with tweeters were more the exception tweeter (in the top right of the speaker cabinet)
than the rule until the 1990s. The more common use of tweeters in
traditional bass guitar amplifiers in the 1990s helped bassists to use effects and perform more soloistic playing styles,
which emphasize the higher range of the instrument.
One problem with adding a tweeter to a bass speaker cabinet is that the driver may be damaged by the overdriven
amplifier tone that is popular in some musical genres, since overdriving the amplifier adds a great deal of high
frequency information to the signal. Horns and speakers in the same cabinet are sometimes wired separately, so that
they can be driven by separate amplifiers. Biamplified systems and separately-wired cabinets produced by
manufacturers such as Gallien-Krueger and Carvin allow bassists to send an overdriven sound to the speaker, and a
crisp high sound to the horn, which prevents this problem.
Bass instrument amplification 223

Amplifying the double bass

Double bass players performing in traditional blues, rockabilly, jazz,
folk, and bluegrass often blend the sounds picked up by a piezoelectric
transducer with the sounds picked up by a small condenser microphone
mounted on the bridge. The microphone picks up the resonance
coming from the body and the sounds of the strings being plucked,
bowed, or slapped against. The two sound signals are blended using a
simple mixer and then routed to the amplifier.
Double bass players playing in genres where a louder amplified tone
(emphasizing the fundamental frequencies) is desired for the bass may
be more likely to face the problem of feedback. Feedback for double
bass generally manifests itself as a sharp, sudden high-volume
"howling" sound that can damage loudspeakers. When acoustic
instruments with resonant bodies are amplified with microphones and
piezoelectric transducer pickups, the common approach used for
amplified double basses, they are prone to have feedback problems.
A jazz bassist performing on an upright bass,
using an amplifier and speaker to augment the
instrument's natural volume

Preamplification and effects

The basic sound of the amplified electric bass or double bass can be modified by electronic bass effects.
Preamplifiers, compression, limiting, and equalization are the most widely-used effects for bass.
A range of other effects are used in various genres. "Wah-wah" and "synth" bass effects are associated with funk
music. As well, since the 1960s and 1970s, bands have experimented with "fuzz bass" where the bass is distorted
either by overdriving the amp or by using a distortion unit. Octave-generating effects, which generate an octave
below the pitch being played are also used by bass players. Many bassists in modern-day hard rock and heavy metal
bands use overdrive pedals made for bass guitar. Well known overdrive effects for bass include the BOSS ODB-3
Bass Overdrive[5], Electro-Harmonix Bass Blogger[6], Tech21 Sansamp Bass Driver[7][8], the DigiTech XBD Bass
Driver[9], and the Electro-Harmonix Big Muff.

References
[1] McCullough, Michael "Mac" (1995), Cool it, man (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061019054109/ http:/ / www. chitown. com/ http/
music/ Musictips. html), archived from the original (http:/ / www. chitown. com/ http/ music/ Musictips. html) on 2006-10-19, , retrieved
2010-08-23
[2] Power Amplifiers General Information (http:/ / www. yorkville. com/ default. asp?p1=6& p2=17& p_id=25), Yorkville Sound (http:/ /
www. yorkville. com/ ), , retrieved 2010-08-23
[3] Mellor, David (June 2006), What is Class-D amplification? The benefits explained (http:/ / www. soundonsound. com/ sos/ jun06/ articles/
loudandlight. htm), Sound on Sound, , retrieved 2010-08-23
[4] Frequencies (http:/ / www. contrabass. com/ pages/ frequency. html), Contrabass Mania (http:/ / www. contrabass. com/ ), , retrieved
2010-08-23
[5] http:/ / www. boss. info/ global/ gear/ 261/ 155
[6] http:/ / www. ehx. com/ products/ bass-blogger/
[7] http:/ / www. tech21nyc. com/ products/ sansamp/ bassdriverdlx. html
[8] http:/ / www. tech21nyc. com/ products/ sansamp/ bassdriverp. html
[9] http:/ / www. digitech. com/ products/ Pedals/ BassDriver. php

Bass amplifier types and related. - Bassamplifier.org (http://www.bassamplifier.org/)

Preamplifier 224

Preamplifier
A preamplifier (preamp) is an electronic amplifier that prepares a
small electrical signal for further amplification or processing. A
preamplifier is often placed close to the sensor to reduce the effects of
noise and interference. It is used to boost the signal strength to drive
the cable to the main instrument without significantly degrading the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The noise performance of a preamplifier is
critical; according to Friis's formula, when the gain of the preamplifier
is high, the SNR of the final signal is determined by the SNR of the
input signal and the noise figure of the preamplifier.
An example of a typical high-end stereo
In a home audio system, the term 'preamplifier' may sometimes be used preamplifier.
to describe equipment which merely switches between different line
level sources and applies a volume control, so that no actual amplification may be involved. In an audio system, the
second amplifier is typically a power amplifier (power amp). The preamplifier provides voltage gain (e.g. from 10
millivolts to 1 volt) but no significant current gain. The power amplifier provides the higher current necessary to
drive loudspeakers.

Preamplifiers may be:

incorporated into the housing or chassis of the amplifier they feed
in a separate housing
mounted within or near the signal source, such as a turntable, microphone or musical instrument.

Examples
The integrated preamplifier in a foil electret microphone.
The first stages of an instrument amplifier.
A stand-alone unit for use in live music and recording studio applications.
As part of a stand-alone channel strip or channel strip built into an audio mixing desk.
A masthead amplifier used with television receiver antenna or a satellite receiver dish.
The circuit inside of a hard drive connected to the magnetic heads or the circuit inside of CD/DVD drive which
connects to the photodiodes.
A switched capacitor circuit used to null the effects of mismatch offset in most CMOS comparator-based flash
analog-to-digital converters

External links
WikiRecording's Guide to Choosing a Microphone Pre-Amp [1]
Preamplifier.org - An overview of the most common types of preamplifiers. [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. wikirecording. org/ Choosing_a_Microphone_Pre_Amp
[2] http:/ / www. preamplifier. org
Effects unit 225

Effects unit
Effects units are electronic devices that alter how a musical
instrument or other audio source sounds. Some effects subtly
"color" a sound, while others transform it dramatically. Effects are
used during live performances or in the studio, typically with
electric guitar, keyboard and bass. While most frequently used with
electric or electronic instruments, effects can also be used with
acoustic instruments, drums and vocals.[1][2] Examples of common
effects units include wah-wah pedals, fuzzboxes and reverb
units.[3] A pedalboard allows a performer to create a
ready-to-use chain of multiple pedals. Signal chain
Effects are housed in amplifiers, table top units, "stompboxes" and order: tuner, compressor, octave generator, wah-wah
"rackmounts", or they are built into the instruments themselves. A pedal, overdrive, distortion, fuzz, EQ and tremolo.

stompbox (or "pedal") is a small metal or plastic box placed on the

floor in front of the musician and connected to his or her instrument. The box is typically controlled by one or more
foot-pedal on-off switches and contains only one or two effects. A rackmount is mounted on a standard 19-inch
equipment rack and usually contains several different types of effects.[4]

While there is currently no consensus on how to categorize effects, the following are seven common classifications:
distortion, dynamics, filter, modulation, pitch/frequency, time-based and feedback/sustain.[5][6] Rock guitarists
derive their signature sound or "tone" from their choice of instrument and effects.[7]

Formats (form factor)

Effects units are available in a variety of formats or "form factors". A
musician's choice of form factor is generally determined by the
instrument he or she plays, the musical situation (recording or live
performance) and what he or she can afford. Stompbox style pedals are
usually the smallest, least expensive and most rugged type of effect.
Rackmount devices are relatively expensive and offer a wider range of
functions.[8] An effects unit can consist of analog or digital circuitry.
Boss ME-50 guitar multi-effects pedal
During a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical
"signal" path of the instrument. In the studio, the instrument or other
sound-source's auxiliary output is patched into the effect.[9][10] Form factors are part of a studio or musician's
outboard gear.[11]
Effects unit 226

Stompboxes
Stompboxes, or effects pedals, are effects units designed to sit on the floor or a pedalboard
and be turned on and off with the user's feet. They typically house a single effect. The
simplest stompbox pedals have a single footswitch; one to three potentiometers for
controlling the effect, gain or tone; and a single LED display to indicate whether the effect
is on or not. The most complex stompbox pedals have multiple footswitches, eight to ten
knobs, additional switches, and an alphanumeric display screen that indicates the status of
the effect with short acronyms (e.g. DIST for "distortion").[8][12]

An "effects chain" or "signal chain" may be formed by connecting two or more

Ibanez Tube Screamer stompboxes. Effect chains are typically created between a preamplifier ("preamp") and the
TS9 overdrive pedal
guitar amplifier. When a pedal is off or inactive, the electric audio signal coming in to the
pedal is diverted onto a "bypass", resulting in a "dry" signal which continues on to other
effects down the chain. In this way, the effects within a chain can be combined in a variety of ways without having
to reconnect boxes during a performance.[13] A "controller" or "effects management system" allows for multiple
effect chains to be created, so that one or several chains can be engaged or disengaged by tapping a single switch.
The switches are usually organized in a row or a simple grid.[14]

To preserve the clarity of the tone, it is most common to put compression, wah and overdrive pedals at the start of
the chain; modulation (chorus, flanger, phase shifter) in the middle; and time-based units (delay/echo, reverb) at the
end. When using many effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound. Some performers use a
noise gate pedal at the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by overdrive units or vintage
gear.[15]

Rackmounts
Rackmounted effects are built into a case designed to integrate into a
19-inch rack standard to the telecommunication and computing
industries. A rackmount unit may contain electronic circuitry identical
to a stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex.
Unlike stompboxes, rackmounts usually have several different types of
effects.[16]

Rackmounts are most commonly used in recording studios and "front

of house" live sound mixing situations, though many musicians use
them in place of stompboxes. Rackmounts are controlled by knobs or
Rackmounted effects
switches on their front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control
interface. During live performances, a musician can operate
rackmounted effects using a "foot controller".[17]

"Shock mount" racks are designed for musicians who are shipping gear on major tours. Devices that are less than
19inches wide may use special "ear" adapters that allow them to be mounted on a rack.[18]
Effects unit 227

Built-in units
Effects are often incorporated into amplifiers and even some types of instruments. Electric guitar amplifiers typically
have built-in reverb and distortion, while acoustic guitar and keyboard amplifiers tend to only have built-in reverb.
Since the 2000s, guitar amplifiers began having built-in multi-effects units or digital modeling effects. Bass
amplifiers are less likely to have built-in effects, although some may have a compressor/limiter or distortion.[19]
Instruments with built-in effects include Hammond organs, electronic organs, electronic pianos and digital
synthesizers.[20] Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects.[21][22]

Multi-effects and tabletop units

A multi-effects device (also called a "multi-FX" device) is a single electronics effects pedal or rackmount device that
contains many different electronic effects. Multi-FX devices allow users to "preset" combinations of different
effects, allowing musicians quick on-stage access to different effects combinations.[23]
A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually. One such example is
the Pod guitar amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units
can be placed alongside a mixer, turntables and CD scratching gear.[24]

History
Studio effects and early stand alone units
The earliest sound effects were strictly studio productions. In the mid to late 1940s, recording engineers and
experimental musicians such as Les Paul began manipulating reel-to-reel recording tape to create echo effects and
unusual, futuristic sounds. Microphone placement ("miking") techniques were used in spaces with specially designed
acoustic properties to simulate echo chambers.[25][26][27]
In 1948 DeArmond released the Trem-Trol, the first commercially available stand-alone effects unit. This device
produced a tremolo by passing an instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid.[28] Most
stand-alone effects of the 1950s and early 60s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender reverb box,
were expensive and impractical, requiring bulky transformers and high voltages. The original stand-alone units were
not especially in-demand as many effects came built into amplifiers. The first popular stand-alone was the 1958
Watkins Copicat, a relatively portable tape echo effect made famous by the British band, The Shadows.[29][30]
Amplifiers
Amplifier built-ins were the first effects to be used regularly outside the studio by guitar players. From the late 1940s
onward, the Gibson Guitar Corp. began including vibrato circuits in combo amplifiers. The 1950 Ray Butts
EchoSonic amp was the first to feature the "slapback" echo sound, which quickly became popular with guitarists
such as Chet Atkins, Carl Perkins, Scotty Moore, Luther Perkins, and Roy Orbison. By the 1950s, tremolo, vibrato
and reverb were available as built-in effects on many guitar amplifiers. Both Premier and Gibson built tube-powered
amps with spring reverb. Fender began manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.[31]
Distortion was not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved by
"overdriving" the power supply in early tube amplifiers. In the 1950s, guitarists such as Willie Johnson of Howlin'
Wolf,[32] Goree Carter,[33] Joe Hill Louis,[34][35] Ike Turner,[36] Guitar Slim,[37] Chuck Berry,[38] Paul Burlison of
Johnny Burnette & The Rock and Roll Trio and Link Wray deliberately increased gain beyond its intended levels to
achieve "warm" distorted sounds.[32] Pat Hare produced heavily distorted power chords for several 1954 recordings
(including James Cotton's Cotton Crop Blues"), creating "a grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound,"[39]
accomplished by turning the volume knob on his amplifier "all the way to the right until the speaker was
screaming."[40] Wray's seminal 1958 recording "Rumble" inspired young musicians such as Pete Townshend of The
Who, Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Dave Davies of The Kinks, and Neil Young to explore distortion. Davies would
famously doctor the speakers of his amp by slitting them with a razor blade to achieve a grittier guitar sound on the
Effects unit 228

1964 song "You Really Got Me".[41] In 1966, the British company Marshall Amplification began producing the
Marshall 1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distorted "crunch" that rock musicians were starting to
covet.[42][43]
Stompboxes
The electronic transistor finally made it possible to cram the aural creativity of the recording studio into small, highly
portable stompbox units. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing for much more compact formats and greater
stability. The first transistorized guitar effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after
its use in the 1965 Rolling Stones hit "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction".[44][45]
Warwick Electronics manufactured the first wah-wah pedal, The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and that same year Roger
Mayer issued the first octave effect, the Octavia.[46][47] In 1968, Univox began marketing its Uni-Vibe pedal, an
effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the odd phase shift and chorus effects of the
Leslie rotating speakers used in Hammond organs. The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitarists Jimi
Hendrix and Robin Trower. Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix allegedly rushed back to the studio and
immediately used it to record the guitar solos on "Purple Haze" and "Fire"[48] By the mid-1970s a variety of
solid-state effects pedals including flangers, chorus pedals, ring modulators and phase shifters were available.[49][50]
In the 1980s, digitized rackmount units began replacing stompboxes as the effects format of choice. Often musicians
would record "dry", unaltered tracks in the studio and effects would be added in post-production. The success of
Nirvana's 1991 album Nevermind helped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes. Throughout the 1990s, musicians
committed to a "lo-fi" aesthic such as J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr., Stephen Malkmus of Pavement and Robert Pollard of
Guided by Voices continued to use non-digital (analog) effects pedals.[51]
Effects and effects unitsstompboxes in particularhave been celebrated by pop and rock musicians in album
titles, songs and band names. The Big Muff, a classic fuzzbox manufactured by Electro-Harmonix,[52] is
commemorated by the Depeche Mode song "Big Muff" and the Mudhoney EP Superfuzz Bigmuff. Nine Inch Nails,
Pink Floyd, George Harrison, They Might Be Giants and Joy Division are among the many musicians who have
referenced effects units in their music.[53]

Types

Distortion
Distortion effects create "warm", "gritty" and
"fuzzy" sounds by "clipping" an instrument's
audio signal, which distorts the shape of its
wave form and adds overtones. Distortion
effects are sometimes called "gain" effects,
as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved
by increasing the electric power supply (i.e.
gain) to tube amplifiers.[54][55][56]

Distortion and overdrive: Distortion and

"Clipping" an instrument's audio signal produces distortion
overdrive units re-shape or "clip" an audio
signal's wave form so that it has flattened
peaks, creating "warm" sounds by adding harmonics or "gritty" sounds by adding inharmonic overtones. In tube
amplifiers, distortion is created by compressing the instrument's out-going electrical signal in vacuum tubes or
"valves".[55][56] Distortion effects differ from overdrive effects in that they produce roughly the same amount of

distortion at any volume. Overdrive units, much like tube amps, produce "clean" sounds at quieter volumes and
distorted sounds at louder volumes.[57][58]
Effects unit 229

Distortion and overdrive effects: Boss DS-1 Distortion, Ibanez Tube Screamer, Marshall ShredMaster, MXR
Distortion +, Pro Co RAT.
Fuzz: A fuzz pedal or "fuzzbox" is a type of overdrive pedal that clips a sound-wave until it is nearly a squarewave,
resulting in a heavily distorted or "fuzzy" sound.[56][59] Fuzzboxes also contain frequency multiplier circuitry to
achieve an even harsher timbre by adding complex harmonics.[60][61] The Rolling Stones "(I Can't Get No)
Satisfaction" greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.[26]
Fuzz effects: Arbiter Fuzz Face, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff, Shin-ei Companion FY-2, Univox Super-Fuzz, Vox
Tone Bender, Z.Vex Fuzz Factory.

Dynamics
Also called volume and amplitude effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument. Dynamics effects
were the first effects to be introduced to guitarists.[5]
Boost/volume pedal: A boost or "clean boost" amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing the amplitude of
its audio signal. These units are generally used for "boosting" volume during solos and preventing signal loss in long
"effects chains". A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar to lead guitar may use a boost to increase the volume of
his or her solo.[62]
Volume effects: Electro-Harmonix LPB-1, Fender Volume Pedal, MXR Micro Amp.
Compressor: Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing or "compressing" the
dynamic range of an audio signal.[63] A compressor is often used to stabilize volume and smooth a notes "attack" by
dampening its onset and amplifying its sustain. A compressor can also function as a limiter with extreme settings of
its controls.[64]
Compressor effects: Keeley Compressor, MXR Dyna Comp.
Noise gate: Noise gates eliminate "hum", "hiss" and "static" by greatly diminishing the volume of sounds that fall
below a set threshold. Noise gates are expanders, meaning unlike compressors they increase the dynamic range of an
audio signal in order to make quiet sounds even quieter.[63] If used with extreme settings along with reverb, they can
create unusual sounds, such as the gated drum effect used in 1980s pop songs, a style popularized by the Phil Collins
song "In the Air Tonight".[65][66]
Noise gate effects: Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor.

Filter
Filter effects alter the frequency content of an audio signal that
passes through them by either boosting or weakening specific
frequencies or frequency regions.
Equalizer: An equalizer is a set of linear filters that strengthen
("boost") or weaken ("cut") specific frequency regions. Stereos
often have equalizers that adjust bass and treble.[67] Audio
engineers use highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate
unwanted sounds, make an instrument or voice more prominent,
and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.[68]
Equalizer effects: Boss GE-7 Equalizer.

Talk box: A talk box directs the sound from a guitar or

Peter Frampton's Talk box
synthesizer into the mouth of a performer, allowing him or her to
shape the sound into vowels and consonants. The modified sound

is then picked up by a microphone. In this way the guitar is able to "talk". Some famous uses of the talkbox include
Bon Jovis "Livin' on a Prayer", Stevie Wonder's "Black Man" and Peter Frampton's "Show Me the Way".[69][70]
Effects unit 230

Talk boxes: Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box, Rocktron Banshee.

Wah-wah: A wah-wah pedal creates vowel-like sounds by altering the frequency spectrum produced by an
instrumenti.e., how loud it is at each separate frequencyin what is known as a spectral glide or "sweep".[71] The
device is operated by a foot treadle that opens and closes a potentiometer. Wah-wah pedals are often used by funk
and psychedelic rock guitarists.[72]
Wah effects: Dunlop Cry Baby, Morley Power Wah, Musitronics Mu-Tron III.

Modulation
Modulation effects combine multiple audio signals in order to create sounds with unusual tonal properties. Some
modulation effects mix ("modulate") an instrument's audio signal with a signal generated by the effect called a
carrier wave.[73] Other modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering one portion of the signal
and mixing it with the unaltered portion.[74]
Chorus: Chorus pedals mimic the effect choirs and string orchestras produce naturally by mixing sounds with slight
differences in timbre and pitch. A chorus effect splits the instrument-to-amplifier audio signal, and adds a slight
delay and frequency variations or "vibrato" to part of the signal while leaving the rest unaltered.[74][75] A well-known
usage of chorus is the lead guitar in "Come As You Are" by Nirvana.[64]
Chorus effects: Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble, Electro-Harmonix Small Clone, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus.
Flanger: A flanger creates a "jet plane" or "spaceship" sound, simulating a studio effect produced by recording a
track on two synchronized tapes and periodically slowing one tape by pressing the edge of its reel (the "flange").
When the two tapes' audio signals are later mixed, a comb filter effect can be heard. Flanger units add a variably
delayed version of the audio signal to the original or signal, creating a comb filter or Doppler effect.[76][77] Some
famous uses of flanger effects include "Walking on the Moon" by The Police, the intro to "Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love"
by Van Halen, and "Barracuda" by Heart.[78][79]
Flanger effects: Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress, MXR Flanger.
Phaser: A phaser or "phase shifter" creates a slight rippling effectamplifying some aspects of the tone while
diminishing othersby splitting an audio signal in two and altering the phase of one portion. Three well-known
examples of phaser are the two handed tapping part on the Van Halen instrumental Eruption and the keyboard parts
on Billy Joel's "Just the Way You Are" and Paul Simon's "Slip Slidin' Away".[80]
Phase shift effects: Electro-Harmonix Small Stone, MXR Phase 90, Univox Uni-Vibe.
Ring modulator: A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mixing an instrument's audio signal with
a carrier wave generated by the device's internal oscillator. The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a
"ring" of inharmonic higher and lower pitches or "sidebands".[73][81] A notable use of ring modulation is the guitar in
the Black Sabbath song "Paranoid".[82]
Ring modulator effects: moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.
Tremolo: A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord. The "tremolo effect"
should not be confused with the misleadingly-named "tremolo bar", a device on a guitar bridge that creates a vibrato
or "pitch-bending" effect. In transistorized effects, a tremolo is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal with
a sub-audible carrier wave in such a way that generates amplitude variations in the sound wave.[83][84] The guitar
intro in the Rolling Stones' "Gimme Shelter" features a tremolo effect.[85]
Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator, Fender Tremolux.
Vibrato: Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations in pitch, mimicking the fractional semitone variations
produced naturally by opera singers and violinists when prolonging a single note. Vibrato effects often allow the
performer to control the rate of the variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g. "depth"). A vibrato with an
extreme "depth" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more) will produce a dramatic, ululating sound. In transistorized
effects, vibrato is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal with a carrier wave in such a way that generates
frequency variations in the sound wave.[84] Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato" and "tremolo" misleadingly. A
Effects unit 231

so-called "vibrato unit" in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a "tremolo arm" or "whammy bar" on a
guitar produces vibrato.[86][87] Vibrato effects: Boss VB-2 Vibrato.

Pitch/frequency
Pitch/frequency effects modify pitch by altering the frequency of a sound wave or adding new harmonies.
Pitch shifter and harmonizer: A pitch shifter raises or lowers (e.g. "transposes") each note a performer plays by a
pre-set interval. For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note four diatonic
intervals above the notes actually played. Simple pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or two octaves, while
more sophisticated devices offer a range of interval alterations.
A harmonizer is a type of pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two or more
note harmony. Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.[88]
Pitch shift effects: DigiTech Whammy, Electro-Harmonix POG.

Time-based
Time-based effects delay the sound signal or adds echos.
Delay/echo: Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a
duplicate instrument-to-amplifier electrical signal to the original signal
at a slight time-delay. The effect can either be a single echo called a
"slap" or "slapback," or multiple echos. A well-known use of delay is
the lead guitar in the U2 song "Where the Streets Have No Name".[89]
Folded line spring reverberation
Delay effects: Boss DD-3 Digital Delay, Electro-Harmonix Deluxe
Memory Man, Line 6 DL4, Roland RE-201.

Looper pedal: A looper pedal or "phrase looper" allows a performer to record and later replay a phrase or passage
from a song. Loops can be created on the spot during a performance or they can be pre-recorded. Some units allow a
performer to layer multiple loops. The first loop effects were created with reel-to-reel tape using a tape loop.
High-end boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studios who want a vintage sound. Digital loop effects
recreate this effect using an electronic memory.[90]
Looper effects: Boss RC-30 Loop Station.
Reverb: Reverb units simulate sounds produced in an echo chamber by creating a large number of echoes that
gradually fade or "decay". A plate reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer to create vibrations in a plate
of metal. Spring reverb systems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a transducer to create vibrations in a
spring. Digital reverb effects use various signal processing algorithms to create the reverb effect, often by using
multiple feedback delay circuits. Rockabilly and surf guitar are two genres that make heavy use of reverb.[91]
Reverb effects: Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail, Fender Reverb Unit.
Effects unit 232

Feedback/sustain
Audio feedback: Audio feedback is an effect produced when amplified sound is picked
up by a microphone and played back through an amplifier, initiating a "feedback loop".
Feedback as pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix is generated by playing an
instrument directly in front of an amplifier set to a high volume. This relatively primitive
technique tends to create high-pitched overtones and can be difficult to sustain. It can
also be hard to determine the sound volume and guitar position relative to a loudspeaker
necessary for achieving feedback conditions.[92][93]

The EBow is a small, handheld pickup/string driver that sustains a sound. The devices
An EBow consists of two coils: one that picks up and amplifies the guitar string vibration much in
the manner of a guitar pickup and one that acts as a magnetic string driver, vibrating the
string. The EBow drives one string at a time. Later EBow models contain a mode switch which allows the player to
either produce just sustain or overtone feedback in addition to sustain.[72]
Other magnetic string drivers use the guitar pickup signal as input, creating feedback/sustain by way of a string
driver mounted in the guitar.
Many compressor pedals are often also marketed as "sustainer pedals". As a note is sustained, it loses energy and
volume due to diminishing vibration in the string. The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specified
dynamic range, slightly prolonging the duration of the note.[94] This, combined with heavy distortion, can lead to
infinite sustain at lower volumes.

Other effects
Envelope follower: An envelope follower activates an effect once a designated volume is reached. One effect that
uses an envelope follower is the "auto-wah", which produces a "wah" effect depending on how loud or soft the notes
are being played.[95][96]
Guitar amplifier modeling: Amplifier modeling is a digital effect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers,
most often analog "tube" amps. Sophisticated modeling effects can simulate speaker cabinets and miking techniques.
A rotary speaker simulator mimics the doppler sound of a vintage Leslie speaker system by replicating its volume
and pitch modulations, overdrive capacity and phase shifts.[97]
Pitch correction/vocal effects: Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation
in a vocalist's performance.[98]
Simulators: Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other instruments such as acoustic guitar,
electric bass and sitar. Pick up simulators used on guitars with single-coil pick ups replicate the sound of guitars with
humbucker pick ups, or vice-versa. A de-fretter is a bass guitar effect that simulates the sound of a fretless bass. The
effect uses an envelope-controlled filter and voltage-controlled amplifier to "soften" a note's attack both in volume
and timbre.[99]
Effects unit 233

Boutique pedals
Boutique pedals are designed by smaller, independent companies and are typically
produced in limited quantities. Some may even be hand-made. These pedals are
mainly distributed online or through mail-order, or sold in a few music stores.[100]
They are often more expensive than mass-produced pedals[101] and offer
non-standard features such as true-bypass switching, higher-quality components,
innovative designs, and hand-painted artwork. Some boutique companies focus on
re-creating classic or vintage effects.[102]
Some boutique pedal manufacturers include: Analog Man, BJFE, Pete Cornish,
T-Rex brand "Mudhoney" Emlyn Crowther, Death By Audio, Devi Ever, Robert Keeley, Roger Linn,
overdrive pedal Lovetone, Roger Mayer, Strymon, T-Rex Engineering, ToadWorks and Z.Vex
Effects.

Effects unit modification

There is also a niche market for modifying or "modding" effects. Typically, vendors provide either custom
modification services or sell new effects pedals which have been modified. The Ibanez Tube Screamer, Boss DS-1,
Pro Co RAT and DigiTech Whammy are some of the most often-modified effects.[103][104] Common modifications
include value changes in capacitors or resistors, adding true-bypass so that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the
signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or
adding functions to the device such as allowing additional control of some factor or adding an additional output
jack.[103][105][106]

Other pedals and rackmount units

Not all stompboxes and rackmounts are effects. Strobe tuner pedals indicate whether a guitar string is too sharp or
flat.[107] A footswitch pedal such as the "A/B" pedal route a guitar signal to an amplifier or enable a performer to
switch between two guitars. Guitar amplifiers and electronic keyboards may have switch pedals for turning built-in
effects on and off.[108] Some musicians who use rackmounted effects or laptops employ a MIDI controller
pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger sound samples, switch between different effects or control effect
settings.[109][110][111]

References
[1] Horne, Greg (2000). Complete Acoustic Guitar Method: Mastering Acoustic Guitar c (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=cHALQ_CO5P0C). Alfred Music. p.92. .
[2] Yakabuski, Jim (2001). Professional Sound Reinforcement Techniques: Tips and Tricks of a Concert Sound Engineer (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=QwcLdjCCXHkC). Hal Leonard. p.139. .
[3] Clement, Vivian (2007). How to Succeed As a Female Guitarist: The Essential Guide for Working in a Male-dominated Industry (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=FHOskiubkx0C). Alfred Music. p.30. .
[4] Clement, V (2007). How to Succeed As a Female Guitarist (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FHOskiubkx0C). Alfred Music. p. 30.
[5] "The Art of the Stompbox" (http:/ / www. museumofmakingmusic. org/ stompbox/ index. php/ home/ categories-of-effects). The Museum of
Making. 2010. . Retrieved 13 September 2010.
[6] "Guitar effects" (http:/ / tripatlas. com/ Guitar_effects#Samples). Trip Atlas. . Retrieved 18 September 2010.
[7] Brewster, David M. (2003), Introduction to Guitar Tone and Effects: A Manual for Getting the Sounds from Electric Guitars, Amplifiers,
Effects Pedals and Processors (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q99-bY3cL8YC& pg=PA63& dq=rock+ guitar+ tone& hl=en&
ei=JGzFTdSoF474sAOA_uCZAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CFUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=rock guitar
tone& f=false), Hal Leonard, p.14,
[8] Clement, V (2007). How to Succeed As a Female Guitarist (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FHOskiubkx0C), Alfred Music. p. 30-31.
[9] Gibson, Bill (2007). The Ultimate Live Sound Operator's Handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r86J_aNNReEC). Hal Leonard.
p.366. .
Effects unit 234

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External links
A Guide to Multi Effect Pedals (http://www.multieffectpedal.com/guide/).
History and Photos of Vintage Fuzz Pedals (http://www.FuzzEffect.com).
50 of the Greatest Stompboxes (http://www.musicplayer.com/article/50-of-the/mar-05/4174)
 238

Who is a bassist?

Bassist
A bass player, or bassist is a musician who plays a bass instrument such as a double bass, bass guitar, keyboard
bass or a low brass instrument such as a tuba or sousaphone. Different musical genres tend to be associated with one
or more of these instruments. Since the 1960s, the electric bass is the standard bass instrument for rock and roll, jazz
fusion, heavy metal, country, reggae and pop music. The double bass is the standard bass instrument for classical
music, bluegrass, rockabilly, and most genres of jazz. Low brass instruments such as the tuba or sousaphone are the
standard bass instrument in Dixieland and New Orleans-style jazz bands.
Despite the associations of different bass instruments with certain genres, there are exceptions. Some 1990s and
2000s rock and pop bands use a double bass, such as Barenaked Ladies; Indie band The Decemberists; and punk
rock/psychobilly groups such as The Living End, Nekromantix, The Horrorpops, and Tiger Army. Some fusion jazz
groups use a lightweight, stripped-down electric upright bass rather than a double bass. Some composers of modern
art music use the electric bass in a chamber music setting. Some jazz big bands use electric bass. Some fusion, R&B
and house music groups use synth bass or keyboard bass rather than electric bass. Some Dixieland bands use double
bass or electric bass instead of a tuba. In some jazz groups and jam bands, the basslines are played by a Hammond
organ player, who uses the bass pedal keyboard or the lower manual for the low notes.

Electric bass players

Electric bassists play the bass guitar. In most rock, pop, metal and
country genres, the bass line outlines the harmony of the music being
performed, while simultaneously indicating the rhythmic pulse. In
addition, there are many different standard bass line types for different
genres and types of song (e.g. blues ballad, fast swing, etc.). Bass lines
often emphasize the root, third, and fifth of the chord progression being
used in a given song. In addition, pedal tones (repeated or sustained
single notes), ostinatos, and bass riffs are also used as bass lines. While
most electric bass players rarely play chords (two or more notes all Geddy Lee
sounded at the same time), chords are used in some styles, especially
jazz, progressive rock or Heavy Metal.
Bassist 239

Double bass players

Classical double bass players

Johannes Matthias Sperger (17501812) Composer
Domenico Dragonetti (17631845) composer, conductor
Giovanni Bottesini (18211889) composer, conductor
Franz Simandl (18401912) composer
Edouard Nanny (18721943) composer
Serge Koussevitzky (18741951) Conductor, composer
Gary Karr (1941-present)
Edgar Meyer (1960present)

Jazz double bass players

Jimmy Blanton
Paul Chambers
Jimmy Garrison
Ron Carter
Scott La Faro
Richard Davis
Ray Brown
George Mraz
Eddie Gomez
Terry Plumeri
Milt Hinton
Sam Jones
Charles Mingus
Esperanza Spalding

Blue Grass double bass players

Barry Bales

Eddie Gmez
Article Sources and Contributors 240

Article Sources and Contributors

Bass (instrument) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498226663 Contributors: 842U, Aberrantgeek, Ahluka, Ariedartin, AttoRenato, Basswulf, Bongwarrior, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, CatherineMunro, CoJaBo, Cominoverdahill2, Commander Keane, Deltabeignet, Discospinster, Dr. Shaggeman, Dralwik, Fribbler, Frogys4me, Guitar0226, Herostratus,
Howtoplaybass, Hyacinth, Hyfzyz, Iridescent, Ithunn, JSSX, JesseGarrett, Lemonpop, Marnanel, NawlinWiki, Neenapriya, NickBush24, Nightscream, Ohnoitsjamie, OnBeyondZebrax, Oneiros,
Orange Suede Sofa, P.o.l.o., Pax:Vobiscum, Pyroman1889, Redheylin, SaxTeacher, SimonP, Tayste, The Rationalist, TheScotch, Thunderhead, Tom Reedy, Uagehry456, Waggers, Witchwooder,
57 anonymous edits

Clef Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510760798 Contributors: A2Kafir, Aaronw, Ablack, AdeMiami, Ajnewbold, Alan smithee, Alansohn, Albedo, Alex rosenberg35,
Alex299006, Alexthe5th, AlisonW, All in, Alton, Amccarter, AndrewHowse, Angr, AntiSlice, Applechair, Atropos235, AugPi, Axrai, Azure, Bananawar, Bantman, BarretB, Bartleby,
BassistofNC, Bastique, Bcmummy, Bdesham, Ben Tibbetts, BiT, Billydabox, Bmk, Bmusician, Bobo192, BoomerAB, Bukowski 90210, CWY2190, Calisthenis, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Chrismurren, Chubbles, Cireshoe, Clorox, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cobblet, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Comrade Sephiroth, Counterfit, Damian Yerrick,
Danyoung, Dar-Ape, David Berman, David Latapie, DavidBrooks, Dbenbenn, Deltabeignet, DetlevSchm, Dibship, Discospinster, DivineAlpha, Dmn, Dogbreath, Donarreiskoffer, Doradus,
Dreg743, Dtremenak, Dysprosia, Edwinstearns, El C, Elkman, Elliotjayoneill, Emurphy42, Erasmussen, Ericamick, EryZ, Eulerskunk, Evan Robidoux, Evil saltine, Ewlyahoocom,
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JMyrleFuller, Jackfork, Jake Wartenberg, Jamesofur, Jared Preston, Jascwiki, Jason.grossman, Jeff G., Jeffcovey, Jerome Kohl, Jeronimo, Jerpo123, Jhinman, Jim1138, Joaopaulo1511,
Johnluke6, Jol123, Jtir, Julesd, Just plain Bill, KGasso, Kairos, Karlwk, Killervogel5, Kku, Klork, Knucmo2, Korinkami, Kpjas, Ksnow, Ladysorka, Lankiveil, Lenoil, Lerdthenerd, Lights,
Liko81, Lorenj, Lrpelkey, Lthown1, Luccas, Lupinoid, Lyrelyre, MaksymilianTrombone, Marek69, Martinp23, Matt Gies, Matt. P, Mattisse, Mawich, McAusten, Mdd4696, Melesse, Merphant,
Michael Hardy, Michael.Pohoreski, Mikael V, Mjb, Moonraker12, Motorbase, MusicMaker5376, Muzekal Mike, N64349, NawlinWiki, Nemo20000, NeonMerlin, Nick4404, Nuclearo, ONEder
Boy, Octahedron80, OllieFury, Onesecondglance, Orange Suede Sofa, OverlordQ, Paliwikiuser, Paul A, Perlnerd666, PhilKnight, Pieter Suurmond, Pjrockstar, Pmadrid, PuckUdroc, Pyramid
Productions, Qst, R habib zadeh, RPlunk2853, RadicalPi, Rainbowkey, Rdb, Redheylin, Reeveorama, Riana, Rigaudon, RuM, Rustyfence, Sainclaire, Sakurambo, Sashajackson1234, Sbrools,
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Zahakiel, Zarboki, Zaui, Zeimusu, , 651 anonymous edits

Double bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513477217 Contributors: -5-, 1exec1, 23skidoo, 61.9.128.xxx, 7, A little insignificant, AAA!, AKM, Aaron Walden, Acjelen,
Acroterion, Acsenray, Ai4ijoel, AidanHair, Alan Millar, Alan16, Alejomdp, Alexsr100, Altenmann, Amb61, AndrewHowse, AndrewKepert, Andrewa, Angr, AnotherLoophole, Antandrus,
Apoxalex, Ardric47, Asg8516, Aspersion, Atollervey, Atraxani, Azalea pomp, BadAssBassMan, Badagnani, Bakkster Man, Bart133, BassHistory, BassmanIII, BbGun1398, Bbaass, Bdesham,
Beckyhutch, Beginning, Bemoeial, Ben Tibbetts, Ben-w, Benandorsqueaks, Benben555, Bender235, Bento00, Bforte, Bigdumbdinosaur, BillyJack193, Bkell, Blainster, Blueiris, Bob Burkhardt,
Bobblewik, Bobbo600, Bobdc, Broken, Bsroiaadn, BuzyBody, Bwe1862, Byrial, CJ, CSWarren, Calcwatch, CalebWilson, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cazaes,
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DRTllbrg, DYShock, Dali, Daniel C, Danski14, Dark Shikari, Dave Bass, Davehi1, David Goodearl, DavidRF, Dbenbenn, Dbolton, Deipnosophista, Dejavu63, Dekisugi, Deltabeignet, Derek R
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Infodon, Infrogmation, Inzane26, Iokseng, J Lorraine, J.delanoy, JForget, JHK, Jaberwocky6669, Jac16888, JackofOz, Jacofan12609, James086, JamesBWatson, JanBeroff, Jaxdelaguerre, Jaxl,
Jennavecia, JeremyLydellHaugen, Jes101360, JesseW, Jim1138, Jodamiller, Johnhorton91, Jonathan.s.kt, Jonik, Jovianeye, Joyous!, Jubinx, Just plain Bill, Kablammo, Kainhofer, Karl 334, Karl
P, Katalaveno, Kazkev92, Keedan11, Keenan Pepper, Kentucho, Kenyon, Kesh, Kingofpie11, Kipmartin, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kntrabssi, Koavf, Kragnerac, Krash, Krellis, Kubigula, Kukini,
Kurykh, Kww, Kyle1278, L Kensington, LDHan, Lanttuloora, Leafyplant, Leahtwosaints, Leoinnyc, Leszek Jaczuk, Lewiscode, Light current, Lil Drift, Little Mountain 5, Lowendgruv, Lucky
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p53, Opus88888, Ormondroyd, Ortolan88, Outoftunedoublebass, P.a.jones, Panairjdde, Patmoulds, Patrick59, Paul A, Pavel Vozenilek, PcAhRrTiOsN, PelicanZero, Peripitus, Perubian 9221,
Petdance, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phi*n!x, PhilKnight, Pigman, Pipian, Pleather, Porsenna1, Prodego, ProfesserWheatleyOBE, Pstephan23, Quadell, Quibik, Quintote, R0bert,
R7, RHaworth, RainbowOfLight, Ranveig, Reaper Eternal, Red Act, Regenspaziergang, Rememberway, Renata3, Repstosw, RexNL, Rexodus, Riccardo.fabris, Rich Farmbrough, Ricky81682,
Rigaudon, Ringbang, RobRox, RobbieRocketPants, Robert K S, Robert Merkel, Robert.Allen, Robin klein, RobinRhodes, RodC, Roda, Rothorpe, RottweilerCS, Rsduhamel, Rsholmes,
Rsrikanth05, SJP, Sagaciousuk, Sam Hocevar, Sanbeiji, Sannse, Scientizzle, Scottiscool, Sdjbass, Sergivs-en, Seymour12, Shadowjams, Shanel, Shaunevil, Shaunwhim2, ShelfSkewed, Sidney
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Soundguy99, Sp3z1aL, Spartacan, Spearhead, Springeragh, Squandermania, Square87, Staffwaterboy, Sterio, Steve Abrahall, Steve Pastor, Steven J. Anderson, Stualden, Supraastra,
SyntaxError55, TSP, Tanaats, Tangotango, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Taurrandir, Techman224, Technopat, Ted Wilkes, Tedius Zanarukando, Tempodivalse, TenOfAllTrades,
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Totakeke423, Tpbradbury, Tristanb, Tslocum, Tswei, Tuttt, Tyronebishop, Uncle Dick, Updatehelper, Useight, Velvetjazz, Venny85, Vertium, Viames, Violncello, Violone, Viriditas, Vitoliuzzi,
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Yamamoto Ichiro, Yewlongbow, Youandme, Zeldamaster3, Zerk666, Zombieliving, Zybthranger, rico Jnior Wouters, , 1276 anonymous edits

Bass guitar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513477185 Contributors: "alyosha", - tSR - Nth Man, 12dstring, 2-kool-for-me, 22vampsrock22, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D,
5theye, 61.9.128.xxx, 888888abcd, A.R., ACSE, Aberrantgeek, Abtinb, Academic Challenger, Achowat, Acroterion, Adam.J.W.C., Adamv88, Adun12, Agent12345ABC, Ahoerstemeier,
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Andeggs, AndrewHowse, Andrewa, Andrewpmk, Andrewrp, Andros 1337, Andy F, Andy Johnston, Anetode, Angela, Anger22, Angr, Animum, Anna Lincoln, Anth1234, Arjun01, Arthur
Rubin, Asianeatdog, Astonmartini, AubreyEllenShomo, Avisitor2, BBODO, BD2412, BRANDON HUGE, Bacchus87, Backtable, Badagnani, Bagatelle, Bakkster Man, Bappzannigan, BarberJP,
Barrylb, Bartimaeus, Bass Genius69, Bass Masta, Bass guitar thumbrests, BassGuitarPackage, Bassalchemist, Bassalisk, Bassbreaker, BassistofNC, Bassistphysicist, Bassman6607 3, Basswulf,
Bbm, Bdesham, Bebop, BehindEnemaLines, Bentonius, BernardWebb, Betacommand, BiH, Bigphatbandgeek, Biker Biker, Binksternet, Bisch2323, Bkathy101, Blizzard youkai, Blood Red
Sandman, Bloodshedder, Bluecanoe, Bluecanoe2, Bob Geissler, Bobalex73, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobsuperdrive2, Bobzchemist, Bogey97, Bongwarrior, Bookandcoffee, Boomshadow,
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Catapult, CatherineMunro, Cburnett, Chairs1234, CharlesHartman, Charlie man17, Chart123, Chaser, Chawkey, Cheeseweb, Chickencha, Chmbrln, Chow425, Chowbok, Chris the speller,
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Article Sources and Contributors 241

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Bjarmason, 2736 anonymous edits

Acoustic bass guitar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=499534348 Contributors: 28bytes, Adavidw, Alansohn, Alfreddo, Andrewa, Applechair, BD2412, Badagnani,
Bassguitar3, Basswulf, Bearfootedbob, Bellmyb, Brossow, Burschik, Colonies Chris, Cst17, Deltabeignet, Dinobass, Discospinster, EdGl, Edd123himself, Evil saltine, FCYTravis, Face, Galorr,
George Leung, GoingBatty, GreyCat, Gzuckier, Imroy, Infrogmation, Insomniacpuppy, James Katarski, Jay Dogg, Jgrosch, Jongleur100, JorisvS, Jyril, Krispy k, Labelbassist, Liko81, Lou
Sander, MajorHealey, Malcohol, MerryXIV, Michael Hardy, Micraboy, Morven, MrFizyx, Mullet, Nmulder, OnBeyondZebrax, Opus88888, Ozbass, PHdeJong, Pablo X, Pgilman, Pharaoh of the
Wizards, Pip2andahalf, RafaAzevedo, Raymondwinn, RexNL, Rhockens, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Room429, Rothorpe, RottweilerCS, S-man, SiobhanHansa, Spartaz, SpuriousQ,
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Visnusen, Vizcarra, Vometia, Vufido, Wayne Slam, Whbjr, Wik, Witchwooder, Wmahan, Yutsi, ZXS9465, 115 anonymous edits

Washtub bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494115315 Contributors: 650 Norton (1951), Aaron Walden, Addshore, Ajnewbold, Alfreddo, Asarelah, AudioPervert,
Badagnani, Ccacsmss, Celuici, Cesarsouza, Chriscowley, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Dallas Jasper, DaveCW, DaveWalley, DavidWBrooks, Dead Chook, Efilipek, Fiac1988, Fidech,
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OnBeyondZebrax, Ortolan88, Phaeton23, Popsup, Red dwarf, Rodhullandemu, Ronz, Smjg, Tenorpanjo, TheHYPO, TheMortallyWounded, Wahoofive, Wsvlqc, Yogirox234, Zingus, 57
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Piccolo bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462785816 Contributors: Amazzing5, Badagnani, Bondegezou, Engineer Bob, Grstain, Hollowbody49, Kailjanii, MegX,
Minyana, MrBoo, Omreg88, OnBeyondZebrax, Onco p53, PKT, ProperFraction, ReignMan, Rothorpe, RoysonBobson, Ukexpat, Yanksox, Zipera, 32 anonymous edits

Extended-range bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513381008 Contributors: 32251bh, A1octopus, Aj81789, Akumadance, Andrewa, Asenine, Badagnani,
Bermudatriangleofficial, Binksternet, Blakew32, Brequinda, Bushj00, Conical Johnson, Damsch, DanielCD, Deanproestakes, Decoyx7, Deitrition, Diannaa, EdJohnston, Epbr123, Fatpratmatt,
Fireplace, Foxxygirltamara, Fratrep, Garry Goodman, Geoduck75, Goro87, GreenRunner0, Hbent, Herostratus, Iwaskilledbydeath, Keenan Pepper, KingPie01, Kira Sakuya, LarRan, Light
current, Lygophile, MajorHealey, Mapg01, Ohnoitsjamie, OnBeyondZebrax, Onco p53, Onorem, Professoreleven, Rdnzl, Rich1451, Rollerswiki, Rumblerrr, Sarah, Saturn-78, Soulkeeper,
Stereorock, Subcontrabassist, Subsonic87, THSL, TLCbass, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, Vermaletta, Verybigfish86, Woohookitty, Yuyudevil, Zaqq, 199 anonymous edits

Electric upright bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=506812067 Contributors: Angr, Asarelah, BD2412, Badagnani, Brossow, Charles Alvarez, Cholling, Chris the speller,
Chuckiesdad, Conical Johnson, Dinobass, Dpotter, Fiveless, Fratrep, Gaius Cornelius, GoingBatty, GreyCat, Grubber, Ian Pitchford, Iohannes Animosus, Jake Wartenberg, Jnestorius, Jonkerz,
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RafaAzevedo, Rothorpe, Samiflicka, Sendermen, Simonebaratti, Smajie, Spinningspark, SteinbDJ, Steve Abrahall, SummonerMarc, Tassedethe, TheGrappler, Themarcuscreature, Tyronebishop,
Witchwooder, 92 anonymous edits

Serpent (instrument) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513591657 Contributors: Ahedgehog, Andrewa, Andycjp, Arakunem, Arjun01, Avbidder, Baiji, Baroquesmguy,
Bemoeial, BlackAndy, Bob Burkhardt, Chris Gutteridge, ChrisGualtieri, Coco-nut-down-now, David Shay, Davidprior, Deutschgirl, Einsteinboi514, Elf, Epbr123, Esn, Eyrian, Foamposite,
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MatthewVanitas, NYKevin, Nascar1996, Nicke Lilltroll, Nthep, Oliphaunt, Omicronpersei8, Onjacktallcuca, Paul August, Pensativa, Pinethicket, Pingveno, Qmwne235, Rajrajmarley, RobertG,
Rsholmes, Scottandrewhutchins, Sdornan, Secretlondon, ShermanTank, Sonjaaa, Swungchuckie, Thryduulf, Thunderhead, Tiuks, Ulric1313, Vtor Dassie, Wetman, Wikipelli,
WilliamSommerwerck, WilliamofBaskerville, Yeodoug, , 106 anonymous edits

Keyboard bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=499224903 Contributors: 1zackman, Avalyn, Bde1982, BernardWebb, BrownHairedGirl, Clusternote, Everyking, GLaDOS,
GoingBatty, Graham87, Kansas Sam, Locklor, Moezzillas world, OnBeyondZebrax, Saemikneu, Shepard, ZaphodBeeblebrox, 34 anonymous edits

Pedal keyboard Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503652385 Contributors: 16@r, 1zackman, ABF, Aaron Pepin, Adalberti, Alegreen, Andrewa, Arny, BZRatfink,
Bender235, BetteDavisEyes, BillFlis, Cor anglais 16, Darklilac, Dfrg.msc, Doshea3, Dulciana, EthanL, Feline Hymnic, Firsfron, FordPrefect42, Fratrep, Gaius Cornelius, Glenn, Graham87,
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Article Sources and Contributors 242

OnBeyondZebrax, Orhere, Pax:Vobiscum, Peripathetic, Piercetheorganist, Prunesqualer, Rich Farmbrough, Ritchie333, Rjwilmsi, SMcCandlish, Saemikneu, Scottydude, ThSoft, Tomaxer,
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Leo Fender Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513310401 Contributors: A webster, Adamtropane, Aka, Altenmann, Anger22, Antigrandiose, Ariedartin, Arjun01, Avyfain,
Ayla, AzaToth, BassmanIII, BenDitch, Big Bird, Bill Thayer, Biso, Brossow, Busterdawg, Butros, CPBOOTH, Calabe1992, CharlotteWebb, Christian List, Chubbles, Conical Johnson, Cwp2112,
D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dawn Bard, Deltabeignet, Discospinster, Dljone9, Drmies, DutchmanInDisguise, E Wing, E-Kartoffel, ESkog, Ennui93, Epbr123, Exfactor4, FactContainer, Fox boy92,
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Martarius, Matia.gr, Mbartruff, Meanos, Minesweeper, NeverFullyDigital, Nick Graves, NikonMike, Notheruser, OCNative, Ozbass, Palfrey, Pallerti, Paradiso, Petchboo, Pithecanthropus,
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WP addict 0, Wavelength, Wether B, Wiki libs, Wiki nieuweling01, Wmahan, Wysprgr2005, Yowhatsshakin, Yucko The Clown, Zoso, 326 anonymous edits

Fender Precision Bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507098424 Contributors: 2012cclaridge, AGK, After Midnight, Alai, Andrejj, Anger22, Antigrandiose, Aranel,
Aristitleism, Atomheartmother, Aussie Ausborn, Auto movil, AvicAWB, Avyfain, Badagnani, Bakkster Man, Bassgrant, Betacommand, Bfarb, Blinkman44, Bman10030, Bobo192, Bradeos
Graphon, Brettz23, Brianreading, Bsroiaadn, Carptrash, Catfish Jim and the soapdish, Chickencha, Clemonsjw, Clusternote, CommonsDelinker, Cyde, Dardan10101, Darklilac, Darrenhusted,
DavidRavenMoon, Dddstone, Deltabeignet, Dinobass, East718, Eddiehimself, El Gurka Rapido, Error411, FCYTravis, Fantasydragon, Fosterwikiterry, Gobonobo, GreyCat, Grm wnr, Gurch,
Harvestman, Hede2000, Hooperbloob, JDBoyd, Jackpollock, Jacolike, James Epstein, Jamoche, Jennavecia, Jevansen, JohnM, Jrobrts2, JukoFF, Karenjc, Kellyprice, Kemiv, Killing Vector,
Klander Brigade, Kubigula, Kurt, Kvng, Leszek Jaczuk, Magi Media, MajorStallone, MalkyMac, Mattgirling, MegX, Melesse, Merqurial, Meuseros, Michel belisle, Mjpieters, Mobius131186,
Monopodlove, Moogyboy, Ndrly, Neonuke, Nicholasmajestic, Nigosh, Notreallydavid, Nymf, OnBeyondZebrax, Ortolan88, Paster, Persian Poet Gal, Peterdjones, Pirate Thom, Quentin X,
Revilal90, Rich Farmbrough, Richard sardina, RottweilerCS, Saint-Paddy, SatanicGumby, Seidenstud, Shpsux89, SirTrevor96, Snograt, Soetermans, Spidey665, Storm Rider, Stratovarious,
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Witchwooder, Y2kcrazyjoker4, ZioNata, ZngZng, Zoso, 373 anonymous edits

Fender Jazz Bass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=506531455 Contributors: 1zackman, 2PlayMedia, Aaron Walden, Ace Class Shadow, Agandia, Akerans, AndyJHG,
Anger22, Angr, Antigrandiose, Aranel, Aristitleism, Arjayay, Atomheartmother, Avyfain, Aznpatdfanboy, BD2412, Bakkster Man, BassistofNC, BassmanIII, Bennyhale, Bernobass,
Betacommand, Biso, Blinkmyles, Bogey97, BorgHunter, Bradeos Graphon, Breakofthedgecrusher, BrenMan 94, Brianreading, Bubba73, BurnDownBabylon, Carptrash, Catfish Jim and the
soapdish, Chowbok, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Cjmazzanti, Colchester121891, Colonies Chris, Coma28, Crustys dad, Cruz Garza, DVdm, Dangouge, Dddstone, Deltabeignet, Deon Steyn,
Design, Divisaderostreet, Dtlofton, Eamonster, Elliskev, Erwin89, Evanreyes, Ewlyahoocom, Eyjo, FCYTravis, Fdmundo, Furrykef, Gilliam, Glenfarclas, Gnominator, GreyCat, Grm wnr,
Happynoodleboycey, HexaChord, Hmains, Hulmem, Huon, Ian Perge, Ippittybippitty, Iridescent, Ivan Bajlo, J.delanoy, Jacolike, Jazzbasslove, Jazzist, Jennavecia, Jon Kopatich, Jrcla2, JukoFF,
Kingurth, Knulclunk, Lemko, LonelyPker, Machchunk, Magi Media, Magioladitis, Malcolmxl5, MalkyMac, Mansmokingacigar, Markco1, Martarius, Mattlittlej, MegX, Merrittparkway, Mipadi,
Miq, Mnts, Mobius131186, Moogyboy, Mxpherson, NHJG, Naturegrl33, Nfvs, Niceguyedc, Nikk0, Nikolaj Christensen, NuclearWarfare, Ortolan88, PHdeJong, Pairadox, Paster, Paul Klein,
Pingveno, Quentin X, Quinsareth, Rjwilmsi, RoadkillSundae, Rockfan231, Roda, Rossami, SchuminWeb, Sebread01395, Seraphim, Shadowjams, SirDarius, Smartcows, Snykanen, Stratovarious,
Tassedethe, Thaurisil, The Yowser, TheRedSky, Therewillbehotcake, Timberframe, Tomkurts, Trilobitealive, Utgard Loki, Versus22, Viriditas, Wether B, Wfilwibg1, Wiki libs, Y2kcrazyjoker4,
Yaremus, Yellowtuesday, 627 anonymous edits

Fender Bassman Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513308686 Contributors: AndrewHowse, Appraiser, BD2412, Barry.beattie, Bigdumbdinosaur, Bubba73, Drmies,
E.Goldstein, FenderPlayer, Gatorgm, George Leung, GoingBatty, Ilikeeatingwaffles, Izzy007, Jameboy, Jarpy, Jeff Muscato, Maelnuneb, Manning Bartlett, Nick Number, OnBeyondZebrax,
Peteb2, Stemonitis, Tassedethe, Thaurisil, The Interior, Tremspeed, 70 anonymous edits

Fender Musical Instruments Corporation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513308790 Contributors: - -Andy- -, 4twenty42o, 62musicman, 72Dino, 8215348,
Aaaaaaaaaabbbbbbbcccccc, Abrech, AbsolutDan, AdjustShift, Adog101, Adrianocorwino15, Aerolithe, Aj rocker, Aldis90, Alekjds, Alensha, Alex Ex, Algocu, AliceJMarkham, All-Bran,
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Axewraps, BAH, BD2412, BGTopDon, Baccala@freesoft.org, Bagatelle, Bassman I, BassmanIII, Benbread, Bewildebeast, Bilgehan, Biso, Blackholesun00, Boadrummer, Boatman, Bogey97,
Boogul, Brianga, Brinkost, Bsroiaadn, Btraweek, CAF51, CSG123, Caltas, Calton, CambridgeBayWeather, Camcwf, Camtoonz, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Captain-tucker,
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Deltabeignet, Deon Steyn, DerHexer, Derekpblank, Detroitnews9, Diobolivar, Discospinster, Dksnyc, DoN12558, Donothebassist, Download, Dppowell, Drake Redcrest, Drewdy, Drmies,
Dunnowho73, Dustinchoo, Dylanvandyke, ESkog, Edwy, Eik Corell, El Monterrey, ElationAviation, Elf, Elp gr, Erjon, Esalibi, Eugene van der Pijll, Evercat, Everyking, Evilasiangenius,
Ezgaroth Anhilatis, FDP123, FF2010, FMAFan1990, Favonian, Fenderbender333, Fenderdeluxe96, Finn Bjerke, Flamurai, Floul1, Flumper20, Font, Fopply didlo, Fratrep, Fred Bradstadt,
Frusciante1265, Func, Funeral, GB fan, GRBerry, Gaff, Gail, Galoubet, Ghostbubbles, Glow-in-the-Dark Guy, GoingBatty, Googuse, GotchaFool90, Grafen, Greenshed, GreyCat, Grinder0-0,
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Hrystiv, Hu, Hu12, Huangcjz, Iamfarridhusin, Ipodsrus, Iridescent, IstvanWolf, Its snowing in East Asia, Ixfd64, Izzy007, J.delanoy, JNW, JackLumber, Jackbauer114, JacobNeverWins, Jagged
85, JavierMC, Jbarkie, Jedi Davideus, JeremyA, John254, JohnM, JonEpstein, JonathanDP81, Jonnyh71, Jovianeye, Jpbowen, Js460429351, Jsmith86, JugheadsGhost, Junglecat, KNHaw,
Kafziel, Kazrak, Kbthompson, Kelly Martin, Ken6en, Kenster9500, Khronic, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kodman460, Korg, Krako, Kungfuadam, Kurtycobain, Kuru, Kusunose, Lamro, Lazytiger,
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Tavares, Objectivesea, Office of Disinformation, Ogleberry, Olalolita, Ortolan88, Oxymoron83, Ozbass, Paperpunk, Parker731, Paster, Patduckles, Paxsimius, Penmachine, Peteb2, Peterdjones,
Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Photoweborama, Phyllis1753, Plastikspork, Poeloq, Poppyto, PrestonH, Quercus basaseachicensis, Qxz, R.christie, RJN, RUReady2Testify, Radagast83,
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Shadow3969, Short Brigade Harvester Boris, Shortride, Sitush, Skier Dude, Sl8ter, Slyhans, Smilers, Snowmanmelting, Sofa jazz man, Someguy1221, Soundguy99, Stef breukel, Stiofan1,
Stonnman, Stratovarious, Suduser85, TJDay, Talon Foot, Tarabeeforth, TastyPoutine, Tbhotch, TexasAndroid, The Anome, The Ronin, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheLetterM,
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Unixer, Unkie Al, Urbanrenewal, Vegaswikian, Versus22, Vista4u2, Voltron, Vunzmstr, WIMIA, WODUP, WP addict 0, Wacko787878, Walkerma, Wars, Warut, Weissmann, Wether B,
Wickeddigital, WikHead, Wiki libs, WikiGearHead, Wikipeterproject, WildBill2244, Will Beback Auto, Wimt, Witchwooder, Woohookitty, Xephyrwing, Xnatedawgx, XxCrazySnoopxX, ,
938 anonymous edits

Music Man (company) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510539816 Contributors: Aecis, Aeternus, Ahpook, AndyJHG, Anger22, Antti29, BBODO, Bassbreaker,
BassmanIII, Beanmedic, Ben Tibbetts, Benji666, Bluemoose, Bovinehost, Busterdawg, C777, Candyfloss, Catfish Jim and the soapdish, Cave Rat, Chris funk bass, City-state, Cpalmieri,
Cpljwlusmc, Cyrus XIII, DanMS, Davehi1, Dawn Bard, Dddstone, Deltabeignet, Deon Steyn, Dethomas, Django5, Dmarois, Drewcifer3000, Dsanchez, Eco84, Ejkiske, Elijahmeyer, EoGuy,
Evanreyes, Fang Aili, Farmer61, Fatbubble, FireDragonValo, Gboothe024, GlueyPorchBoy, GodFather1921, GoingBatty, GreyCat, Grm wnr, Hmains, Ian Perge, Ichsprechegerndeutsch1,
IstvanWolf, Izzy007, J04n, Jakobus22, Jkellis1, Jmsogw, JoanneB, JodyB, John of Reading, Johnp352, Kdonovan4, Khatru2, Kilmer-san, Kuru, KyjL, Kyledave15, Loulou 3, MCStanden, Mac
Davis, Mansmokingacigar, Mattinbgn, Meanmeancoffeebean, Meanos, MegX, Metallica134, Metta Bubble, Minderbinder4069, Montgomery-Swan, Mr Pyles, NawlinWiki, Ndrly, Nedorama,
Nkieper, NowSaturate, Ortzinator, Patrickpleau, Peter Fleet, Peterdjones, Quadratic Lemon, Quebec99, Rhockens, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richfife, Sakurambo, Scarian, Serolillo, ShaneKing,
Simon Acreman, Sjones23, Snykanen, Some jerk on the Internet, Ssmit, TapOut 013, TenPoundHammer, Thaurisil, TheJazzDalek, Tooga, Trident13, UVnet, Vegaswikian, Viames, Vsolis55,
Weluvjezza, Wiki libs, Woohookitty, Wurdnurd, XSG, 465 anonymous edits

G&L Musical Instruments Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=508407740 Contributors: A plague of rainbows, Alai, Allenc28, Amire80, Anarchivist, Bongwarrior, Brossow,
Bsadowski1, Busterdawg, CBM, Charraksus, Chris the Paleontologist, Chuckiesdad, Darkside 88, Dddstone, Deon Steyn, Dillivered, Djukah, Dpasag, Dr Jason Braithwaite, Drbreznjev, Drh1589,
FactContainer, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, GreyCat, GripTheHusk, HeartOfGold, Hhcox, Hindsight50, JGabriel ar, JPR055, Jamie RFC, Jodeli, Kilmer-san, Lestoiltoo, Librarian1968, Lutskovp,
Manbilong, Martarius, Matia.gr, Meanos, Mesnenor, Pearle, Peterdjones, Ralphfcolucci, Rbrwr, Rhockens, Rye1967, Sbrouse, Shack351, Smsarmad, Spinningspark, Steelfirebat, Thaurisil,
ThisIsAmbient, UnitedStatesian, Wacko787878, Wiki libs, Yowhatsshakin, ZooFari, 131 anonymous edits

Solid body Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491082036 Contributors: 20coconuts, Andrewa, Angr, BD2412, Brianreading, Brossow, Chafinsky, Gzuckier, Hu12, Lemelson
Center, LilHelpa, Maxxo, Microfrost, NeuroWikiTyk, Northamerica1000, NorwegianBlue, R'n'B, Rjwilmsi, Rogueeagle567, SQGibbon, Slinto, Therewillbehotcake, TubularWorld, Verdatum,
WikHead, Woohookitty, 25 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 243

Sound box Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494641609 Contributors: Andrewa, Anger22, Badagnani, Caltas, Evercat, Fratrep, Grafen, Grubber, Howard Wright, J Lorraine,
Just plain Bill, LokiClock, MatthewVanitas, MattieTK, Mbecker, Mikeblas, NickelShoe, Pax:Vobiscum, PyroTom, Redheylin, RlyehRising, SaxTeacher, The Man in Question, ThomasPusch,
VadiaRotor, 19 anonymous edits

Bridge (instrument) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500822397 Contributors: Andrewa, Atlant, BD2412, Black Stripe, Bryan Nguyen, Common Man, CountMacula,
Dekisugi, Devellis, Gaius Cornelius, Gerardkilbride, Giuliopp, Grafen, Grubber, Hu, J Lorraine, Just plain Bill, JzG, Kesla, Korg, Kr2006, Kronecker, Light current, Lph, Mecanismo, Michael
Devore, MichaelMaggs, Mikeblas, Mr. Billion, NAHID, Nick Graves, Nick Number, Paul Sadler, PaulGS, Peterdjones, Phillip J, Red Rooster 69, RichellerRae2010, Rigadoun, RottweilerCS,
SchuminWeb, Selphie, Sonicg, Sotakeit, Sveet, Thaurisil, ThomasPusch, Tiptoety, Wikiuser100, Yevgeny Kats, 47 anonymous edits

Pickup (music technology) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512289249 Contributors: 3dec3, Ahendy, Alansohn, Amnonliu, Anode-X, ArglebargleIV, Ariedartin, Avin,
BD2412, Batard, Beeflin, Bfarb, Binary, Binksternet, Bjorneous, BlackAgave, Blainster, Btilm, Bubba73, CSZero, Cana7cl, Caprice nr. 5, Cataclysm, Ccrrccrr, Charles Matthews, Chickencha,
Chochopk, Chris the speller, Chrism, Christian List, Cmsalmeron, CoolKoon, Curps, Cyberman, Cyhatch, DV8 2XL, Dado666, Danroa, Deanos, Dear cobain, Deltabeignet, Desocrator,
Dispenser, Doktor Who, Driftinghobo, Dysfunktion, Ear special, East718, Eh1821, El C, Everyking, Eyvin, Finlay McWalter, Fishnet37222, Furrykef, Geevee, George Leung, Giraffedata,
GoatGuy, Gongshow, GreyCat, GuyDenruyter, Hamiltondaniel, Hanjabba, Hippie Metalhead, Hmains, Howdybob, HuntClubJoe, Ianthegecko, Indrek, JackLumber, Jagged 85, Japanese
Searobin, Jaybabies, Jayron32, Jbusenitz, JdeJ, Jj137, Jpgordon, Just plain Bill, K Eliza Coyne, KNick97, Kajodot, Katieh5584, Kilmer-san, Kingpin13, Knector, Kukini, Kyouteki, Leodmacleod,
Light current, LilHelpa, Malcohol, Malikshreds, MarcRS, Marskuzz, Mashford, Mbell, Mbinebri, Mcm1303, Meanos, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Monsieurmagoo, Mooncaine, Morinus,
Mormegil, MrOllie, Muriel Gottrop, Ndrly, Neckro, Neomag, OllieFury, Omegatron, Orpheus, PamD, Parsa, Peter Ngan, Peterdjones, Petermancomau, Phyllis1753, Pietrow, Pimlottc, Portillo,
RA0808, Radon210, Random Checkhead, RdCrestdBreegull, ReignMan, Rogerd, Ronz, Sarbrown, Sbz5809, ShakingSpirit, Shmband, Skarebo, Slinto, Sofa jazz man, Soliloquial, Some guy,
Soulkeeper, Spirod, Sporti, Starwars1791...continued, Steve carlson, Stressballchampion, The Phantomnaut, Thingg, Trekphiler, TrogdorPolitiks, Ubertar, Unused0022, VanillaDeath, Wfaulk,
Wiki libs, Wikidan829, Wildgriffin, Winhunter, Xtramental, ZngZng, 331 anonymous edits

Single coil Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493066006 Contributors: Astonmartini, Basinga, Bgovern, Brossow, Bubba73, BurnDownBabylon, Busterdawg, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, Caseybateman, Chue03, Conradpaul, DCman, DaltinWentsworth, DavGarcia, Dear cobain, Debresser, Deltabeignet, Denis C., Furrykef, Gaius Cornelius, George Leung,
Giraffedata, Gopherbassist, GreyCat, Gurch, Haakon, Hadal, Hadlock, J.delanoy, JSC ltd, Jayron32, Jmn100, Julesd, Keegan, Light current, LilHelpa, Megamanic, Mr. Sparkle, Mud, Mytto,
Ndrly, Nina Gerlach, Outriggr, Politepunk, R.christie, RDT2, Rjwilmsi, RobHutten, Snowdog, Sole Flounder, Spartaz, Stratocaster-master, Tean91, That Guy, From That Show!,
TheParanoidOne, Thelb4, Utcursch, Vegaswikian, Widehorizon, Witchwooder, Ylem, Z10x, 140 anonymous edits

Humbucker Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512279955 Contributors: Andrewa, Anger22, Angryxpeh, Ariedartin, Atokoy, Auto movil, Azzyrazzy, BD2412, Basinga,
Billyshiverstick, Binksternet, Black Stripe, Bobo192, Bppubjr, Brossow, Bubba73, CanOfWorms, CardinalDan, Cataclysm, Charles Matthews, Christian List, Cyrius, DarkX, Dave120954,
Deltabeignet, Deon Steyn, DiScOrD tHe LuNaTiC, Dogaroon, Donfbreed, Dori, Dvb23, Eddietheperson, Elfmanvt07, Erudhalion, Fdmundo, Fieldday-sunday, Fnaguitarplayer, Frecklefoot,
Furrykef, George Leung, Gerweck, Giraffedata, GreyCat, Gwernol, Hm john morse, Hooperbloob, Iepeulas, Impy4ever, Isotope23, Jarhed, Jayron32, Jmn100, Jrb007, Keppa, Light current,
LilHelpa, Lion King, Lochok, Luciopaiva, M.nelson, MMS2013, Mahahahaneapneap, Malber, MonMan, Musant, Neomag, Nettrom, Nina Gerlach, Notalent, Nwimpney, Oli Filth, Omegatron,
Penmachine, Possum, Prari, Qubuntu, R.christie, Raphael Kirchner, Reaper Eternal, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, RottweilerCS, Schweiwikist, SeanProctor, Shmband, Sliponshoe, Sno rocker lp360,
Snowdog, Some jerk on the Internet, Steve carlson, Strat0master14, TenPoundHammer, Thaurisil, Tremspeed, Tuspm, Ullean01, Vegaswikian, Wafulz, Wtshymanski, Xtramental, Yoosq, 272
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Piezoelectricity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511296973 Contributors: 16@r, 4e to 4e, 777sms, 7gb2, A. di M., AIVIIR, Adavidb, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alexrudd,
Alphax, Andreparis, Andrew Jameson, Angstorm, Antikon, Arteitle, AstroHurricane001, Awknsl, AxelBoldt, Badseed, Bartholomeyczik, Barticus88, Beaufanamus, Beetstra, Belizefan,
Bemoeial, Benbest, Billiewilliams, Binksternet, BjKa, Bluess76, Bobblewik, Brossow, Bryan Derksen, CBM, Carcharoth, Ceyockey, Charliecoe, Chefyingi, Chengyongtao, Chetvorno, Choihei,
ChrisGualtieri, Ciphers, Cjaegis, Clerlic, CommonsDelinker, Connecto, Conversion script, CorbinSimpson, CorreiaPM, CrazyTerabyte, Csblack, Cwkmail, Cyberman, DabMachine, Dacxjo,
Dancter, Daneshwiki, David Biddulph, David Haslam, Davidmide, Deflective, Deglr6328, Deineka, Delta G, DerHexer, Dhollm, Diamonddavej, DigitalDrummer, Discospinster, Djupp,
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Gmack1, Gnatbuzz, Gobonobo, Goffrie, GorillaWarfare, GrayFullbuster, Green Energy is King, Grinning Fool, Guillom, Haianqutang, HarpooneerX, Hdt83, Hens48, Heron, Hooperbloob,
Horsten, Icek, Icep, Inductiveload, IvanLanin, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, James.Denholm, Jamesyboyuk, Jarble, Jcwf, Jdmartin86, Jeriff Cheng, Jivecat, Justinc, Karol Langner, Kenyon, Knowz,
Kosebamse, Kragen, Ktsquare, Lanoitarus, Lantonov, Lbnoliac, Light current, Lightmouse, Linas, LittleWat, Lockheed Jones, M jurrens, MBirkholz, MER-C, Madhurinagare, Malcolm Farmer,
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Non-dropframe, Nopetro, Norm, NuclearWinner, Oli Filth, Omegatron, Oneforlogic, OrgasGirl, PamD, Paolo.dL, Paul August, Paul White 511, Pc wind, Pege.founder, Piezoelectric, Piezotheory,
Pinin, Plastikspork, Plugwash, Polaron, Prolog, Qdr, Qef, QorTek, RJB1, Radiojon, Ratherhaveaheart, Ravindra 20, Reddi, Richard D. LeCour, Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Rupsyco, SDC, Sanders
muc, Saxifrage, Sbason, Schneelocke, Scot.parker, Septegram, SeventyThree, Several Times, Shaddack, Shadowolf, Shubinator, Sloughin, Someguy1221, Somenath.jalal, Srajan01, Srleffler,
Ssomborac, Staffwaterboy, Stevemcl, Stevertigo, Stickee, Su92412055, Sun Creator, Superpaul3000, Surfersteve 69, Sustainableyes, TDogg310, TGCP, Tarchon, Tarotcards, Tarquin, Tesspub,
TexasAndroid, The Epopt, The wub, TheGoatTroll, TheSheepTroll, TheSlashTroll, Thedatastream, Thumperward, Thunderbird2, Tizeff, TopGun, Tordail, Towel401, Tritium6, Trojancowboy,
Tulip19, Twilight Realm, Utcursch, VQuakr, ValRon, Van helsing, VegKilla, Versus22, Vigilant, VirgilsEgo, Vsmith, W.F.Galway, Wavelength, Waya sahoni, Wetman, Whitepaw, Wikimate,
Wishy.kushagra, Wolfmankurd, Woodduck.mayne, Yifangao, Yomoyama20070729, Yyy, Zamphuor, ZooMom1321, , 497 anonymous edits

Neck (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507187729 Contributors: Abe Lincoln, Amazzing5, Derekcordeiro, GreyCat, ILike2BeAnonymous, JosipSB, Maikel,
Rigadoun, RottweilerCS, Sandgroper14, Sun Creator, Synergy, 14 anonymous edits

Fingerboard Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511650165 Contributors: Adeliine, Ahpook, Albrozdude, Altenmann, Andrewa, Anger22, Arcfrk, Arseni, Badagnani,
Brighterorange, Bushcarrot, Calvin08, Cholling, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, DO11.10, Dcoetzee, Denny Rauen, Didymus, Djinn112, Dvavasour, Ellywa, Frencheigh, GoingBatty,
GraemeL, GreyCat, Guysullavin, Hult041956, IRP, J Lorraine, J.delanoy, JJ45435, Jedudedek, Jim62sch, Jiteshjn, JosipSB, Just plain Bill, Kesla, Kotasik, Kr2006, Laufersweden, Legionarius,
Lf1033, LifeEnemy, Light current, M.Colcher, Maximus Rex, Mh26, Michael Hardy, Mifter, Mutt Lunker, Neelix, Newnoise, NickBush24, Paul Medland, Peterdjones, R.christie, RedWolf,
Richardwest, Rigadoun, RottweilerCS, Sarindam7, Secretlondon, Sotakeit, Stratplyr68, Synthy, Viames, Wether B, Whitepaw, WikHead, 124 anonymous edits

Fret Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509969499 Contributors: 7, A5b, Aaron Kauppi, Alberto Orlandini, Altenmann, Andres, Arent, Ariedartin, Avoided, Badagnani,
Basswulf, Bonez332, Carrolljon, ChrisGualtieri, Cognizart, Crystallina, DeadEyeArrow, Deon Steyn, Dysprosia, EdChem, Frosted14, Funkendub, Furrykef, Gaius Cornelius, Genius101,
GreyCat, Hallows AG, Hyacinth, Intelati, JackLumber, Japanese Searobin, Jerome Charles Potts, Jh51681, Jojo-schmitz, Josh Parris, Just plain Bill, Karen Johnson, Laudak, Lews, LifeEnemy,
Light current, Materialscientist, Mboverload, Mendaliv, Mikeo, Mtd2006, MusicScience, OlEnglish, PDH, Paolo.dL, Paxse, Phydend, Radiant chains, Ranveig, Rifosi, Shanask, Slysplace,
Stratplyr68, Summer Song, Tarleton, TenOfAllTrades, Timo Honkasalo, Tomgally, Topspinslams, Upholder, Welsh, WikipedianMarlith, Woohookitty, Zalgo, Zundark, Zupftom, ,
125 anonymous edits

Fretless guitar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513491502 Contributors: 12 Noon, Aeronflux, Amhenotep, Andrejj, Ariedartin, Auntof6, Autobahnsho, B3ssf3n, BD2412,
Badagnani, Binksternet, Blue World Studios, Bluecanoe, Brian G. Wilson, Cema, ChrisCork, ChrisGualtieri, Click23, Constantijn09, Darkdogtx, Deltabeignet, Derica, Dimitrakopulos, Dinobass,
DrDrake100, Dreadstar, Durandal1717, ENeville, Eastlaw, ElKevbo, ErkinBatu, EvanSeeds, Ewegogetemtiger, Execvator, Favonian, Francesthemutes, Freefry, Fusionoid, Glassbreaker5791,
Godfrey Daniel, Graham87, GreyCat, Gurch, HelenWatt, Hemloch, Hobbes747, Holomorph, Hu, IWannaPeterPumpkinEaterPeterParker, Igorfranca, Invisible Noise, InvisibleK, J.delanoy, J04n,
JamesAM, Janquark, Jgideon, JimVC3, Jkdrummer, Jolb, Jollyjoegiant, King Tarkus, KoaWood, Krash, Kryojenikstasis, Lawrence King, LeCorbeaux, Les claypool, Light current, LilHelpa,
LothianBass, Louison, MPerel, Maartin Allcock, Mahahahaneapneap, Meanos, MegX, MikeLynch, Miketm, MinorContributor, Monty845, Mooshimanx, MrSampson, Mullet, Nathanww, Ndrly,
Neptuneam, Newbie Brad, NielsenGW, Night Gyr, OgtrippleOg, OnBeyondZebrax, Ozancakmakci, Peterdjones, Pimlottc, Ponydepression, Rich Farmbrough, Riddley, Rjwilmsi, Robtj966,
Rrburke, Ryulong, Saemikneu, Scheater5, SchreiberBike, ScottchOnTheRocks, Sidnorris, Siotap, Sjorford, Skeptic sid, Spearhead, Spudmaster34, TNTfan101, Tassedethe, Tearsofmyguitar,
Tellefogrim, TenPoundHammer, Thaurisil, Thedarxide, Thor1029384756, Tommaso456, Tonyrex, Ukexpat, Vaultsuit, Vintagekits, WaynePacelle, WebHamster, Wellthatisgr8, Wysprgr2005,
XJamRastafire, Xproudfoot, Zarathustra2694, 482 anonymous edits

Scale (string instruments) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498437907 Contributors: A.R., Andrewa, Ariedartin, BD2412, Beckerdo, Beetstra, Beetstra public, Bradleyeford,
Brianreading, Bron6669, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Cmac the great, Danger, Danja, Delt01, Design, Dialectric, Doronshapiro, Drhoehl, Easymusiclessons, EmanWilm,
Eudaemonic3, Femto, GreyCat, Gus, Houtlijm, Hyacinth, ILike2BeAnonymous, JackLumber, Jarrydn, Jeff Muscato, Kaufmann18, LennonVC, Lockley, MatthewVanitas, Mets501, Misuroz, OK
Letters!, Ovidcaput, PhnomPencil, Phso2, Pmpa, Rainwarrior, Relaxing, Rothorpe, Santaduck, Solicitr, Some guy, SubtractM, Thaurisil, TomasSedovic, Whosasking, Woohookitty, 96
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Strings (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511791362 Contributors: .M, 7&6=thirteen, A. di M., Aitias, Al Pereira, Arz1969, Badagnani, Banana04131,
BehindEnemaLines, Ben Ben, Bodragon, Boing! said Zebedee, Branzien, Bubba73, CatherineMunro, CharlieHuang, ChrisHardy73, Conical Johnson, Cst17, DCGeist, DavidRF, Deadlyops,
Dharris, Difluoroethene, Dismas, Domino42, Drphilharmonic, DualityShadow, E. Ripley, Eitch, Emma dusepo, Explicit, Francisco Valverde, Fromerunningboy, Gacl, Garion96, GreyCat, Gwib,
Article Sources and Contributors 244

Gzuckier, Hmains, ILike2BeAnonymous, IPR Guitar News, IcyMidnight, Ilikeeatingwaffles, Islander, J Lorraine, JSpung, Johnkarp, Jreptilla, Just plain Bill, KINU, Kankkis, KayEss, Kbh3rd,
Keithh, Kerowyn, Kilmer-san, Kostisl, Kotra, LDHan, LiamUK, Liberatus, Lumpymusic, Mac Dreamstate, MalcolmX86, Mets501, Mike71ruro, Mindspillage, Modulatum, MusicGirl42,
Naveira, Nmnogueira, Noah Salzman, Nochops, Obelix83, Paul D. Anderson, Peterlin, Petrm, Phyllis1753, Pookie8859, Professorstring, Quadell, Razzbone, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257,
Rigadoun, Rnb, Roux-HG, Rrralf, Sameboat, Sarindam7, StrumStrumAndBeHanged, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thecheesykid, Themixer1977, Tom.k, Torquil, Trackbikes, Updatehelper,
Vanished user 39948282, Vanka5, Weirdtoilets, Woodyvin, YK Times, Yevgeny Kats, Yhs7466, Zinnmann, 203 anonymous edits

Nut (string instrument) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=506007076 Contributors: Alton, Angryxpeh, Daverocks, Discospinster, DoubleBlue, Erlandsen, GlassFET,
Houtlijm, ILike2BeAnonymous, J Lorraine, JSC ltd, Just plain Bill, Liko81, Mutatis mutandis, NeonMerlin, NeuroWikiTyk, Pjt56, RottweilerCS, Stratplyr68, Tomgally, TorrentFox, 22
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Machine head Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500084929 Contributors: AmiDaniel, Andrewa, Angryxpeh, Billyshiverstick, Binksternet, Ceyockey, David.Monniaux, Deon
Steyn, Der Golem, Discospinster, Drivenapart, Flubeca, Frehley, Fuhghettaboutit, Gadfium, Gene Nygaard, GreyCat, Guitardemon666, Gunmetal Angel, Houtlijm, Ixfd64, JHunterJ, Jaque bissil,
Kilmer-san, Light current, Lol park, MartinTurner, Martpol, MatthewVanitas, Ndrly, Nick Number, Oatmeal batman, Phxtri, Reconsider the static, SGBailey, Thaurisil, Twas Now, WikHead,
Willking1979, 78 anonymous edits

Detuner Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503847792 Contributors: BassmanIII, Basswulf, DnaX, Drahkrub, Emeraude, GreyCat, Grm wnr, Jag123, Kate, La goutte de pluie,
Materialscientist, Matt Gies, Nick Number, PippaTeke, SoftwareGuru, Steveharoz, 19 anonymous edits

Pizzicato Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=508343533 Contributors: A Softer Answer, A4, Accelerometer, Airplaneman, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, ArielGold, Artvandelay,
Badagnani, Bdesham, Camembert, Catgut, DCGeist, DO'Neil, Deflective, Deltabeignet, Ds13, EryZ, Ezequiels.90, Ferengi, FirstClassDestruction, Fodge15, Furrykef, Gilderien, Graham87,
Greywolfangel, Hyacinth, ILike2BeAnonymous, ITshnik, Ideyal, JackofOz, JamesLee, Jaxl, Jmessinavc, John1987, Kedi the tramp, Keenebean2711, Kwamikagami, Leearr, Light current,
Longhair, M.J.E., MagdelenaDiArco, Makemi, Marechal Ney, Mild Bill Hiccup, Missmarple, Moloch981, Muchness, Nicke Lilltroll, NrDg, OnBeyondZebrax, Opus33, Paradoxian, RagingR2,
Rigaudon, Sotakeit, Tassedethe, Tempodivalse, TimNelson, Tobias Hoevekamp, Un chien andalou, Uncle Milty, Violncello, Walter, Wenli, West Brom 4ever, White Shadows, Wildbill
hitchcock, Wolfdog, XxPantherNovaXx, , 85 anonymous edits

Guitar pick Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513502711 Contributors: 6StringJazzer, AThing, Aldis90, Alexei Zverev, Alexjhartinger, Allstarecho, Altenmann,
Ancatdubh43, Anger22, Antonio Lopez, Aramremark, BD2412, Bender235, Bgs100, Bhadani, BilCat, Blanchardb, Bobblewik, Boney4, Bookandcoffee, Branzien, Bryan Derksen, Buzzbo,
Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Catmoongirl, Ccacsmss, Chowbok, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK, Chrystalcaren, CimanyD, Cmskog, CommonsDelinker,
Cowcowcow1, Ctman317, Dandreapicks, Daniel Olsen, David.Monniaux, Deltabeignet, DeniseC, Derpharder, Doug larsen, Drmies, Dysprosia, Edward321, Ewashbrook, Excirial, Extransit,
Firsfron, FisherQueen, Font, Furrykef, Fuzzybunny911, Geoff B, Gravitan, Greguire, GreyCat, GripGuitarPicks, Gunwarband, Harmonicattack, Harrisale, Hectorgarza, Hyacinth, Hydrogen
Iodide, Iago4096, Imroy, Iokseng, Iridescent, Isnow, J. Finkelstein, JOhkonut, Jauerback, Jesse Viviano, Jesseliderc, Jic, Jnorton7558, Joeseyeuk, JucaIceland, Julia lee30, Julia valdez, Junglecat,
Karada, Kasreyn, KayEss, Kilmer-san, Kostisl, Kubigula, Kurivaim, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lamarcus, LifeEnemy, Livajo, Logan, Lorddragyn, Lotje, Lundgren8, Lypheklub, MER-C,
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OffsBlink, OnBeyondZebrax, Pablo X, Pamela Slinn, Pax85, Perplextrator, Peterdjones, Piano non troppo, Pickmaker, Pickpunch, Pookerella, Prari, Promethean, R'n'B, Rainpat, Reaper Eternal,
Renodivorce, Richiekim, Rjwilmsi, Robinsonnick, Rodhullandemu, Rrrumbla, Saatwik Katiha, Sarahnickalex, Sartan, Sasuke254, Sbz5809, Schmiteye, SchuminWeb, Shadow Hawk,
Someguy1221, Srunika rajkumar, Steveclayton, Svanslyck, Sven Manguard, Syth, TSP, TenPoundHammer, Tenacious D Fan, Thaurisil, The JPS, The Painguin, TheLetterM, Thedukeofno,
Themfromspace, Themoodyblue, This lousy T-shirt, Tide rolls, Tiffany78, Toddst1, Virginiawolf88, Vivio Testarossa, Washboardplayer, Wiki libs, Wikiheather, Wikipelli, Wikiuser100,
Wiooiw, Wvluhmann, Xezbeth, Yjwong, Ylem, Zarzhu, Zoicon5, 297 anonymous edits

Palm mute Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=483779718 Contributors: AVM, Anger22, Branden, CatherineMunro, CrispyChicken, Delta avi delta, Dirk Hagemann,
Dysprosia, Ergative rlt, Fastfingerfreddy, FatPete, Furrykef, Galloping Moses, GlennDoom, Goatasaur, GreyCat, Happypoems, Herbythyme, Hooperbloob, Howdybob, Hyacinth,
ILike2BeAnonymous, Impy4ever, Intovert2438, Itchjones, Joe routt, Joeyramoney, Josh Allain, Keppa, Kmaster, Longhair, May Cause Dizziness, Mezmerizer, Mikebeatham, Munci, Nymf,
Ohnoitsjamie, Orethrius, Pred, Purple Sheep, Quirk, R. S. Shaw, R.christie, RickK, Skudmunky, StarryGrandma, Taejo, Thefuelrun, TimNelson, TopCamel, Vicarious, Werideatdusk33, Z10x,
Zykure, 60 anonymous edits

Slapping Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511946084 Contributors: 16@r, AJR, Akarkera, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, Antti29,
AppleJuggler, BBODO, Badmothergoose, Bassalchemist, Bbm, Bde1982, Beau1957, Belovedfreak, Berlu, BlueAzure, Bo80, Bongwarrior, Broarticle, Bstct, Carron88, Chickencha, Choco90210,
Chubbles, Circeus, Cooliohoolio, Cooltrainer Hugh, Cortdude, Cyrus XIII, D6, DCman, Darlene4, David Regimbal, Dcoetzee, Deadcrowisland, Deltabeignet, Dfmock, Dizzizz, Doghousejohnny,
Duhhhhh13, Easymusiclessons, EmaKelly, Endomion, Ericmakesthree, Etakaj, Fabrictramp, Fansfans123, Fish and karate, Flauto Dolce, Furrykef, Gareth E Kegg, Gene Nygaard, Graham87,
Grim-Gym, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru, Gwalla, Heycheckitoutyo, Hooperbloob, Howtoplaybass, Hyacinth, Indon, Inter16, JHMM13, JSoules, Jayenvarma, Jefph, Jevansen, Jimregan,
Joeyramoney, JohnOwens, JustAGal, Justin-, Karada, Keeper56, KenFehling, Kenliu, Kf4bdy, Kgaughan, Kind Journalist, La Pizza11, Lairor, Lilac Soul, Loudenvier, M0rphzone, Mahanga,
Matt Gies, MegX, Merovingian, Mikeblas, Mo0, Momet, Mrgreenwise, Msignor, Mullet, Munci, Musicindia1, Mutt Lunker, Mtze, NawlinWiki, Nekurosu, NikoPowers, Nuttycoconut, Nyco,
Oli Filth, OnBeyondZebrax, Onco p53, Onmogi, PersonMan92, Peterbarlow-is-a-legend, Pigman, Portillo, Primoz Brezovec, Primus Sheck, RagingR2, Raynethackery, Red dwarf, Redline,
Rjwilmsi, Rmrf, RockyMM, Rui Gabriel Correia, Sianypops, SilkTork, Simon-case, Singingdaisies, Sinner Chrono, Siotap, Skinr, SlackerMom, Sluzzelin, Steve Pastor, Stevekeiretsu,
Stratovarious, Stuart Clayton, Takeaway, Tassedethe, Teiladnam, TenPoundHammer, Theelf29, TimNelson, Tjkiesel, Tommy2010, Tunedguitar, Txomin, Vanished user 388490e302, Velvetron,
Vunzmstr, Wahoofive, Wimbo Jales, Zephalis, Zepheus, 344 anonymous edits

Tapping Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500189469 Contributors: 1950salvador, AdzyD, Agathoclea, Airproofing, Alankroeger, Alansohn, Andrew c, Anger22, Angr,
Archivman, Arthur Rubin, Avram Fawcett, Axezz, Axver, BD2412, Bacroy, Bangjoel, Benoit Rochon, Bobo192, Brickwall82, Bt8257, Butseriouslyfolks, Candyfloss, Causa sui, Cben, Colonies
Chris, Cryleek, Cyrus XIII, DKqwerty, Darkdogtx, DarrenGuitarGuy, DaveG12345, Deltabeignet, DisturbedNerd999, Dken, Dogcow, Don Alessandro, Dr. Blofeld, DutchDevil, E-Kartoffel, Ed
g2s, Eurotrash Drock, Evanreyes, FMAFan1990, Fair Deal, Feline1, Focus, Funeral, Furrykef, GabeinNC, GeorgeHayes, Gordonmarsh, GraemeL, GreyCat, Guitarspecs, Harpejji, Hdt83,
Hede2000, Heiz, HollywoodGirl, Hu, Im.a.lumberjack, Inky, Insomniak, J.delanoy, JFVolk, James Callahan, Jayron32, Jgideon, Jimregan, Jjonahjameson, Joebeckerfans, Joeyramoney, Jones99,
Jphillst, Julesd, Kataar, Keithbob, Kettil, Khullah, King Lopez, Kingmachado, LeaveSleaves, LilHelpa, Lotje, Lucrecia's son, Lvr, Mac Davis, Mac Dreamstate, Marshallfrommars, Marskuzz,
Matt Ferg 624, Mattisse, Maxis ftw, Mdhandley, Meanos, Meesham, MegX, Megan1967, Mel Gibson, Mezmerizer, Mikemoral, Miketm, Mono, MonteChristof, Musicman51, Musicman7621,
Mwakkree, Nakon, Nat Krause, Nummer29, Nymf, Omaster, Osiris de Isis, Oxymoron83, PageGilmourMan, Pax:Vobiscum, Petchboo, Peter Fleet, Peterdjones, Phgao, Philip Trueman, Portillo,
R'n'B, RL0919, Radiowar, Rajah22, Randulo, RedWolf, RickK, Rjwilmsi, Rock Soldier, Rracecarr, SLATE, Saatwik Katiha, Sadads, SaltyPig, Samael, Schroeder74, ScottHardie, Scummings,
Seegoon, Shade.of.black, Sonicdeathmonkey, Sosobra, Spike Wilbury, Squash, Strangerer, Suduser85, TMFSG, TabsAZ, Tapredux, Tassedethe, The Utahraptor, The wub, TheWeakWilled,
Theelf29, Thermaland, Thinkpad20, Traktor Topaz, TwisterAce, Txomin, Unint, Unixer, Viames, Violncello, Wafulz, WaldiR, Wether B, Wiki libs, Wikishiz, Wimt, Woohookitty, Xezbeth,
Yannherman, Zone46, ^demon, 457 anonymous edits

Double stop Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491528922 Contributors: Atemperman, Barneca, Bassistphysicist, Bobo192, CiudadanoGlobal, Clorox, Conrad.Irwin, Dave
Bass, Deltabeignet, Dysprosia, EvanSeeds, Ewlyahoocom, Fretsource, Gfoley4, GxxxxxxxH, Hyacinth, ILike2BeAnonymous, J Lorraine, JRM, Josephinetrott, Ks0stm, Kurykh, Lazulilasher,
Lupin, Michael Hardy, MordredKLB, NeilN, Ohnjaynb, Ojigiri, Oxymoron83, Pitoutom, Ppk01, Publicassistant7, Seglea, Shinton, Sketchee, Springeragh, Twisted86, Yanghank, 34 anonymous
edits

Bass instrument amplification Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511525114 Contributors: AKnot, Abomb219, Alansohn, Andrea105, Andrew Spinner, Ariedartin,
Binksternet, Biorem, Bwhack, Catgut, Chris the speller, Clemonsjw, Colchester121891, Davidkazuhiro, Dinobass, Edgarde, Editcommander17, Fattonyni, Furrykef, GoingBatty, Howdybob, Its
snowing in East Asia, Izzy007, Jbusenitz, Kvng, Lazytiger, Light current, Matt Crypto, MichaelSHoffman, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Mobius131186, Murdered, OnBeyondZebrax, Onco
p53, Outriggr, Peter Horn, Peter Karlsen, PeterGrecian, Polly, Quadratic Lemon, Radagast83, Rainmore, Redheylin, Richman271, Rwalker, Short Brigade Harvester Boris, Smellslikeshoes,
Stebbins, Stephen Burnett, Steve carlson, Technopat, Thaurisil, TheUnnamedNewbie, Twsx, Unschool, Whpq, WillMak050389, Ww, 78 anonymous edits

Preamplifier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512266146 Contributors: ARTE, Adamantios, Andrewa, Assassinscv, Atlantictire, Bachcell, Binksternet, Blainster, Brossow,
CHE, CamperStrike, Colorbow, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dashdan, David Plummer, Dawidl, Deville, Docu, Dual Freq, Ekrumme, Fxer, F, GK, Gdje je nestala dua svijeta, Glenn, Guerberj,
GyroMagician, Hamiltondaniel, Hhcox, Hooperbloob, Hydrargyrum, Ibigfire, Jaymesuk, Jerome Charles Potts, Josvanehv, Light current, Lindosland, MER-C, MatthieuV, Mchl, Mlewis000,
Music First Audio, Naturalthing, Nelbs, Nick Number, Omegatron, Ospalh, PJohnson, Pitoutom, Quiddity, R'n'B, RHCD, Shadowolf, Simpsons contributor, Sligocki, Soundpro99, The Elves Of
Dunsimore, Tide rolls, Vodnokon4e, Wahoofive, Witchwooder, Woodshed, 66 anonymous edits

Effects unit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512976969 Contributors: 0612, 3dec3, 3guk, Akerans, Andrewa, Atlantictire, Auntof6, BD2412, Billeindani, Binksternet,
Bjames092, Bjorn Elenfors, Bloodzombie, Boyband625, Brossow, Buglen, BurnDownBabylon, Butterscotch, C5813, CALR, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cavie78, Charlessellers, Chickencha,
Chowbok, Chris the speller, Cigaromn, Ck lostsword, ClamDip, Clusternote, Colchester121891, Commons Guitarpop, Conical Johnson, Conversion script, Courcelles, Cralize, Cymsdale,
Danobeavis, DarthInsinuate, Daviq, Deansolo, Deltabeignet, Deon Steyn, DerekL, DriveShaft 815, Dulcimerist, Dysenterymatt, Eddyspeeder, Edward, Effectrode, Elvenmuse, Emersoni,
EricEnfermero, Eveningmist, Favonian, Fram, Frantone, Gaius Cornelius, Gdoubledub, GoingBatty, GraemeL, Graham87, GreyCat, Guyvanzandt, Here Lies The Fire, Hyacinth, Iain, Ironcroz, Is
Article Sources and Contributors 245

there any username not used?, J.H, JONJONAUG, Jafro, Jagged 85, Jai Raj, Jameschanguitars, Jampfeffer, Jcbereznay, Jeffamm, Jfusion10, Jhsounds, Joeyramoney, Jogers, Jprg1966, JustAGal,
Kilmer-san, Lindosland, Lyssipos, Magioladitis, ManningBartlett, Martijn Hoekstra, Maslisko, Mataresephotos, Matman67b, Maxcap, Mbstone, MegX, MichaelSHoffman, Mild Bill Hiccup,
MrBook, Mrgretalcat, Nagelfar, Ndrly, Nlu, No Guru, OlEnglish, Omegatron, OnBeyondZebrax, Peternewman, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, Radagast83, Randombee, Redheylin, Requestion, Rigadoun,
RobML, Ronz, Salamander4000, Shythe, Sigmundg, Snowfreak91287, Srice13, Steve carlson, Steve7950, Steveg99962, Sue Wallace, Tabletop, Therewillbehotcake, Theyoungidea,
Ticklewickleukulele, TimNelson, Tmoxness, Tom.Reding, Tzartzam, Ucucha, Uikku, Vintage-Rev, Viriditas, WikHead, Wikid77, Willd88, Wine Guy, Witchwooder, Wonderjenny,
Woohookitty, Xstring, Y2kcrazyjoker4, YUL89YYZ, Yawaraey, Zaxo, Zephyrad, 275 anonymous edits

Bassist Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513477189 Contributors: "Country" Bushrod Washington, 769z, AK50324, APT41790, Adbarnhart, Adeliine, Aeternus,
Ahoerstemeier, Ajplmr, Akrabbim, Alai, Alanlarue, AllyD, AllySDude, Andre Engels, Apttp, Arabigo, Atechi, Audric Pwns, Azure01, BGFMSM, Baian, Bananamilkshakemaker, BassistofNC,
Basswulf, Belasted, Ben Ram, Benhead 07, BillFlis, Billy Bread, Bla1234bla, Blackrascistjew, Blah3, Bluecanoe, Bolin van helm, Bondegezou, Borgx, Bradeos Graphon, Brendan Barber
buncrana, Bwj8, CatherineMunro, Cdc, Chuck Taylor's, CliffC, Commander Keane, Comrade Neko, Count duckula23, CryptoDerk, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Danish1, Dburgess, Dead Chook,
Deltabeignet, Dickdock, Dina, Dmn, Doctorteddynewman, Dralwik, Dsreyn, Dunhamrc, Dysepsion, Elmer Clark, Engineer Bob, Er Cicero, Erpert, Evgeni Sergeev, FCYTravis, Falsehopesgg,
Ferdinand Pienaar, Floaterfluss, Fratrep, Frka, FunkEducation, Gfoley4, Gladimore15, Golbez, GreyCat, Grue, Gunsnroads, Guye incognito, Heidimo, Heimstern, Hetro94, Hn, Home Row
Keysplurge, Hotcrocodile, Howtoplaybassdotcom, Hyacinth, Iam, Indiealtphreak, Infrogmation, Isaac Benaron, JForget, JRawle, January, Jas009, Jaymie joanna, Jazandfunk, JeLuF, Jeffrey O.
Gustafson, Jes101360, Jj137, Jncraton, Joegamble, JohnCD, Jonathan.s.kt, Joseluisdehipona, Joyous!, JuJube, JungleMan, KHM03, Kata Alreshim, Kebbs, KevLeahy, Kingsbridge123, Kolins,
Kudzu1, LSCoker, Lankiveil, Ldawg2112, Lemmus, LinguistAtLarge, Lo2u, Lucky 6.9, MMBKG, Mad Hatter, Maogall, Marek69, Marknew, MattTM, Matthew Husdon, MegX, Megan1967,
Melodosgr, Michael Gam, Michelmreid, Mike Rosoft, Mikepalkowski, Mikeywaysweetie, Mintleaf, Mjgw, Moraleh, MrFyre, Mrbob944, Mtude3, Musical Linguist, Naveen93, NawlinWiki,
Nick Number, Ohnoitsjamie, Omergutman, OnBeyondZebrax, OverlordQ, Ozbass, PHdeJong, Pablo X, Pankkake, Paul A, Peachywong, Petergee1, Philip Trueman, Plaidpants88, Pomte, Postdlf,
Prodego, ProveIt, Pwilliams58, Randomevo, RedWolf, Rehan.scharenguivel, RexNL, Rharun, Rick Block, Roda, Romancer, Ronhjones, RoryS89, Rurik, Ryulong, Saosinlampard, Scorpion,
Scottmsg, Sidasta, Skysmith, Slorge, Snaxe920, Spaceman85, Starling, Stereoroid, Steve Abrahall, Steveriley, Stewgunn, Stinerman, Stormie, Strobie, Styrofoam1994, Syouth, Tassedethe,
Tbhotch, Tcncv, Ted Wilkes, TehRuss, Thaskyline, The Fat Man Who Never Came Back, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, TheScotch, Thecheesykid, Thecure123, Thereverendeg,
Timbertiger, Tinton5, Tjkiesel, Tnxman307, Tojge, Tomkurts, Toreau, Torenko, Tothebarricades.tk, Tuttt, Ulric1313, Varactor, Verkhovensky, Wafulz, Whiterosechris, Wiki alf, Wknight94,
WouterVH, Xerwer, Zagozagozago, Zone46, Zzuuzz, 650 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 246

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Bass and Treble clef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bass_and_Treble_clef.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Lthown
Image:GClef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GClef.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Image:CClef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CClef.svg License: unknown Contributors:
Image:FClef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FClef.svg License: unknown Contributors:
Image:All clefs.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:All_clefs.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Sakurambo
Image:common clefs.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Common_clefs.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Hyacinth, Sakurambo
Image:Treble clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Treble_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C treble clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_treble_clef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:French clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C French violin clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_French_violin_clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Bass clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bass_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C bass clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_bass_clef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Baritone clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baritone_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C baritone F-clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_baritone_F-clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Subbass clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Subbass_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Alto clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alto_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C alto clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_alto_clef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Tenor clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tenor_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C tenor clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_tenor_clef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Baritone C clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baritone_C_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C baritone C-clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_baritone_C-clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
File:Mezzo-soprano clef with ref.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mezzo-soprano_clef_with_ref.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Just plain Bill
Image:Diatonic scale on C mezzo-soprano clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_mezzo-soprano_clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Soprano Clef - trimmed.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soprano_Clef_-_trimmed.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: I used an
existing Wikipedia image and trimmed off the white space.
Image:Diatonic scale on C soprano clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_soprano_clef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
File:Tenorclefs.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tenorclefs.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Sparafucil (talk). Original
uploader was Sparafucil at en.wikipedia
Image:Diatonic scale on C transposing clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_transposing_clef.png License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:Diatonic scale on C sopranino clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_sopranino_clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
Image:Music-neutralclef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Music-neutralclef.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors:
Alex299006, Aotake, Denelson83, Joey-das-WBF, Popadius, Ysangkok
Image:Characteristic rock drum pattern.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Characteristic_rock_drum_pattern.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:SreeBot
Image:Tablature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tablature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: en:User:Gheuf; traced by User:Stannered
Image:Diatonic scale on C tablature clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diatonic_scale_on_C_tablature_clef.png License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hyacinth
File:G-Schluessel.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:G-Schluessel.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Feijoo, Juiced lemon, Kajk
Image:Oldbassclef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oldbassclef.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Zeimusu; traced by
User:Stannered
File:Britannica Horn Nozze C Clef Note A.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Britannica_Horn_Nozze_C_Clef_Note_A.png License: unknown Contributors:
Kathleen Schlesinger
Image:Old C-clef.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_C-clef.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Created by Hyacinth (talk) 20:10, 6 July 2009.
File:C clef neume.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:C_clef_neume.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Donarreiskoffer, Joga
File:F clef neume.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:F_clef_neume.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Donarreiskoffer, Joga
Image:Lilypond-screenshot-adeste.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lilypond-screenshot-adeste.png License: Public domain Contributors: User:Hyacinth
Image:AGK bass1 full.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AGK_bass1_full.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:AndrewKepert
Image:Range contrabass.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Range_contrabass.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Beao, Fluteflute,
Guybrush Threepwood, Mezzofortist, Razorbliss
Image:busettosolano.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Busettosolano.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Lowendgruv at en.wikipedia
Image:Bassdiagram.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bassdiagram.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Original uploader was Bottesini at
en.wikipedia
Image:Bridgedetail.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bridgedetail.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Sotakeit at
en.wikipedia
Image:Double bass gut strings.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Double_bass_gut_strings.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
Contributors: Timo Metzemakers
Image:French and german bows.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_and_german_bows.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original
uploader was Bottesini at en.wikipedia
Image:German bow2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_bow2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Bottesini
at en.wikipedia
Image:French bow2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_bow2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Bottesini at
en.wikipedia
Image:AGK bass bow grip.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AGK_bass_bow_grip.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Joonasl, Rottweiler
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 247

Image:Bass clef.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bass_clef.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Feijoo, Koobak, Tlusa
Image:Double bass C extension.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Double_bass_C_extension.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original
uploader was Bottesini at en.wikipedia
Image:Domenico Dragonetti.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Domenico_Dragonetti.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Inzane26 at
en.wikipedia
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Image:Minugs 1976.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minugs_1976.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Tom Marcello
Image:Fiddle bass.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiddle_bass.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Artaxerxes
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Happygrouch (talk)
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File:Fender Bass Guitar Patent.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fender_Bass_Guitar_Patent.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: C. Leo Fender, inventor
File:Fender Jazz Bass.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fender_Jazz_Bass.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: BrianReading
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Solid State
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Image:Odyssey2 & PianoBass @ O-SETSU-Y 2010-30.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Odyssey2_&_PianoBass_@_O-SETSU-Y_2010-30.jpg License: Creative
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Image:Rhodes Piano Bass.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhodes_Piano_Bass.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jacksonpet at
en.wikipedia
Image:Moog Taurus (small).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moog_Taurus_(small).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors:
Wall_of_MOOG.jpg: guiltysin derivative work: Shoulder-synth (talk)
Image:Novation BassStation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Novation_BassStation.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
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Image:Pedalierbdo1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedalierbdo1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: MG
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Image:Pedal Piano 3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedal_Piano_3.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotake, Clavecin, Shoulder-synth
Image:CarillonKeyboardPlummerBldg.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarillonKeyboardPlummerBldg.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
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File:Hammond TR200.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hammond_TR200.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Fotografer and Original
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Wall_of_MOOG.jpg: guiltysin derivative work: Shoulder-synth (talk)
File:LeoFender1978.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LeoFender1978.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: K13
File:Fender bw.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fender_bw.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Biso
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My76Strat
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File:Fender Jaguars.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fender_Jaguars.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: get directly down
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Contributors: GreyCat, Idler, Solid State
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soapdish
File:Tony Levin (2006).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tony_Levin_(2006).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ian Muttoo
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Bill
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 249

File:Kahler tremolo system.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kahler_tremolo_system.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Mecanismo
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Image:PRS Dragon Treble.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PRS_Dragon_Treble.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Dodo, FlickrLickr,
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Fender_Telecaster55.jpg: CasinoKat
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Image:Peterman dual pickup.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peterman_dual_pickup.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Peter
Sesselmann
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Bill
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