0.electrician Handbook - English

ELECTRICIAN HANDBOOK
ELECRTICAL BASIC THEORY

ELECTRICAL PANEL
FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL SAFETY COMPONENT
GROUNDING
LIGHTNING ARRESTER
TRANSFORMER
LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 1

ELECTRICAL BASIC THEORY
Current
An electrical current is the flow of electricity around an electrical circuit. The flow of electricity
follows similar principles to the flow of water in pipes, as we shall see, with the exception that an
electrical system must make a complete circuit. The circuit will contain a power source of some
kind; in mains wiring the power source is the national electrical distribution system which is
mostly outside our control. Of course, the distribution company don't run wires directly from the
power station to our houses: there is all manner of other stuff between them and us, but that
isn't all that important. For most cases you can proceed as if a small power station was
connected directly to your house.
In domestic electrical work, current is generally measured in amps. Currents you will
encounter in practice range from about 0.5 amps (through a lightbulb) to about 40 amps (an
electric shower). Technically 'amps' is short for 'Ampres', but the full name is now rarely used.
The mathematical symbol for current, as it is written in calculations, is not 'C' (for current) or 'A'
(for amps) but in fact 'I'. This is just because the symbols 'C' and 'A' are reserved for other things.
You will occasionally come across currents measured in milliamps ('mA' for short). A milliamp is a
thousandth of an amp. For example, most earth-leakage breakers used in domestic wiring trip at
30 mA, which is about one thirtieth of an amp.
To get an electrical current to flow, we need a power source, and some sort of conductor. A
conductor is defined as anything that can carry a flow of electricity. In electrical practice,
conductors tend to be copper wire or copper bars, usually hidden away inside plastic sleeves.
The sleeves are insulators, that is, materials that prevent the flow of electricity. It is the insulator
that keeps the electrical current where it belongs - inside the cable.
In the UK (and everywhere else, as far as I know), electricity is distributed around the country
in the form of alternating current. This means that the flow of electrical current changes
direction, usually 50 or 60 times per second. There are two reasons for this, both historical. First,
electrical transformers (which we need to change voltage, see below) only work with alternating
currents. Second, we generate electricity by spinning wires around inside magnets (this is a bit of
a simplification, of course), and this naturally produces an alternating current. At the points
where the current is about to change direction, there will (for a short time) be no current flowing
at all. 'Alternating current' is usually abbreviated to 'AC'.
The fact that current is alternating has little practical impact on domestic wiring. If you grab a
live conductor you'll get a shock which is just as unpleasant even though, in principle, part of the
time no current will be flowing. One area where the alternating nature of the electrical supply is
apparent, however, is in the use of fluorescent lights. Incandescent (filament) bulbs generate
their light because the filament becomes white-hot. It cannot heat up and cool down as fast as
the alternation of the electrical current, so the light is fairly constant. Fluorescent lights, on the
other hand, produce a detectable flicker at the speed of the supply alternation. The light from a
fluorescent tube will 'pulse' about 100 times per second (50 times with the supply current in one
direction and 50 in the other). We can't normally see this flicker, but it does tend to make
rotating machines look as though they're standing still, or going backwards. This is why we are
warned not to use drilling equipment, for example, in strong fluorescent light.
Voltage
Voltage is a measure of the strength of an electrical supply. A voltage may exist even when no
current is flowing. In older textbooks you will find terms like 'electrical potential' or 'electro-
motive force', which gives a better feel for what voltage means. Strictly, a voltage is only defined

between two points. When only one point is specified, we tacitly assume that the other point is
the earth (which means exactly what it says: the ground beneath our feet). The earth is not a
very good conductor of electricity, but there's an awful lot of it, which makes up for this to a
certain extent. So when I say 'there's 230 volts at this point', what I really mean is that the
voltage difference between this point and earth is 230 volts (it's a bit more complicated than this
in practice, as we shall see).
Voltage is measured in volts, which is abbreviated to 'V'. So '230V' means '230 volts'. The
mathematical symbol for voltage is also 'V'. Incidentally, although you'll hear electricians talking
about '240 volt' mains, in fact our mains supply voltage has been 230 volts for about ten years,
to make our electrical equipment compatible with that of the rest of Europe.
To get an alternating current, we need an alternating voltage. So the electrical mains voltage
will cycle from about 325 volts, to zero, to -325 volts, then back to zero, and so on, 50 times per
second. This is shown in figure 1
Figure 1: The variation of the voltage waveform over time. One complete cycle of this variation
lasts one fiftieth of a second (in the UK)
Why is the maximum voltage 325 volts and not 230 volts as we normally say? It turns out that
this waveform (which varies between high and low voltages) carries the same amount of energy
as a constant voltage about 70% the size. So when we talk about a 230V AC supply, we mean a
supply that would carry the same energy as a constant voltage of 230 V. This actually means an
AC voltage that reaches 325 volts at certain points, and is zero at others. Electrical engineers
refer to the '230 volt' figure as the 'root mean square' voltage, for reasons that you'll find in an
engineering textbook. This is abbreviated to 'rms', so you'll sometimes seen the domestic mains
voltage written as '230 Vrms'. Unless indicated otherwise, you can expect voltages and currents
described in electrical manuals and manufacturers' catalogues as 'rms' figures, and then ignore
this fact completely. The reason you can ignore it is that in domestic work so long as all
measurements of voltage, current, and power are rms measurements, all the calculations still
give correct answers.
230 volts is quite enough to give you a nasty shock, and sometimes these shocks can be fatal.
In some parts of the world lower voltages are used, for increased safety. For reasons that will be
explained later, it is more efficient (i.e., less wasteful of energy) to distribute electricity at a
higher voltage, but increased efficiency is gained at the expense of safety.

Resistance
We have already mentioned electrical materials which are conductors (that allow an electrical
current to flow easily) and insulators (that don't). In reality nothing is a perfect insulator or a
perfect conductor: most materials have a certain degree of resistance, and lie on a scale
somewhere between a perfect insulator and a perfect conductor. Materials with high resistance
tend to be insulators; those with low resistance tend to be conductors. Even copper electrical
cables have a certain amount of resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms, which is either
abbreviated to ' ', or to 'R' if your word processor doesn't have a ' ' symbol1. The
mathematical symbol is the letter 'R' as well. One ohm is a lot of resistance in electrical practice;
we normally like our electrical conductors to have resistances much less than an ohm, for
reasons that will be explained.
The relationship between current, voltage and resistance

You'll not be surprised to learn, I hope, that these important quantities - voltage, current and
resistance - are related. It turns out that the voltage can be found by multiplying the current (in
amps) by the resistance (in ohms). In symbols this is
V=IR
If algebra puts you off, don't worry, it says exactly the same thing as the 'voltage is current times
resistance', but in a shorter format.
In case you're interested, this simple formula is called 'Ohm's law', and is probably the most
important thing ever discovered in electrical engineering. In domestic wiring, 'V' will nearly
always be '230' (volts), so in practice we usually want to work out current (knowing resistance),
or vice-versa. We can write Ohm's law in two different ways:
I=V/R
and
R=V/I
So if we have, say, a lightbulb which has a filament with a resistance of 500 ohms at running
temperature, what current flows in it? Since we know that I = V / R and V is 230, and R
(resistance) is 500, then I is 230/500, which is 0.46 amps, or about half an amp.
It may help to understand these relationships by comparing them to a system that may be
more familiar. Figure 2 shows a water tank suspended off the ground, connected to a length of
pipe. Because the pipe is open at the end, water will run down in and make a puddle on the
floor.
In this system, the height of the water tank is analogous to the voltage. If we double the
height of the tank (from the end of the pipe), this is equivalent to doubling the voltage. If we do
this, all other things being equal, the water will flow down the pipe twice as fast as before. This
is why, if you have a water tank in your attic, you will usually get a greater flow of water from a
downstairs tap than from an upstairs tap: the height of the water tank above the tap is about
twice as large.
The flow of water through the pipe is analogous to the flow of current. If we double the
voltage, we double the current (if the resistance remains constant).
The pipe attached to the tank represents the resistance. It is very similar to an electrical
resistance. For example, if we double the length of the pipe, the flow of water will decrease to
about half its previous value. There's twice as much pipe, therefore twice as much resistance. If
we make the pipe thinner, this will also slow down the flow. This is true of electrical cables as
well. A longer cable has more resistance than a shorter one, and a thin cable has more resistance

than a fat one (but of course it is the thickness of copper that is important, not the thickness of
the insulating plastic). Cable sizes are expressed in terms of the cross-section area of copper in
the live and neutral conductors, measured in square millimetres (abbreviated to 'mm 2' or 'sq
mm'). Electrical power rings are very commonly made from 2.5 mm 2 cable. This means that each
of the live and neutral conductors has an area of 2.5 mm 2. You'll frequently hear this abbreviated to
'2.5 millimetre' or '2.5 mil'. Strictly speaking, this is wrong: the conductors are not 2.5 millimetres across,
they have an area of 2.5 square millimetres. This slang does not normally cause problems in practice.
Figure 2: The 'water' model of current, voltage and resistance; see

text for details
Electrical circuits
The main difference between an electrical system, and the water system shown in figure 2 is that
electrical current must flow in a circuit. Electricity can't form a puddle in the same way that
water can; it has to be confined to conductors. So in some senses a better analogy might be a
central heating system, where water flows around a set of pipes and radiators, driven by a pump.
In any event, if a circuit is not complete, no current can flow. This is good, because it means we
can uses switches to turn things on and off. Traditionally a switch is a mechanical contact:
pressing it or moving the lever moves a piece of copper in such a way as to open or close a
circuit. It is now possible to get electronic switching devices that have no moving parts.
A practical electrical circuit consists of at least the following things: a power source, some
conductors, and an electrical appliance (see figure 3).
Figure 3: The simplest possible, practical electrical circuit

In a domestic mains system, the 'power source' is essentially the wires that bring the electrical
supply into the house (and all the power stations, etc., that they're connected to). Since we don't
have any control over that, we can usefully think of it as a 230 volt power source without
worrying to much about it2.
This circuit will power the appliance (whatever it is) and, because there is not even a switch, it
will continue to power it forever, or until the power runs out. Because we are dealing with
alternating currents, the flow of current around the circuit is constantly changing direction (but
this does not cause any problem, as discussed above).
Suppose we want to connect two appliances in this circuit (after all, a house with only one
lightbulb isn't going to be much use). How are we to accomplish this? There seem to be two
basic strategies. The first, called 'series' wiring is shown in figure 4. The second, 'parallel' wiring,
is shown in figure 5.
Figure 4: Connection of electrical appliances in series
Figure 5: Connection of electrical appliances in parallel
There is a place for both these schemes, but in nearly all domestic wiring we will want to wire
things up in parallel. Why? The problem with the series arrangement is that all the appliances in
the system get the same current. This must be the case, because there is only one set of wires to
carry the current around. Now suppose one appliance is a lightbulb and the other is an electric
shower. The lightbulb wants about half an amp, while the electric shower wants about 40 amps.
There's no way to arrange them so they both get the current they want. What would happen in
practice? Well, the resistance of the lightbulb is huge compared to that of the electric shower so,
in practice, the current in the circuit will the same as that for a lightbulb: about half an amp. That
isn't going to warm your water very well.
In a parallel system, all appliances get the same voltage across them. In the UK this means the
230 volt mains supply. Each appliance will have a particular resistance, and therefore get a

current which is appropriate for its needs.
In practice, we couldn't use the same wires to carry electricity to both a lightbulb and an
electric shower, because the shower would need very thick cables, as will be explained, and it
would uneconomical to wire up a lighting system using such heavy-duty cable.
Ring wiring
We've seen how you can connect electrical appliances in parallel, but what happens if you
connect cables in parallel? In other words, rather than running one pair of wires to each
appliance, why not run two? How would this help? Well, if there are two sets of conductors
running to each appliance, this is exactly the same as having one set of conductors but with
twice as much copper area. And a conductor with twice the area can carry twice the current (for
reasons I'll explain later). So if we double the number of cables connecting each appliance, we
double the amount of current they can carry. Another way of looking at this is to say that if we
double the number of cables, they only need to have half the area, and thin cable is cheaper
than thick cable.
This principle is exploited in the wiring of 'ring' circuits in domestic installations. Rings are
almost always used in wiring power outlets, and sometime in lighting as well. In a ring, every
socket outlet has not just one live, neutral, and earth connection back to the supply, but two;
this is because the ring goes all around the area served and then back to the supply.
This also explains why it is so dangerous to allow a ring to become broken. In this situation
there will only be one set of conductors serving each power outlet. Some outlets will be on one
side of the break, and some will be on the other. So all will get a supply, and it isn't obvious that
anything is wrong. However, a double-gang 13-amp socket can draw a current of 26 amps if two
heavy-duty appliances are plugged in, and this may well be too high for a single run of 2.5 mm 2
cable, but well within the capabilities of two such cables. There is a very real risk of the cable
overheating. In normal circumstances it is impossible to plug in enough appliances to damage
the cabling. Why? Because the fuse or MCB has been chosen to suit the current rating of the
cable (see below). In a ring system, we will choose the fuse or MCB to suit the capacity of the
ring, not a single cable. The fuse will normally be rated to trip at about 30A, which is well within
the capacity of the ring, but close to, or above, the capacity of the single cable. So the fuse won't
protect us from plugging in two 13-amp appliances: 26 amps isn't enough to trip the fuse, and
the cable will overheat instead.
Power
Power is the rate at which an electrical appliance can consume electrical energy, or the rate at
which a generator can produce it. In the UK we are charged for our electricity in terms of energy:
the more energy we use, the more we pay. A high-power appliance uses energy more rapidly
than a low-power one, and therefore costs more to run.
Power is measured in watts, or in kilowatts. A kilowatt is a thousand watts, and is a more
useful figure when dealing with electric fires and heaters. The abbreviations are 'W' (for watts)
and 'kW' (for kilowatts). Note the positions of the capital letters here. It is technically incorrect to
abbreviate kilowatts to 'KW' (although plenty of people do, including electricity supply
companies).
The mathematical symbol for power is 'P'.
If we know the voltage and current in an electrical appliance we can work out its power. It
turns out that power (in watts) is equal to the voltage (in volts) multiplied by the current (in
amps). In symbols this is:
P=VI

So, taking the lightbulb case again, its current (as we worked out earlier) was 0.5 amps, the
voltage is (as ever) 230 volts, so the power is 115 watts (0.5 x 230) 3. I don't think you can buy a
115 W lightbulb, so what current flows in a 100 W lightbulb? We can write the formula above in
two other ways:
V=P/I
and
I=P/V
The second of these is what we need: it gives us current ('I') if we know P and V. So the current in
the 100 W bulb is (100 / 230) amps, or about 0.43 amps.
Here's another example. What rating of fuse do I need in a plug that supplies an electrical
kettle? Let's suppose the kettle has a power rating of 2.5 kW (which is common). Since I = P / V, P
is 2500 (watts), and V is 230 (volts), we have I = 2500 / 230, which is about 10.9 amps. Since plug
fuses are only usually only available in ratings of 3, 5, and 13 amps, we need a 13-amp fuse, this
being the next rating up from the calculated 10.9 amps. A 5-amp fuse would probably blow quite
quickly, but we'll come onto that in a moment.
A lightbulb converts electrical energy into light and heat. A filament bulb is very inefficient, in
fact, producing about 50 times more heat than light. In fact all electrical equipment gets hot in
use, including wires. The amount of energy that goes into heat can always be calculated if we
know the voltage and current, but for electrical cables it's easier to do it a different way. Since
we know that V = I R (from above) and that P = V I, then a bit of juggling symbols shows that
P = I2 R
or in words: power is given by multiplying the square of the current by the resistance. (The
square of anything is that number multiplied by itself). Let's take an example.
Suppose an electrical cable had a resistance of 2 ohms. This cable is carrying a current of 13
amps (which is the maximum allowed for a plug-in appliance). How much power is turned into
heat by the cable?
Power is given by the square of the current times the resistance, so in this case is 13 x 13 x 2,
which is 338 watts. That's about the same as three lightbulbs. So the electrical cable will get
about as hot as three lightbulbs. Apart from being a complete waste of energy (which you're
paying for), this may be enough heat to melt the cable, which would be a Bad Thing (especially if
it's underground). This explains why we need fat cables for high-power appliances and can get
away with thin cables for low-power ones. Fat cables have lower resistances, and therefore less
energy is wasted as heat, and they don't get hot enough to melt. Is it all right to use fat cables
for low-power appliances? Well, it doesn't compromise safety, but it's not very cost-effective.
Thick cables are much more expensive than thin ones. Another problem is that thick cables are
much harder to work with than thin ones.
Energy, and your electricity bill

Electrical engineers measure electrical energy in kilowatt-hours. One kilowatt-hour, which is the
same as 1000 watt-hours, is sufficient energy to power a one kilowatt appliance for one hour.
Energy of 1 kilowatt-hour may be consumed by an appliance that takes 1000 watts running for 1
hour, or an appliance that takes 1 watt running for 1000 hours, or an appliance that takes 100
watts running for 10 hours, or anything in between so long as the time multiplied by the power
comes to 1000.
The electricity bill does not distinguish between high-power and low-power appliances, only
the total energy. You will normally be charged a certain amount for each kilowatt-hour of energy,
plus a certain fixed amount, in each bill. Many supply companies are now offering charging

schemes that remove the fixed amount (standing charge) which is good news for people who are
careful with electricity4.
Here's an example. Suppose your supply company charges 10 pence per kilowatt hour. How
much does it cost to run a 40-amp electric shower for half an hour? Since power is voltage times
current, the shower will consume 40 x 230 watts. That's 9200 watts, or 9.2 kilowatts. So it would
cost 9.2 times ten pence to run it for one hour, or half that for half an hour. So the total cost is
(1/2) x 9.2 x 10 pence, or 46 pence. This is about the same price as running a 100-watt lightbulb
for two days.
Live, neutral and earth

Three main electrical conductors enter a domestic property, and are distributed throughout it.
These conductors are referred to as live, neutral and earth.
The live and neutral conductors should be considered as the 'power supply' to the premises.
The voltage between live and neutral will generally be about 230 V AC. In all normal
circumstances, current that enters the premises on the live conductor leaves it on the neutral,
and vice-versa. The earth conductor carries negligible current except in fault situations.
Although the live and neutral conductors both carry current, only the live conductor is at a
voltage that could be harmful. The neutral conductor will normally be at the same voltage as the
earth conductor. In fact, at some point the neutral and the earth will be connected together. This
situation is shown in figure 6
Figure 6: The origin of 'live', 'neutral' and 'earth' conductors in a domestic

premises
The figure grossly oversimplifies the real situation, of course; we don't each have an electrical
power station in the garden, delivering electricity at 230 volts. In reality the supplier's
distribution system will be a complex mixture of cables, transformers and switchgear, but this
need not concern us. In practice, we can assume that the electricity supply takes the form shown
in figure 6.

Note that the supplier's equipment is connected to earth at one side, and this is what
distinguishes 'live' from 'neutral'. The 'neutral' side is connected to earth at the supplier's side.
Your premises will also have a separate earth connection, either brought in by the electricity
supplier's cable, or attached to a stake driven into the ground (which is the arrangement shown
in the figure above). The different methods of supplying an earth are sometimes important,
particularly when calculating whether we need more electrical shock protection than earthing
alone can provide.
From the main cable entering the premises, live, neutral and earth conductors will be
distributed to every electrical appliance using a variety of different cable types and sizes.
Fuses and over-current protection

We have seen that electrical current causes a heating effect, and if the current is large, or the
electrical resistance high, this effect can be enough to cause damage or a fire. Fire, as a result of
overheating, is one of the main risks from sloppy electrical work. However, the tendency of a
high current to cause a wire to melt and break is put to good use in the design of the fuse.
A fuse is a simple device that will limit the current flowing in an electrical circuit. In practice a
fuse normally consists of a piece of wire of exactly the right length and thickness to overheat and
break when the current gets to a particular level. If an excessive current occurs, we hope the
fuse will 'blow' rather than some other part of the circuit overheating. This is called over-current
protection.
For now, the important thing to remember is that the fuse must be able to withstand a higher
current than the appliances to which it is connected (otherwise it would blow unnecessarily),
but a lower current than the cables which connect them. This ensures that in the event of a
fault, the fuse will blow before the cable is damaged.
While fuses are still widely used, miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are now increasingly
replacing them.
On the whole it is moderate overheating that is the problem in electrical wiring, not huge
current overloads. If you get a short-circuit between live and neutral in a power outlet, for
example, the current that will flow will be immense. Without a fuse it could easily rise to
thousands of amps. Now, although this would be inconvenient, oddly enough it probably
wouldn't be all that dangerous, because the cable will simply melt right through in a fraction of a
second and break the circuit. There would be an enormous bang and a puff of smoke and that
would be the end of the problem. It will be the beginning of your hard work, of course, as you
struggle to find which floorboard the burned-out cable is under, but that's a different matter.
On the other hand, if you ask a cable that is rated for a maximum of 6 amps to carry a current
of 13 amps, and you have a 32-amp fuse or MCB, then you get no overcurrent protection at all.
The cable probably won't fail with a huge bang: it will gradually heat up to about 250 degrees
celcius, at which point the copper will melt. However, it may take tens of minutes to do so. In the
meantime, you've got something that is hot enough to combust wood clamped to your joists.
See the problem? Probably the most common cause of this problem apart from outright
stupid wiring or fuse selection is ring circuits breaking and thereby halving their current
capacities.
Electrical Symbols
Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols
Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current
Connected Wires Connected crossing
Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected
Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols
SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open
SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections
Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open
Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed
DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration
SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet
SPDT Relay
Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.
Solder Bridge Solder to close connection
Ground Symbols
Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock
Earth Ground
protection.
Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit
Digital / Common Ground
Resistor Symbols

Resistor(IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)
Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat(IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor / Rheostat
(IEC)
Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor
Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature

Thermistor
changes
Photoresistor / Light Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity

dependent resistor (LDR) change
Capacitor Symbols
Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as short
circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor
Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor
Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance
Inductor / Coil Symbols
Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field
Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor
Power Supply Symbols
Voltage Source Generates constant voltage
Current Source Generates constant current.
AC Voltage Source AC voltage source
Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of

Generator
the generator
Battery Cell Generates constant voltage
Battery Generates constant voltage
Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of

Controlled Voltage Source
other circuit element.
Generates current as a function of voltage or current of

Controlled Current Source
other circuit element.
Meter Symbols
Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected in
Voltmeter
parallel.
Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ammeter
Connected serially.
Ohmmeter Measures resistance
Wattmeter Measures electric power
Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols
Lamp / light bulb
Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through
Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols
Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left
Diode
(anode) to right (cathode).
Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in

Zener Diode
the reverse direction when above breakdown voltage
Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop
Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode
Tunnel Diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through
Photodiode Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light
Transistor Symbols
NPN Bipolar Transistor Allows current flow when high potential at base (middle)
PNP Bipolar Transistor Allows current flow when low potential at base (middle)
Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the

Darlington Transistor
product of each gain.
JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor
JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor
NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor
PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor
Misc. Symbols
Motor Electric motor
Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated
Buzzer Produce buzzing sound
Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse
Bus
Bus Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.
Bus
Optocoupler / Opto-isolator Optocoupler isolates connection to other board
Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound waves
Microphone Converts sound waves to electrical signal
Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal
Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.
Analog-to-digital converter
Converts analog signal to digital numbers
(ADC)
Digital-to-Analog converter
Converts digital numbers to analog signal
(DAC)
Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock signal
Antenna Symbols
Antenna / aerial Transmits & receives radio waves

Antenna / aerial
Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna
Logic Gates Symbols
NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0
AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.
NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)
OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.
NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)
XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)
D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data
Multiplexer / Mux2 to 1
Connects the output to selected input line.
Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1
Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4 Connects selected output to the input line.
Kind of Electrical Panel

1. Synchronizing Panel :
Synchronizing Panel works between two or more different power sources like DG sets to manage
power supply. Synchronization helps in making different DG sets behave as a virtual single unit
and eliminates subdivision of total load. It helps in transferring load from one unit to another as
during service period, so that the unit requiring service can be easily shut off. In this way the
critical load need not be interrupted and there is no production loss. During low load we can run
any single unit, and synchronize more units as the load increases. This can be manual or
automatic.

2.LT Panel and HT Panel :
LT Panel is an electrical distribution board that receives power from generator or transformer
and distributes the same to various electronic devices and distribution boards. Such panels are
used in industries both for internal and external use and, therefore, they are quite rugged to
withstand different climatic conditions. Our LT panels are designed to work with low electricity
consumption that makes them cost effective
HT Panel is like LT Panel except that it is used for high tension cables.
3. APFC (Automatic Power Factor Control) Panels :

These panels are used in commercial buildings and industries where there is fluctuation in
voltage and power supply. The electrical load required by a unit depends upon the type of
machineries, cooling plants and other devices installed. There is always a possibility of damage
of these equipments if power fluctuates. In case of fixed loads they can be safeguarded using
capacitors, but in case of varied loads, a mechanism to switch in and switch out the capacitors is
required which is basically handled using APFC panels.
4. PCC (Power Control Center) Panels :
Its basic function is to control power supply to various units and equipments as per their load
requirement so that they can work in harmony.
5. MCC (Motor Control Centre) Panel :

These are effectively used with motors or submersible pumps to provide sufficient protection
from overloads and short circuits. These are high on performance, require low maintenance and
can withstand extreme temperature variations.
6. Lighting Control Panels :
We can design and supply Distribution & Lighting Control Panels, which find application in plants
for distributing power in the lighting system, keeping in mind the specific requirements of the
clients.
7. VFD Control Panels : ( Variable Frequency Drive )
These are designed to control the speed of electric motor and feed pump. They are widely used
in drilling, pumping and other large machine applications. The VFD panels are widely used in
tube mills, paper mills, extruder plants, rolling Mills, cable industry and CTL Lines. They are even
installed in hospitals, business houses and other public places. VFD control panel are designed to
match variable speed requirements of a process unit and so are vigorously tested on various
speed parameters.
8. Feeder Pillar Panels :
The feeder pillar panels are used to terminate and distribute the control circuits. These are used
in almost all the industries, townships and housing societies to put all the cut-outs together.
Kind of Fire Alarm System

A Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP), or Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU), is the
controlling component of a Fire Alarm System. The panel receives information from
environmental sensors designed to detect changes associated with fire, monitors their
operational integrity and provides for automatic control of equipment, and transmission
of information necessary to prepare the facility for fire based on a predetermined
sequence. The panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any associated

sensor, control, transmitter, or relay. There are four basic types of panels: coded panels,
conventional panels, addressable panels, and multiplex systems.
Coded
A Simplex 4247 fire alarm control panel

Coded panels were the earliest type of central fire alarm control, and were made during
the 1800s to the 1970s. A coded panel is similar in many ways to a modern conventional
panel (described below), except each zone was connected to its own code wheel ( i.e.
An alarm in zone 1 would sound code 1-2-4 [through the bells or horns in the building],
while zone 2 would sound 1-2-5), which, depending on the way the panel was set up,
would either do sets of four rounds of code until the initiating pull station was reset
(similar to a coded pull station) or run continuously until the panel itself was reset. Large
panels could take up an entire wall in a mechanical room, with dozens of code wheels.
Lists of codes had to be maintained, sometimes with copies posted above pull stations
(this setup is commonly seen in older wings of hospitals). Smaller panels could be set up
in one of two ways. Most of the time, the panel would only have one zone, and therefore,
only one code. Common one-zone codes were 4-4-0 and 17-0-0 (which is similar to the
120 bpm March Time setting used on later panels, which has in turn been replaced with
an interrupted four count uniform temporal code 3 pattern used since 1996).
Alternatively, the panel could be made with no code wheels, using only what was called
the gong relay. Normally, this would be used in a system with coded pull stations to re-
transmit the coding strikes from the pulls. However, it could also be used as its own
zone, with the connected horns or bells sounding continuously instead of in a particular
code. These panels are not common today, but can sometimes be found in older
buildings such as those on college campuses or hospitals.
Today, there are two types of fire panels:
1. Conventional fire alarm panel;
2. Addressable fire alarm panel
Conventional

A Simplex 4002 conventional FACP
A Fire-Lite Sensiscan 1000 fire alarm control panel in a building
Conventional panels have been around ever since electronics became small enough to
make them viable. Conventional panels are used less frequently in large buildings than
in the past, but are not uncommon on smaller projects such as small schools, stores,
restaurants, and apartments.
A conventional Fire Alarm Control Panel employs one or more circuits, connected to
sensors (initiating devices) wired in parallel. These sensors are devised to dramatically
decrease the circuit resistance when the environmental influence on any sensor exceeds
a predetermined threshold. In a conventional fire alarm system, the information density
is limited to the number of such circuits used.
To facilitate location and control of fire within a building, the structure is subdivided into
definite areas or zones. Floors of a multistory building are one type of zone boundary.
An Initiating Device Circuit connected to multiple devices within the same "zone" of
protection, effectively provides 2 bits of information about the zone corollary to the state
of the circuit; normal, or off normal and alarm or quiescent. The state of each Initiating
Device Circuit within a zone displays at the Fire Alarm Control Panel using visible
indications called Annunciators.
These Annunciators may employ a graphical representation of the Zone boundaries on a
floor plan (Zone map) using textual descriptions, illuminated icons, illuminated sections,
or illuminated points on the map corresponding to Initiating Circuits connected to the Fire
Alarm Control Panel.
For this reason, slang often inaccurately refers to initiating circuits of a Fire Alarm
Control Panel as Zones.
Larger systems and increasing demand for finer diagnostic detail beyond broad area
location and control functions expanded the control by Zone strategy of conventional
systems by providing multiple initiating circuits within a common Zone, each exclusively
connected to a particular type of initiating device, or group of devices. This arrangement

forms a device type by Zone matrix whose information is particularly suited to the Tabular
Annunciator In multistorey buildings employing a Tabular Annunciator for Example; rows
of indicators define the floors horizontally in their stacked relationship and the type of
device installed on that floor displays as columns of indicators vertically aligned through
each floor. The intersection of the floor and device indicators provides the combined
information. The density of information however remains a function of the number of
circuits employed.
Even larger systems and demands for finer diagnostic and location detail led to the
introduction of addressable fire alarm systems with each addressable device providing
specific information about its state while sharing a common communication circuit.
Annunciation and location strategies for the most part remain relatively unchanged.
A wiring diagram for a simple fire alarm system consisting of two input loops (one closed,
one open)
Multiplex systems
Simplex 2120 (left) next to a Simplex 4100 classic

Multiplex systems, a sort of transition between conventional and modern addressable
systems, were often used in large buildings and complexes from the mid to late 1970s
into the late 1980s. Early on, these systems were programmed to function as large
conventional systems. Gradually, later installations began to feature components and
features of modern addressable systems. These systems were often capable of
controlling more than a building's fire alarm system (i.e. HVAC, security, electronic door
locks...) without any type of alarm or trouble condition present. While the main panel was
the brains of the system and could be used to access certain functions, fire alarm
controls were usually accessed through transponders. These were smaller conventional
panels programmed to 'communicate' the status of part of the system to the main panel
and also could be used to access basic fire alarm control functions.
Releasing panels
Releasing panels are capable of using solenoids to disperse fire-fighting chemical
agents such as halon or water from piping located throughout a building. A releasing
panel usually will have a manual abort switch to abort an accidental release which could
damage property or equipment. Releasing capability can be part of both addressable or
conventional panels.
Addressable
A Simplex 4100U InfoALARM addressable fire alarm control panel: note the voice-
evacuation microphone built into it.

An addressable Simplex 4010 fire alarm control panel tied into an older conventional
Simplex 4208 fire alarm panel; note the size difference.
Addressable panels are usually more advanced than their conventional counterparts,
with greater information capacity and control flexibility. Addressable fire alarm panels
were introduced by many manufacturers during the microcontroller boom in the mid
1980s.
Signaling Line Circuits

Addressable Fire Alarm Control Panel employ one or more Signaling Line Circuits -
usually referred to as loops or SLC loops - ranging between one and thirty. Depending
on the protocol used, a Signaling Line Circuit can monitor and control several hundred
devices. Some protocols permit any mix of detectors and input/output modules, while
other protocols have 50% of channel capacity restricted to detectors/sensors and 50%
restricted to input/output modules. Each SLC polls the devices connected, which can
number from a few devices to several hundred, depending on the manufacturer. Large
systems may have multiple Signaling Line Circuits.[1][2]
Each device on a SLC has its own address, and so the panel knows the state of each
individual device connected to it. Common addressable input (initiating) devices include
Smoke detectors
Heat Detectors (Rate of Rise and Fixed Temperature)
Manual call points or manual pull stations
Notification appliances
Responders
Fire sprinkler system inputs
Switches
o Flow control
o Pressure
o Isolate
o Standard switches
Addressable output devices are known as relays and include
(Warning System/Bell) Relays
Door Holder Relays
Auxiliary (Control Function) Relays

Relays are used to control a variety of functions such as
Switching fans on or off
Closing/opening doors
Activating fire suppression systems
Activating notification appliances
Shutting down industrial equipment
Recalling elevators to a safe exit floor
Activating another fire alarm panel or communicator
Mapping
Also known as "cause and effect" or "programming", mapping is the process of activating
outputs depending on which inputs have been activated. Traditionally, when an input
device is activated, a certain output device (or relay) is activated. As time has
progressed, more and more advanced techniques have become available, often with
large variations in style between different companies.
Zones
Zones are usually made by dividing a building, or area into different sections. Then
depending on the specific zone, a certain amount and type of device is added to the
zone to perform its given job.
Groups
Groups contain multiple output devices such as relays. This allows a single input, such
as a smoke detector or MCP, to have only one output programmed to a group, which
then maps to between two and many outputs or relays. This enables an installer to
simplify programming by having many inputs map to the same outputs, and be able to
change them all at once, and also allows mapping to more outputs than the
programming space for a single detector/input allows.
Boolean logic
This is the part of a fire panel that has the largest variation between different panels. It
allows a panel to be programmed to implement fairly complex inputs. For instance, a
panel could be programmed to notify the fire department only if more than one device
has activated. It can also be used for staged evacuation procedures in conjunction with
timers.
Networking
The principle of networking involves connecting several panels together to form a
system. Inputs on one panel may activate outputs on another, for example, or the
network may allow monitoring of many systems. Networking is often used in situations
where one panel is not large enough, or in multiple-building situations. Networking is
also an effective way to decouple systems to reduce the risk of a large portion of a
facility going offline at any time due to system failure or maintenance requirements. Sub-
Networks can be created using either hardware or software architectures. Networked
systems normally are more costly and involve additional training and system
configuration for successful implementation.
Although quasi-standards exist that allow panels from different manufacturers to be
networked with each other, they are not in favor with a lot of companies. One of the most
common protocols used is BACnet which is common for various type of industrial
networks. At least one system manufacturer, The Mircom Group of Companies provides a
networkable Fire Alarm Control Panel with a BACnet inteface allowing non-proprietary
interoperability of the Fire Alarm Control Panel FACP with other building systems. Typical
interconnected systems to the Fire Alarm Control Panel include HVAC, Building
Automation Controllers, Security/Access Control or Elevator Controllers. Interoperable

systems greatly reduce the long term maintenance cost of a system and can provide
greater emergency response than proprietary offerings.[3][citation needed
The Arcnet protocol has been used for years in industrial applications and it is also used
for networking Fire Alarm Control Panels.
More recently, some panels are being networked with standard Ethernet, but this is not
yet very common. Most organizations choose to create their own proprietary protocol,
which has the added benefit of allowing them to do anything they like, allowing the
technology to progress further. However, a bridging layer between the proprietary
network and BACnet is usually available.[citation needed
Networking may be used to allow a number of different panels to be monitored by one
graphical monitoring system.
Monitoring
In nearly every state in the USA, the International Building Code requires fire alarm and
sprinkler systems to be monitored by an approved supervising station.
A fire alarm system consists of a computer-based control connected to a central station.
The majority of fire alarm systems installed in the USA are monitored by a UL listed or
FM Global approved supervising station.
These systems will generally have a top level map of the entire site, with various building
levels displayed. The user (most likely a security guard) can progress through the
different stages. From top level site building plan floor plan zone plan, or
however else the building's security system is organised.
A lot of these systems have touch screens, but most users tend to prefer a mouse (and a
normal monitor), as it is quite easy for a touch screen to become misaligned and for
mistakes to be made. With the advent of the optical mouse, this is now a very viable
option.
System functions
A police officer resets the fire alarm control panel for Potomac Hall at James Madison
University
There are many functions on a fire alarm panel. Some of these are:
Class change
This button, or input terminals connected to an external timeswitch, will sound the
notification appliances briefly in a different cadence. It is used to signify class change /
lesson breaks in schools, and allows the fire alarm system to be used instead of a
separate class bell system. This ensures pupils are familiar with the sound of the alarm
and means the notification appliance circuits are tested several times a day.

System reset
This resets the panel after an alarm condition. All initiating devices are reset, and the
panel is cleared of any alarm conditions. If an initiating device is still in alarm after the
system is reset, such as a smoke detector continuing to sense smoke or a manual pull
station still in an activated position, another alarm will be initiated. A system reset is often
required to clear supervisory conditions. A system reset does not usually clear trouble
conditions. Most trouble conditions will clear automatically when conditions are returned
to normal.
On the UK and most US panels, a "Silence" or "Acknowledge" is usually required before
a "System Reset" can be performed.
Acknowledge
This function also abbreviated to "ACK", is used to acknowledge an abnormal situation
such as an alarm, trouble or supervisory.
Drill
Also known as "manual evacuation" or "evacuate". On panels that have this function, the
drill function activates the system's notification appliances, often for purposes of
conducting a fire drill. Using the drill function, an alarm is normally not transmitted to the
fire department or monitoring center. However, building personnel often notify these
agencies in advance in case an alarm is inadvertently transmitted.
Signal silence
Also known as "alarm silence" or "audible silence". Depending on the configuration of
the alarm system, this function will either silence the system's notification appliances
completely or will silence only the audible alarm, while strobe lights continue to flash.
Audible silence allows for easier communication amongst emergency responders while
responding to an alarm. This can also be used during construction as a means of a
preliminary test, before the final full test. This is very effective.
Lamp test
Also known as "flash test". This button is still used on many panels. This function is used
to check the condition of the LEDs themselves. A "Lamp Test" button is required by code
on multi-zone panels installed in Canada. Many panels do a lamp test when the system
is reset.
Walk Test
"Walk Test" is a method of testing many fire alarm devices that saves time and requires
fewer technicians at the location. Using "Walk Test", A Technician Can simply walk
around the building and initiate any device he/she would like. Doing so will send a signal
to the panel, which will pulse the NAC a certain amount of times to indicate the zone on
which the device is wired to. Silent Walktest will only flash the alarm light on the panel,
thus not disturbing what is happening in the building.
Panel alerting
Many panels today have the capability of alerting building personnel of a situation which
can arise into a potentially serious problem. Fire alarm panels indicate an abnormal
condition via a solid or flashing LED. Some panels also contain a small sounder, used in
conjunction with the visual alert. A number of indicators are shown below. Note that not
all fire alarm panels have all of these indicators.
Alarm
Also known as "Fire" or "General Alarm". This indicator is lit when an alarm condition
exists in the system, initiated by smoke detectors, heat detectors, sprinkler flow switches,
manual pull stations, manual call points, or otherwise. Along with the indicator on the panel,
notification appliances, such as horns and strobes, are also activated, signaling a need
to evacuate to building occupants. In an alarm condition, the fire alarm panel indicates

where the alarm originated. The alarm panel can be reset once the device which initiated
the alarm is reset, such as returning the handle of a manual pull station to its normal
position.
Audible silence
The Audible Silence indicator is used in conjunction with the "Alarm" indicator. It
indicates that the fire alarm panel is still in an alarm condition, but that notification
appliances have been silenced. While the alarm is silenced, other functions in an alarm
condition continue to operate, such as emergency service for elevators, stairway
pressurization, and ventilation functions. A new alarm initiation while the alarm is
silenced will take the panel out of Audible Silence and reactivate the notification
appliances.
Drill
Also known as "Manual Evacuation" or "Evacuate". On panels containing this function,
the "Drill" indicator shows that the alarm condition was activated from the fire alarm
panel, often in order to conduct a fire drill. When an alarm is initiated for a drill, the fire
department or monitoring company is usually not notified automatically.
Prealarm
This LED is often used in conjunction with a two-stage system, in which the panel
requires two devices to be activated (and/or a predetermined time limit to run out after
one device is activated) in order to go into full alarm.[4] This is mostly used in areas
where false alarms are a common problem, or in large applications (such as hospitals)
where evacuating the entire building would not be efficient. The prealarm LED is lit when
one device has tripped. The prealarm LED may also be used if an analog smoke
detector registers low levels of smoke in the detection chamber, but not enough to
trigger a full alarm.[5] Depending on the system's layout, the NAC's may or may not
activate for prealarm conditions. In a two-stage system, the NAC's are typically coded to
a special first-stage coding, or in some situations where a loud alarm signal could be
disruptive, chimes will activate. If there is a voice evacuation system, it will usually
instruct building occupants to await further instructions while the alarm is being
investigated.
Priority 2 alarm
Also known as "Security". This LED can only activate if there is a secondary device
hooked into the "Priority 2 Alarm" terminals. This secondary device could be a security
system, building management system, or another fire alarm control panel. Depending on
how the panel is programmed, the panel's alarms may or may not activate when a
condition like this is present.
Trouble
Also known as "Fault" or "Defect". When held steady or flashing, it means that a trouble
condition exists on the panel. Trouble conditions are often activated by a contaminated
smoke detector or an electrical problem within the system. Trouble conditions are also
activated by a zone being disabled (disconnected from the system), a circuit being
disabled, low power on the backup battery, the disabling of a notification appliance, the
ground faults, or short or open circuits. Usually the alarm panel's sounder will activate if
a trouble condition exists, though older systems would sometimes activate a bell or other
audible signal connected to the panel. In a trouble condition, the panel displays the zone
or devices causing the condition. Usually, the "Trouble" indicator goes out automatically
when the situation causing the trouble condition is rectified, however in some systems
(EST) the panel must be reset to clear the trouble alarm. Some panels have more
specific indicators such as 'Trouble-PSU' which shows when the panel itself is
compromised and 'Trouble-Bell' ('Sounder fault' on UK panels) which shows that the

sounders are not functioning correctly. On most panels, an acknowledge button is
pressed to turn off the panel's buzzer.
Supervisory
This signal indicates that a portion of the building's fire protection system has been
disabled (such as a fire sprinkler control valve being closed and, consequently, a
sprinkler tamper switch being activated), or, less frequently, that a lower priority initiating
device has been triggered (such as a duct smoke detector). Depending on the system's
design, the supervisory point may be latching, meaning the panel must be reset to clear
the supervisory condition, or non-latching, meaning the indicator automatically goes out
when the condition has cleared. However, some panels require a reset regardless of
whether the supervisory point is latching or non-latching.
AC power
Also known as "Normal". When this indicator is lit, power is being provided to the system
from the building's electrical system, and not from the backup battery. When an AC
power condition changes, the Trouble indicator comes on and the AC power indicator
goes off and the screen alerts building personnel of a power failure. If the AC power
indicator is lit without any other indicators also lit, then the system is in a normal
condition. If no LEDs are lit, there is no power source feeding the panel.
DC power
This is used to tell the operator that DC power (batteries) are being charged or used.
While using DC power, the system remains in a fault condition.
High rate
This LED is on when the battery charger is in the high rate charge state, in which the
charger voltage is boosted to charge batteries faster after being depleted.
FIRE DETECTOR
Heat Detectors
Unlike other types of alarm systems, heat detectors are not early warning devices.
These devices are typically found in spots with fixed temperature, including heater
closets, small rooms, and kitchen facilities. They should not be installed in areas with
fluctuating ambient temperature. This is because the alarm on heat detectors is set to go
off if there is a rise in the temperature.
Flame Detectors
Like their name suggests, these detectors are used to detect flames. When working
properly, they detect fire nearly at the point of ignition. They are very useful for buildings
involving with hazardous processes, as well as gas and oil refineries and manufacturing
industries.
There are three subcategories of flame detectors: optical, UV, and IR.

Optical detectors: The most commonly used, these feature optical sensors for
detecting flames.
UV detectors: These work very quickly. They can detect open flames, explosions,
and fires within four milliseconds, due to the UV radiation emitted at the instant of
ignition. However, to prevent accidental triggers, some UV detectors are
designed to integrate a three second time delay.
IR detectors:Infrared detectors monitor the head radiation that is generated by
open flames and fire. They have a response time of three to five seconds.
Accidental triggers can be caused by nearby hot surfaces and background
thermal radiation. False alarms can be decreased with the use of special
programming algorithms, which are designed to recognize the frequency of flame
flickering.
Smoke Detectors
Smoke alarms are designed to detect fires quickly. Like flame detectors, this fire
detection equipment is divided into three subcategories.
Photoelectric alarms:These operate with the use of a light source, photoelectric
sensor, and beam collimating system. When smoke begins to enter the optical
chamber, it crosses the light beam path. This results in light being scattered by
the particles in the smoke. The scattered light is then directed to the sensor, after
which the alarm is activated and sounded.
Ionization alarms:A small amount of radioactive material, which passes through
the ionization chamber, is contained inside of these alarms. There are two
electrodes inside the chamber, with empty space in between. The radiation
permits a small current between the two electrodes. If smoke enters the
chamber, it absorbs the alpha particles, which results in an interrupted current
and ionization reduction. When this occurs, the alarm is set off.
Combination alarms:These have the features of both ionization and photoelectric
alarm technologies. The photoelectric function responds to low energy
smoldering fires, and the ionization function responds to rapid, high-energy fires.
If youre unsure which type of fire detection equipment to get, have a professional come
in to assess your building to determine your requirements. Regardless of which
alarm/detection device selected, you should have them professionally installed, and
follow all instructions for testing and maintenance.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY COMPONENT

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As
the modern power system deals with huge currents, the special attention should be
given during designing of circuit breaker for safe interruption of arc produced during the
operation of circuit breaker. This was the basic definition of circuit breaker.
Introduction to Circuit Breaker
The modern power system deals with huge power network and huge numbers of
associated electrical equipments. During short circuit fault or any other types of electrical
fault these equipment as well as the power network suffer a high stress of fault current in
them which may damage the equipment and networks permanently. For saving these
equipment and the power networks the fault current should be cleared from the system

as quickly as possible. Again after the fault is cleared, the system must come to its
normal working condition as soon as possible for supplying reliable quality power to the
receiving ends. In addition to that for proper controlling of power system, different
switching operations are required to be performed.
So for timely disconnecting and reconnecting different parts of power system network for
protection and control, there must be some special type of switching devices which can
be operated safely under huge current carrying condition. During interruption of huge
current, there would be large arcing in between switching contacts, so care should be
taken to quench these arcs in circuit breaker in safe manner. The circuit breaker is the
special device which does all the required switching operations during current carrying
condition. This was the basic introduction to circuit breaker.
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal
"ON" condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each
other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an
arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker
which is released if switching signal is given to the breaker. The potential energy can be
stored in the circuit breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring, by
compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it
must be released during operation. Release of potential energy makes sliding of the
moving contact at extremely fast manner. All circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping
coils and close coil), whenever these coils are energized by switching pulse, and the
plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to the
operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the mechanically stored potential
energy in the breaker mechanism is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes
the moving contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached through a
gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism. After a cycle of operation of
circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential energy again
stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging motor
or air compressor or by any other means. Till now we have discussed about mechanical
working principle of circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit
breaker which also should be considered in this discussion of operation of circuit
breaker.
Let's have a discussion on electrical principle of circuit breaker. The circuit breaker
has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to this large power there is always
dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and fixed contact during operation of
circuit breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can be quenching
safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit breaker
increases rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The
dielectric strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in numbers of
ways, like by compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the
deionization process of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling increase
the resistance of arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses.
Hence a numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in operation of circuit
breaker.

Types of Circuit Breaker
According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker. According to
their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as- According to their arc
quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as-
1. Oil circuit breaker
2. Air circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.
According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-

1. Outdoor circuit breaker
2. Indoor breaker.
According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as-
1. Spring operated circuit breaker.
2. Pneumatic circuit breaker.
3. Hydrolic circuit breaker.
According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as-
1. High voltage circuit breaker.
2. Medium voltage circuit breaker.
3. Low voltage circuit breaker.
Electrical Grounding & Earthing

What is Grounding or Earthing?
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the

earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the
earth plate or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick
conductor wire (which has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing
or grounding.
To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as
metallic covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry
current to the earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a
power supply system to the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of
electrical energy.

Difference between Earthing, Grounding and Bonding.
Let me clear the confusion among earhing, grounding and bonding.
Earthing and Grounding is the same terms used for earthing. Grounding is the
commonly word used for earthing in the North American standards like IEEE, NEC,
ANSI and UL etc while, Earthing is used in European, Common wealth countries and
Britain standards like IS and IEC etc.
The word Bonding used for jointing two wires (as well as conductors, pipes or
appliances together. Bonding is known as connecting the metallic parts of different
machines which is not considered to be carrying electric current during normal operation
of the machines to bring them at the same level of electric potential.
Need of Earthing or Grounding. Why Earthing is Important?
The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire
due to earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential
of a current carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed
insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage
of electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations

or failure in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates
on it. If a person touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be
earthed so as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.
Below are the basic needs of Earthing.
To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and

appliances from leakage current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one
phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing

Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via
conductor to the buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.
Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system connected to the
earth through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple Earthed.
Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is
connected to the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or
resistance/Impedance, It is called solidly earthed.
Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for
electrical earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are
in different shapes like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or any
other conductor with low resistance.
Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between Earth
electrode and Electrical installation system and devices in called Earthing lead.
Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is connected among
different electrical devices and appliances like, distribution board, different plugs
and appliances etc. in other words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical
device or appliance is called earth continuity conductor. It may be in the shape of
metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or flexible wire.
Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch board and
distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to sub main circuits.
Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth
in (Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth
continuity conductor, earthing lead, earth electrode and earth.
POINTS TO BE EARTHED
Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical
Engineers) regulations,
Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently
and permanently earthed.
All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric supply
line or apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC cables,

iron clad switches, iron clad distribution fuse boards etc should be earthed
(connected to earth).
The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all
transformers used for controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and
yet distinct connections with the earth.
In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating
station.
Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by
connecting at least one strand to the earth wires.
Components of Earthing System
A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.
Earth Continuity Conductor

Earthing Lead
Earth Electrode
Components of Electrical Earthing System

Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire
That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of
electrical installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches,
distribution boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of
electrical machines such as, motors, generators, transformers and the metallic
framework where electrical devices and components are installed is known as earth wire
or earth continuity conductor as shown in the above fig.
The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules,
resistance between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end)
should not be increased than 1. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should be
less than 1.
Size of the Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire depends on the cable size used in
the wiring circuit.
Size of Earth Continuity Conductor
The cross sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less than
the half of the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring
installation.
Generally, the size of the bare copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG.
But keep in mind that, dont use less than 14SWG as earth wire. Copper strip is also can
be used as earth continuity conductor instead of bare copper wire but dont go for it until
manufacture recommend it.
Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint
The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or
earth plate is called earthing joint or Earthing lead. The point where earth continuity
conductor and earth electrode meet is known as connecting point as shown in the
above fig.
Earthing lead is the final part of the earthing system which is connected to the earth
electrode (which is underground) through earth connecting point.
There should be minimum joints in earthing lead as well as lower in size and straight in
the direction.
Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for
high installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the
copper wire.
A hard drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing
lead is used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.

To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead
to connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use
two earth electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be
considered that the two earth leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents
but both paths should work properly to carry the fault current because it is important for
better safety.
Size of the Earthing Lead
The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire
used in the installation.

The largest size for earthing lead is 3SWG and the minimum size should not be less
than 8SWG. If 37/.083 wire is used or the load current is 200A from the supply voltage,
then it is recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead. The earth
lead connection methods is shown in the above fig.
Note: We will post additional article about Earth Plate size with simple calculations
Stay tune.
Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate
A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last
part of the electrical earthing system. In simple words, the final underground metallic
(plate) part of the earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called earth
plate or earth electrode.
A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low
resistance and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).
Size of Earthing Electrode
Both copper and iron can be used as earthing electrode.
The size of earth electrode (In case of copper)
22 (two foot wide as well as in length) and 1/8 inch thickness.. I.e. 2 x 2 x 1/8.
(600x600x300 mm)

In case of Iron
2 x2 x = 600x600x6 mm
It is recommended to bury the earth electrode in the moisture earth. If it is not possible,
then put water in the GI (Galvanized Iron) pipe to make possible the moisture condition.
In the earthing system, put the earth electrode in vertical position (underground) as
shown in the above fig. Also, put a 1 foot (about 30cm) layer of powdered charcoal
and lime mixture around the earth plate (dont confuse with earth electrode and earth
plate as both are the same thing).
This action makes the possible increase in the size of the earth electrode which leads a
better continuity in the earth (earthing system) and also helps to maintain the moisture
condition around earth plate.
P.S: We will post Example calculation about Earth Electrode Sizing Stay tune.
Good to know:
Dont use coke (after burning coal in the furnace to emit all the gases and other
components, the remaining 88% carbon is called coke) or stone coal instead of charcoal
(wood coal) because it causes to corrosion in the earth plate.
Since, the water level is different in the different areas; therefore, the depth for earth
electrode installation is also different in various areas. But, the depth for earth electrode
installation should not be less than 10ft (3 meter) and should below 1 foot (304.8mm)
from the constant water level.
Motors, Generator, Transformers etc should be connected from to earth electrode two
different places.
Earth Plate or Earth Electrode Size for Small installation
In small installation, use metallic rod (diameter = 25mm (1inch) and length = 2m (6ft)
instead of earth plate for earthing system. The metallic pipe should be 2 meter below
from the surface of ground. To maintain the moister condition, put 25mm (1inch) coal
and lime mixture around the earth plate.
For effectiveness and convenience, you may use the copper rods 12.5mm (0.5 inch) to
25mm (1 inch) diameter and 4m (12ft) length. We will discuss the installation method of
rod earthing latter.
Methods of Earthing | Types of Earthing
Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in
house wiring or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are
discussed as follows:

1). Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm
x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be
less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth plate.

2). Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of
earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the
length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

3). Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or
16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth
resistance to a desired value.
Copper Rod Electrode Earthing System
4). Earthing through the Waterman
In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing
purpose. Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to
minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire
and make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect
tightly to the waterman pipe.

5). Strip or Wire Earthing:
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm
(1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper
with a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm 2 if
its a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say
less than 6.0mm2 if its a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in
the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less
than 15m.
General method of Earthing / Proper Grounding Installation (Step by Step)
The usual method of earthing of electric equipments, devices and appliances are as
follow:
1. First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.51.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the ground.
(Note that, depth and width depends on the nature and structure of the ground)
2. Bury an appropriate (usually 2 x 2 x 1/8 (600x600x300 mm) copper plate in that
pit in vertical position.
3. Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth plate.
4. Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and tight
them.
5. To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6. Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make sure the
pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the ground.
7. To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft (30cm) layer
of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime mixture around the earth
plate of around the earth plate.
8. Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of machines.
Each machine should be earthed from two different places. The minimum
distance between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
9. Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic parts of
all installation should be tightly connected to earth lead.
10. At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester. If
everything is going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The maximum
allowable resistance for earthing is 1. If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the
size (not length) of earth lead and earth continuity conductors. Keep the external
ends of the pipes open and put the water time to time to maintain the moisture
condition around the earth electrode which is important for the better earthing
system.
SI specification for Earthing
Various specifications in respect to earthing as recommended by Indian Standards are

given below. Here are few;
An earthing electrode should not be situated (installed) close to the building

whose installation system is being earthed at least more than 1.5m away.

The earth resistance should be low enough to cause the flow of current sufficient
to operate the protective relays or blow fuses. Its value is not constant as it
varies with weather because it depends on moisture (but should not be less than
1 Ohm).
The earth wire and earth electrode will be the same material.
The earthing electrode should always be placed in a vertical position inside the
earth or pit so that it may be in contact with all the different earth layers.
Dangers Of Not Earthing A Supply System
As emphasized on earlier, earthing is provided in order
To avoid electric shock

To avoid risk of fire as a result of earth leakage current through unwanted path
and
To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to
general mass of earth than its designed insulation.
However, if excessive current is not earthed, appliances will be damaged without the
help of fuse in place. You should note that excessive current are earthed at their
generating stations which is why earth wires carries very little or no current at all. It
therefore implies that it is not necessary to earth any of the wires (live, earth and neutral
wires) contained in a PVC. Earthing the live wire is catastrophic.
I have seen a person killed simply because a live wire got cut from overhead pole and
fell to the ground while the ground was wet. Excessive current is earthed at generating
stations and if at all the earthing is not efficient due to fault, earth fault interrupters will be
there to help. Fuse help only when the power transmitted is above the rating of our
appliances, it blocks the current from reaching our appliances by blowing off and
protecting our appliances in the process.
In our electrical appliances, if excessive currents are not earthed, we would experience
severe shock. Earthing takes place in electrical appliances only when there is a problem
and it is to save us from danger. If in an electronic installation, a metallic part of an
electrical appliance comes in direct contact with a live wire that results from maybe
failure of installation or otherwise, the metal will be charged and static charge will
accumulate on it.
If you happen to touch the metallic part at that moment you will be zapped. But if the
metallic part of the appliance is earthed, the charge will be transferred to earth instead of
accumulating on the metallic part of the appliance. Current dont flow through earth wires
in electrical appliances, it does so only when there is problem and only to direct the
unwanted current to earth in order to protect us from severe shock.
In addition, if a live wire touches accidentally (in a faulty system) to the metallic part of a
machine. Now, if a man touches that metallic part of the machine, then the current will
flow through their body to the ground, hence, he will get shocked (electrocuted) which
may lead to serious injuries even to death. Thats why earthing is so important.

Lightning Protection Systems
A Lighting Protection System (LPS) is the system that provides a means
by which a lightning discharge may enter or leave earth without passing
through and damaging personnel, electrical equipment, and non-
conducting structures such as buildings.
Example of A Lighting Protection System (LPS)
So, A Lightning Protection System does not prevent lightning from

striking; it provides a means for controlling it and prevents damage by
providing a low resistance path for the discharge of the lightning energy.
A reliable Lightning Protection System LPS must encompass both

structural lighting protection and transient overvoltage (electronic
systems) protection. Simply stated, a structural lightning protection
system cannot and will not protect the electronic systems within a

building from transient overvoltage damage.
Why Using the Lightning Protection Systems LPS?
Lightning protection is essential for the protection of humans, structures,

contents within structures, Transmission lines, and electrical equipment by
controlling a variety of risks resulting from thermal, mechanical, and
electrical hazards of the lightning flash current. These risks can be
categorized as follows:
1. Risk to persons (and animals),

2. Risk to structures & internal equipment.
1- Risk to persons (and animals) include:
Direct flash,
Step potential,
Touch potential,
Side flash,
Secondary effects, such as:
1. asphyxiation from smoke or injury due to fire,

2. structural dangers such as falling masonry from point of strike,
3. unsafe conditions such as water ingress from roof penetrations causing
electrical or other hazards, failure or malfunction of processes,
equipment and safety systems.
2- Risk to structures & internal equipment include:

Fire and/or explosion triggered by heat of lightning flash, its
attachment point or electrical arcing of lightning current within
structures,
Fire and/or explosion triggered by ohmic heating of conductors or
arcing due to melted conductors,
Punctures of structure roofing due to plasma heat at lightning point of
strike,
Failure of internal electrical and electronic systems,
Mechanical damage including dislodged materials at point of strike.

Popular Risks Definitions
1- Side flash:
All down-conductors have a resistance and, more importantly, inductance.

During the lightning flash the rapid rate of current rise can cause the inductive
voltage rise of the conductor to reach a magnitude where sufficient voltage
exists for the conductor to flashover to a nearby conductive and earthed
object.
Side flashing can be controlled by:
Using a number of parallel down-conductors to reduce the current in

each
Ensuring the separation distance between the two objects is sufficient
not to break down the intervening medium; or
Bonding to the object to eliminate the potential difference (the object
may carry a partial lightning current)
2- Step potential:
When lightning current is injected into the earth, a large voltage
gradient builds up around the earth electrode with respect to a more
distant point.

Touch and Step Potentials
This voltage differential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1

m with the feet without contacting any other grounded object is called
the step potential.
At the time of discharge being close to the earth electrode means the
voltage differential across this distance can be large enough to be lethal
depending upon circumstances such as condition of footwear, etc,
substantial current can flow through one lower leg to the other.

The hazard is considered to be reduced to tolerable level if:
The probability of persons approaching, or duration of presence within 3

m of the down-conductor is very low limiting access to the area can be
a solution,
Step potential is reduced by use of 5 k ohm.m insulating barrier such as
50 mm of asphalt or 150 mm of gravel within 3 m of the electrode,
An equipotential earthing system such as mesh system is correctly used.
3- Touch potential:
Touch potential is due to a similar reason as step potential, but the

voltage differential being considered is that which exists between the
hand and (generally) feet.
The risk of electrocution due to touch potential is greater than for step
potential, as the passage of current flows close to the heart region.
The hazard is considered to be reduced to tolerable level if:
The probability of persons approaching, or duration of presence is very

low limiting access to the area can be a solution,
Natural down-conductors are used where extensive metal framework or
steel work is interconnected,
A surface layer with 5 k ohm.m insulating barrier such as 50 mm of
asphalt or 150 mm of gravel is used,
The down-conductor is insulated with at least 100 kV 1.2/50 s impulse
insulation (3 mm PVC).
What is The Effective Lightning Protection System?

The effective lightning protection system which eliminates the above risks
must be designed to:
Intercept lightning flash (i.e. create a preferred point of strike),

Conduct the strike to ground safely through purpose designed down
conductors,
Dissipate the lightning energy into the ground with minimum rise in
ground potential,
Eliminate ground loops and hazardous potential differentials between
LPS, structure and internal elements/circuits by creating low
impedance, equipotential ground system,
Protect equipment from surges and transients on incoming power
lines to prevent equipment damage and costly operational downtime,
Protect equipment from surges and transients on incoming
telecommunications and signal lines to prevent equipment damage
and costly operational downtime,
Not cause thermal or mechanical damage to the structure,
Not cause sparking which may cause fire or explosion,
Limit step and touch voltages to control the risk of injury to
occupants.
Types of Lightning Protection Systems LPS
Types of Lightning Protection Systems LPS

Lightning protection systems for buildings and installations may be divided into
three principal types as follows:
1. LPS for Protection for buildings and installations against direct strike by
lightning,
2. LPS for Protection against overvoltage on incoming conductors and
conductor systems,
3. LPS for Protection against the electromagnetic pulse of the lightning.
First: LPS for Protection for buildings and installations against direct
strike by lightning

This type of LPS protects the building from damage by direct strike lightning
but doesnt prevent the lightning striking the building.
This type of LPS can be divided into:-
1. Conventional lightning protection system,

2. Non-Conventional lightning protection system.
1- Types of Conventional Lightning Protection System
The Conventional Lightning Protection System includes (2) different types as

follows:
Franklin Rod LPS,

Franklin/Faraday Cage LPS.
2- Types of Non-Conventional Lightning Protection System

follows:
1- Active Attraction LPS, which includes:
Notes onsingle
Improved different
mast Types
systemof(Blunt
Lightning
EndedProtection
Rods), Systems LPS
Early streamer Emission System.
Each systems design requires the following:
The air terminal or strike termination device must be positioned so

2- Activethat it is the highest pointLPS,
Prevention/Elimination on the structure.
which includes:
The lightning
Charge Transferprotection system must be solidly and permanently
System (CTS),
grounded. Poor or high resistance
Dissipation Array System (DAS). connections to ground are the
leading cause of lightning system failure for each one of these
systems.

None of these systems claims to protect against 100% of the
possibility of a lightning stroke arriving near protective area. A
compromise must be made between protection and economics.
1- Conventional Lightning Protection System
Conventional Lightning Protection System
Properly designed conventional lightning protection systems for ground-

based structures serve to provide lightning attachment points and paths for
the lightning current to follow from the attachment points into the ground
without harm to the protected structure.

Conventional Lightning Protection System
Such systems are basically composed of three elements:
1. Air terminals at appropriate points on the structure to intercept the

lightning,
2. Down conductors to carry the lightning current from the air terminals
toward the ground, and
3. Grounding electrodes to pass the lightning current into the earth.
The three system components must be electrically well connected.
Notes:
Many national and international standards like NFPA 780 describe

conventional lightning protection systems and the efficacy of the
conventional approach has been well demonstrated in practice.
The conventional lightning protection technique has proven its

effectiveness as evidenced by the comparative statistics of lightning
damage to protected and unprotected structures.
Other names for Conventional Lightning Protection System:
1- Passive Neutral Systems:
The Conventional Lightning Protection System is labeled as Passive Neutral

Systems since the air terminal or strike termination devices themselves
arent considered to be any more attractive or unattractive to the lightning
stroke then the surrounding structure. They are positioned where they
should be the first conductor in any path that the lightning strike takes to
the structure.
2- Traditional Lightning protection systems:
The Conventional Lightning Protection System is labeled as Traditional

Lightning protection systems since these systems are the used ones in
industry over 200 years ago.
Types of Conventional Lightning Protection System

follows:
1. Franklin Rod LPS,

2. Franklin/Faraday Cage LPS.
1- Franklin Rod LPS

Other names for this type of Conventional Lightning Protection System are:
1. Sharp pointed rods,

2. Single mast system,
3. Franklin Cone / protective Angle cone.
Franklin Rod LPS
A pointed lightning rod or air terminal or a single mast will help prevent lightning
from striking in the immediate vicinity because it will help reduce the difference
in potential between earth and cloud by "bleeding off" charge and therefore
reducing the chance of a direct strike.
This lightning rod or air terminal or a single mast will provide a cone shaped zone
of protection with angle of 45 degree forming a circular base on the ground
around a building or part of a building.
Many decades of experience shows that by combining Franklin rods located at

critical points on a structure with a proper down conductor and grounding system

the damage due to lightning could be reduced significantly.
Note:
This system is generally limited to buildings less than 20 m high.
TRANSFORMER
Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical power from one
circuit to another circuit, without changing the frequency. Transformer can increase or decrease
the voltage with corresponding decrease or increase in current.
Working principle of transformer
The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon of mutual induction
between two windings linked by common magnetic flux. The figure at right shows the simplest
form of a transformer. Basically a transformer consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and
secondary winding. The coils are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other.
When, primary winding is connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux
is produced around the winding. The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with
the secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as
'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is called
as 'leakage flux'. As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing),
EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is
same as that of supplied emf. If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced
current flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to
another circuit (secondary).

Basic construction of transformer
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils
are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core. A transformer may also consist of a
container for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take our the
terminals, oil conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc. The
figure at left illustrates the basic construction of a transformer. In all types of transformers, core is
constructed by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-gap between
them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets
of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L. To
avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That is, if
joints of first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are kept at back
face.
Types of transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling etc.
(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two

types as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer, which are described below.
(i) Core type transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs as
shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated
from each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage
windings are placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

(ii) Shell type transformer
The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell
type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a
distributed form.
(B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at
secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at
secondary.
(C) On the basis of type of supply

1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use

1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than that
of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in
industries
o Current transformer (CT)
o Potential transformer (PT)
(E) On the basis of cooling employed

1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)
In a practical transformer -
(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as X 1 and X2 respectively.
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and R2
respectively. These resistances causes voltage drop as, I 1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1
and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core can not be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed.
Mutual flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.
We need to consider all the above things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.
Equivalent circuit of transformer

Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined
separately from the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the function of windings,
thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage.

The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X 0 (taking magnetizing components I) and
non induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which are connected into parallel
across the primary. The value of E 1 can be obtained by subtracting I 1Z1 from V1. The value of R0
and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / I.
But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplifies the calculations. To make calculations
simpler, it is preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to primary side or to the
secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is more
convenient.
From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,

E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K
Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.

Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary parameters
referred to the primary.

Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small that, V 1 and E1 can
be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of R0
and X0 would not affect significantly, if we move it to the input terminals as shown in the figure
below.
Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq

Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown in the figure below

Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole excitation branch (parallel
combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected. Then the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in
the figure below
Cooling Methode of Transformer
No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of
which get converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in
transformer may cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is obvious that transformer
needs a cooling system. Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry type transformers
and (ii) oil immersed transformers. Different cooling methods of transformers are -
For dry type transformers
1. Air Natural (AN)
2. Air Blast
For oil immersed tranformers
1. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
2. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
3. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
4. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
Cooling methods for Dry type Transformers
Air Natural or Self air cooled transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In this
method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.
Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this
method, air is forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply
must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method can
be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.

Cooling methods for Oil Immersed Transformers
Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the
core and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil
flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil
from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow
around the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to natural
convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be
used for transformers upto about 30 MVA.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface.
Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted
near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on
when temperature increases beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method is generally
used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the
heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of
fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately from the transformer tank and connected

through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of cooling is provided for higher
rating transformers at substations or power stations.
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from
the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a
pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow. The heated water is
taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large transformers
having rating of several hundreds MVA.


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ELECTRICIAN HANDBOOK

ELECRTICAL BASIC THEORY

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 1

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 2

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 3

The relationship between current, voltage and resistance

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 4

Figure 2: The 'water' model of current, voltage and resistance; see

Figure 3: The simplest possible, practical electrical circuit

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 5

Figure 4: Connection of electrical appliances in series

Figure 5: Connection of electrical appliances in parallel

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 6

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 7

Energy, and your electricity bill

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 8

Live, neutral and earth

Figure 6: The origin of 'live', 'neutral' and 'earth' conductors in a domestic

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 9

Fuses and over-current protection

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 10

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 11

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature

Photoresistor / Light Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 12

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of

Generates current as a function of voltage or current of

Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

LAMONGAN SHOREBASE / ELECT 13

Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in