Ch5 Soil Compaction

Chapter Five Soil Compaction / Dr.Rafi M.S.
Al-Neaimi
Chapter Five
SOIL COMPACTION
Many types of earth construction, such as dams, retaining walls, highways,
and airport, require man-placed soil, or fill. To compact a soil, that is, to
place it in a dense state.
The dense state is achieved through the reduction of the air voids in the
soil, with little or no reduction in the water content.
Compaction: Is a simple ground improvement technique where the soil is

densified through the removal of air voids in the soil under an external
compactive effort (mechanical energy).
Compactive
effort
+ water =
Compaction Objectives
The main objectives of compaction process are:
1. Decrease future settlements
2. Decrease permeability.
3. Control swelling and shrinkage.
4. Increase the unit weight of soil by reducing its void ratio.
5. Increase shear strength and bearing capacity of the soil.
6. Increase stability of slopes.
Compaction Modes
Densification of soil due to compaction can be accomplished by one
of the following:
Static weight (pressure)
Kneading (manipulation)
Impact (sharp blow)
Vibration (shaking) 2
1
Chapter Five Soil Compaction / Dr.Rafi M.S. Al-Neaimi
Compaction Curve
Each soil has its particular optimum moisture content (OMC)
at which a corresponding maximum density can be obtained for
a given amount of compactive input energy.
Soil grains densely packed
- good strength and stiffness
- low permeability
Dry density (d)
Water content %
3
Compaction Curve
What happens to the relative quantities of the three
phases with addition of water?
Air
Dry density (d)
Water
Soil
Difficult to expel all air
Lowest void ratio and

highest dry density at
optimum w
Water content % 4
2
Zero Air Void Curve, ZAV

Zero air void curve or saturation line
Corresponds to 100% saturation (S=100%).
Gs w
Dry density (d)
zav
1 G s
S<100%
S>100% (impossible)
All compaction points should lie

to the left of ZAV curve
Water content %
5
Zero Air Void Curve, ZAV

For a given and S, the dry unit weight is calculated as follows:
Gs w
d .... (1)
1 e
and Se = Gs Gs ... (2)

e
S
Thus, Gs w
d
1 Gs / S
For a given , the theoretical max. dry unit weight is obtained when
no air is in the void spaces- that is, when the S=100%. Hence dmax at
a given with Av = 0 can be obtained by:
Gs w
zav
1 G s where, zav = Zero air void unit weight
or Gs w
zav 1 A
1 Gs v
6
3
Common Compaction Curves

Encountered in Practice
For Sands and Sandy Gravels
The low density obtained at
low water content is due to
capillary forces resisting
arrangements of the sand
Bulking
grains.
Compaction Specifications
Typically specifications Must work in
give an acceptable range the box.
of water content, OMC
2% 123.5
The specification also sets

a minimum density, 95%
of max. dry density for a
specific test.
4
5
Comparison of Standard and Modified Proctor

Compaction Tests
Specifications (ASTM D-698, AASHTO)
Standard Proctor Modified Proctor

Compaction Test Compaction Test
Description Method A Method B Method A Method B
Mold:
Volume (ft3) 1/30 1/13.33 1/30 1/13.33
Height (in.) 4.584 4.584 4.584 4.584
Diameter (in.) 4 6 4 6
Weight of hammer (Ib) 5.5 5.5 10 10
Height of drop of hammer (in.) 12 12 18 18
Number of layers 3 3 5 5
Number of blows per layer 25 56 25 56
Test on soil fraction passing sieve No.4 No.4 No.4 No.4
Energy, Ib-ft/ft3 12375 56250
Description Method A Method B Method A Method B

Mold:
Volume (cm3) 944 2124 944 2124
Height (cm) 11.643 11.643 11.643 11.643
Diameter (cm) 10.160 15.24 10.160 15.24
Weight of hammer (N) 24.5 24.5 44.5 44.5
Height of drop of hammer (cm) 30.48 30.48 45.72 45.72
Number of layers 3 3 5 5
Number of blows per layer 25 56 25 56
Test on soil fraction passing sieve No.4 No.4 No.4 No.4
Energy, kN-m/m3 593 2694
12
6
Test Equipments
Standard Proctor test equipment
13
Test Equipments
14
7
Test Equipments
15
Procedures and Results

Procedures
1. Several samples of the same soil, but at different water contents,
are compacted according to the compaction test specifications.
The first four The successive

blows blows
2. The total or wet density and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.
Mt
m , d m Derive d from the known
Vt 1 w m and w
3. Plot the dry densities d versus water contents w for each

compacted sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.
16
8
Procedures and Results (Cont.)
The peak point of the compaction curve

The peak point of the compaction curve is the point with the maximum dry
density d max and optimum moisture content, OMC. Note that the maximum
dry density is only a maximum for a specific compactive effort and method of
compaction. This does not necessarily reflect the maximum dry density that
can be obtained in the field.
Zero air voids curve

The curve represents the fully saturated condition (S = 100 %). (It can not be
reached by compaction).
Line of optimums
A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at
different compactive efforts for the same soil will be almost parallel to a 100
% S curve, it is called the line of optimums
18
9
10
Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

1. Structure of Compacted Clays
o For a given compactive effort
more dispersed fabric

and dry density, the soil fabric
tends to be more flocculated
(random) when compacted on
the dry side as compared on
the wet side.
o For a given molding water

content, increasing the more dispersed fabric
compactive effort tends to
disperse (parallel, oriented) the
soil, especially on the dry side.
o Higher water content or higher Effect of compaction on soil structure

compactive effort gives more (from Lambe and Whitman, 1979).
dispersed fabric.
21

2. Engineering Properties - Permeability
o Increasing the water content

results in a decrease in
permeability on the dry side of
the optimum moisture content
and a slight increase in
permeability on the wet side of
optimum.
o Increasing the compactive
effort reduces the permeability
since it both increases the dry
density, thereby reducing the
voids available for flow, and
increases the orientation of
particles.
from Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

22
11

3. Engineering Properties - Compressibility
o At low stresses the sample o At the high applied stresses
compacted on the wet side the sample compacted on the
is more compressible than dry side is more compressible
the one compacted on the than the sample compacted
dry side. on the wet side.
from Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 23

4. Engineering Properties - Swelling
Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those compacted dry of

optimum. They have a relatively greater deficiency of water and
therefore have a greater tendency to adsorb water and thus swell
more.
(wopt, d max)
Higher Higher
swelling shrinkage
potential d potential
w
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
24
12

5. Engineering Properties Strength (Cont.)
The CBR (California bearing ratio) is

the ratio between resistance
required to penetrate a 3-in2 piston
into the compacted specimen and
resistance required to penetrate the
same depth into a standard sample
of crushed stone.
A greater compactive effort
produces a greater CBR for the dry
of optimum. However, the CBR is
actually less for the wet of optimum
for the higher compaction energies.
26
13
Engineering Properties Summary
Engineering Property Dry Side Wet Side
More oriented
Structure More random
(parallel)
Permeability More permeable
More compressible in More compressible in

Compressibility
high pressure range low pressure range
Swell more
Swelling Shrink more
higher water deficiency
Strength higher
27
Factors Affecting Compaction

(1) Soil Type
(2) Natural moisture Content
(3) Thickness of lift
(4) Compactive effort (Intensity of pressure and the coverage area).
(5) Number of passes
1. Soil Types:
Fine Grained Organic Soils

Cohesionless No. 200 mesh sieve Will usually have to be
Soils Cohesive Soils removed before building.
This process is generally
referred to as Grubbing.
28
14

1. Soil Types: The soil type-that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the
soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount
and type of clay minerals present.
Compaction Curves for Spectrum of Soil Types 29

2. Natural Moisture Content:
The amount of water present in a soil mass affects the ease of compaction
operations and achievable soil density. Water lubricates the soil grains so that
they slide more easily over each other and can thus achieve a more densely
packed arrangement. Normally, it is good practice to adjust water content to
OMC + 2%. But this depends on wind, temperature, and soil type.
The most common methods

May have to of reducing soil moisture are
by using the scarifying teeth May have to
dry.
on a grader or by disking. add water. 30
15

3. Thickness of Lift:
Lift is a layer of soil placed on top of soil previously placed
in an embankment. The term can be used in reference to
material as spread or as compacted.
31

4. Compactive Effort:
As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry density of the
compacted soil is also increased and the optimum moisture content is
decreased to some extent.
Line of optimum
(d)
Dry density
Water content
Compaction curves for different efforts 32
16

5. No. of Passes:
Variation of dry unit weight with depth

and moisture content . 33
Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction
1. Characteristics of the compactor:

o Mass, size
o Operating frequency and frequency range
2. Characteristics of the soil:

o Initial density
o Grain size and shape
o Water content
3. Construction procedures:
o Number of passes of the roller
o Lift thickness
o Frequency of operation vibrator
o Towing speed
34
17

1. Roller Passes
When compacting past

five or so coverages,
there is not a great
increase in density
o 240 cm think layer of

northern Indiana dune
sand
o 5670 kg roller operating at
a frequency of 27.5 Hz.
from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
35

2. Lift Height

36
18

3. Ferquency
The frequency at which

a maximum density is
achieved is called the
optimum frequency.
37

4. Roller Travel Speed
For a given number of
passes, a higher density is
obtained if the vibrator is
towed more slowly.
38
19
Filed Compaction
The four most common types of rollers are:
1. Smooth-wheel roller
2. Vibratory roller
3. Pneumatic rubber tired roller
4. Sheepsfoot roller
39
Filed Compaction
1. Smooth Wheeled Rollers
Effective for crushed rocks, gravels, sands, and asphalt pavements.

Compacts effectively only to 20-30 cm; therefore, place the soil in shallow
layers (lifts).
100% coverage (under the wheels).
Contact pressure up to 380 kPa.
Compactive effort: static-weight. 40
20
Filed Compaction
2. Vibratory Rollers
Most effective for compacting cohesionless materials.
Smooth drums used to compact cohesionless subgrade, base courses,
wearing surfaces, and asphalt.
Used vibratory action in conjunction with ballast weight of the drum to
compact.
Because it compacts from the top down and it is a relatively light roller, only
relatively shallow lifts (10-20 cms) can be worked.
Single Smooth-drum Dual Smooth-drum Padded Drum 41
Filed Compaction
2. Vibratory Rollers
Vibratory Plates
o Used on granular soils and asphalt.
o Handheld ones for limited access
areas (confined zones).
Rammers
o Also known as a backfill tamper.
o Self-contained hand operated for
use in confined spaces.
42
21
Filed Compaction
3. Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
o Effective for all types of soils.
o 4 to 6 tires in a row.
o Contact pressure up to 700 kPa and 80% coverage.
o Compactive effort: static-weight and kneading.
o Heavy pneumatic rollers up to 200 tons gross vehicle
weight are capable of compacting soils to depths up to
18 inches.
All-wheel oscillation. Front and rear tire

paths overlap.
43
Filed Compaction
4. Sheepsfoot Rollers
Best suited for clayed soils.

Has may round or rectangular shaped feet attached to a steel drum.
Contact pressure is from 1400 to 7000 kPa.
Compactive effort: static-weight and kneading.
44
22
Filed Compaction
5. Trench Rollers
45
Filed Compaction
6. Tamping Foot compactor
Suitable for compacting all fined-grained soils (silts and clays).
Compacts the soil from the bottom of the lift to the top.
Lift thickness is generally limited to 20 cm compacted depth.
Does not adequately compact the upper 5 or 7.5 cms of a lift. Therefore, for
the last lift it should be followed with a pneumatic or smooth-drum roller.
Pad Configuration
Working in Tandem
Tamping foot Pad foot
46
23
Filed Compaction
7. Other Compaction Rollers
Grid roller
o Suited for compacting
Wheel Attachment
rocky soils, gravels,
Compactors
and sands.
o Compactive effort:
static weight and
vibration.
Impact roller
Provides deeper
(2-3m)
compaction.
e.g., air field
47
Filed Compaction
Roller Capabilities
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 48
24
COMPACTOR SPEEDS
Speed (MPH)
Sheepsfoot, crawler towed 3-5

Tamping foot
First 3 passes 3-5
Walking out 8-10
Multi-tired pneumatic 5-15
Smooth-drum vibratory 2-4
Padded-drum vibratory 2-4
49
Field Compaction Control

Field control tests, measuring the dry density and water content
in the field can either be destructive or nondestructive.
1. Destructive Methods:
Core Cutter method
Sand Cone method
Rubber Balloon method
2. Nondestructive Methods:
Nuclear method ( using gamma radiation techniques)
One test per 1000 to 3000 m2, or when the borrow material changes
significantly.
Calculations:
Find Wt , Vt and w (water content)
Get m = Wt / Vt and d field = m /1+w
Compare d field with d max-lab and calculate relative compaction R.C.
50
25

Relative Compaction Relative Density Relationships
Relative density (Dr):
Relative compaction (RC):

d field
RC x100 Typical required between 90 - 95%
max.d lab.
Correlation between (RC) and (Dr):

RC 80 0.2Dr It is a statistical result based on 47
soil samples. As Dr = 0, RC = 80 % 51

1. Core Cutter Method
52
26

2. Sand Cone Method
ASTM D-1556
Glass (or plastic) jar with a metal cone.
Ottawa sand (known wt. & vol.).
Dig a hole weigh the soil and obtain w(%)
Fill the hole with sand
Determine the new wt. & vol. eventually,
d = (dry wt. of excavated soil)/vol. of hole
53

3. Rubber Balloon Method
o ASTM D-2167
o Similar to above
o Vol. is measured utilizing a rubber balloon filled with water
54
27
4. Nuclear Method (ASTM D2292-91)

Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly
accurate way of determining density and
moisture content. The meter uses a
radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the
soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe
placed into the soil (direct transmission). The
isotope source gives off photons (usually
Gamma rays) which radiate back to the
mater's detectors on the bottom of the
unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than
loose soil and the readings reflect overall
density.
Water content (ASTM D3017) can also be read,

all within a few minutes.
55

4. Nuclear Method (ASTM D2292-91)
(a) Direct transmission
(b) Backscatter (a)
(c) Air gap
Principles
Density
The Gamma radiation is scattered by the soil
particles and the amount of scatter is
proportional to the total density of the (b)
material. The Gamma radiation is typically
provided by the radium or a radioactive
isotope of cesium.
Detects how the gamma rays travel thru soil.
Amounts of gamma rays detected correlate (c)

with the unit weight of soil
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 56
28

Ch5 Soil Compaction

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Chapter Five Soil Compaction / Dr.Rafi M.S.

Compaction: Is a simple ground improvement technique where the soil is

Difficult to expel all air

Lowest void ratio and

Zero Air Void Curve, ZAV

All compaction points should lie

Zero Air Void Curve, ZAV

and Se = Gs Gs ... (2)

Common Compaction Curves

The specification also sets

Comparison of Standard and Modified Proctor

Standard Proctor Modified Proctor

Description Method A Method B Method A Method B

Procedures and Results

The first four The successive

3. Plot the dry densities d versus water contents w for each

Procedures and Results (Cont.)

The peak point of the compaction curve

Zero air voids curve

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

more dispersed fabric

o For a given molding water

o Higher water content or higher Effect of compaction on soil structure

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

o Increasing the water content

from Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

from Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 23

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those compacted dry of

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

The CBR (California bearing ratio) is

Properties of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils

Engineering Properties Summary

Engineering Property Dry Side Wet Side

Permeability More permeable

More compressible in More compressible in

Factors Affecting Compaction

Fine Grained Organic Soils

Factors Affecting Compaction

Compaction Curves for Spectrum of Soil Types 29

Factors Affecting Compaction

The most common methods

Factors Affecting Compaction

Factors Affecting Compaction

Compaction curves for different efforts 32

Factors Affecting Compaction

Variation of dry unit weight with depth

Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction

1. Characteristics of the compactor:

2. Characteristics of the soil:

Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction

When compacting past

o 240 cm think layer of

Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction

from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction

The frequency at which

from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Factors Affecting Vibratory Compaction

from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effective for crushed rocks, gravels, sands, and asphalt pavements.

Single Smooth-drum Dual Smooth-drum Padded Drum 41