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systems, it is important to note, however, that the As discussed, processing methods such as
energy supplied by the patient during inhalation milling may induce variation in surface morphol-
needs to be sufficient for liberation and aerosoli- ogy or result in increased amorphous content.
zation of the drug particulates. Surface morphology has been demonstrated to
Currently, lactose is the most popular material directly influence the contact area between drug
approved for use in inhalation as carrier. A particle and carrier, leading to variations in inter-
naturally occurring disaccharide sugar, lactose is particulate adhesion. Several studies have
found in milk, and is collected as a by-product reported that variations in contact area, as a
of whey produced during the manufacturing of result of differing surface structure, could poten-
cheese. Lactose monohydrates for use in the tially compromise the aerosolization performance
pharmaceutical industry, are produced through of the drug particles.1416 In addition, the intro-
precipitation from aqueous solution and is avail- duction of amorphous material during high energy
able in many particle size grades.1 Furthermore, to mechanical processes is associated with a higher
obtain inhalation grade lactose monohydrate, the surface adhesion energy compared to crystalline
crystals are processed through techniques such as surfaces.1719 As a consequence of raised adhesion
milling and sieving to produce the desired carrier energy, poor deaggregation of drug particles is
size characteristics.2 However, due to the indus- observed.20 No studies have yet been reported in
trial scale of such processes, inter-batch, and inter- relation to the direct impact of amorphous content
supplier variations in the physicochemical proper- on drug dispersion from carriers. However, the
ties of the carriers have been observed, leading to presence of amorphous material may cause pro-
variations in the aerosolization performance of the blems, for example, due to the fusion of particles,
final formulations.2 Such batch-to-batch variation resulting in poor dispersion.1921
is most likely due to differences in fine particle Milling is commonly used for processing of
content, particle size distribution, surface mor- powders in the pharmaceutical industry, and in
phology, and amorphous content. particular for inhalation drugs and carriers. When
Intrinsic carrier particle size has been believed carriers are milled, various changes to the physical
for many years to play an important role in the properties are induced. This is important since the
performance of DPI.36 Following a reduction in reliability of the DPI product mainly depends on
physical particle diameter, a decrease in mean batch-to-batch consistency of the lactose monohy-
mass aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) is observed. drate carrier. However, as mentioned previously,
In general, a decrease in MMAD has been asso- variations between batches do occur, and this
ciated with an increase in drug dispersion. How- study was initiated to investigate the effect of any
ever, a recent study by Islam et al.,7 suggested material changes induced by milling on DPI
that the volume median diameter of carriers had performance. Further, as part of an ongoing study,
no significant effect on drug dispersion when the influence of storage at high humidity prior to
studied without the influence of fines content. blending was also investigated. The influence of
Earlier studies did not specify the fine particle these processes on DPI aerosolization efficiency
content, thus with a reduction in particle size, the was investigated using nedocromil sodium tri-
increasing concentration of fines may have been hydrate as a model drug system, and was corre-
masking the effect carrier size has on aerosol lated with the physical properties of the carrier
performance. As fine particles are commonly particles.
introduced inadvertently during the comminution
process, the influence of fines (e.g. carrier particles
with a diameter <15 mm) on DPI performance
MATERIALS AND METHODS
has been studied extensively. Lucas et al.,8
Zeng et al.,6,9 Louey et al.,10,11 and Islam
Materials
et al.,7,12 have all demonstrated an improvement
in dispersion with the presence of fine particles. Micronized nedocromil sodium trihydrate (NST)
More recently, Steckel et al.,13 indicated similar was obtained from Sonafi-Aventis (Cheshire,
findings, suggested that variation in small quan- England). Crystalline a-lactose monohydrate
tities of fines (<5% below 15 mm diameter) in (Lactochem1 crystals) was obtained from Borculo
different sized sieved fractioned lactose formula- Domo (Zwolle, The Netherlands). Water was
tions significantly influenced drug aerosolization purified by reverse osmosis (MilliQ, Millipore,
performance. Molsheim, France). Analytical grade chloroform
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007 DOI 10.1002/jps
DRUG AEROSOLIZATION PERFORMANCE 1333
and n-octane were obtained from Biolab (Victoria, sample was mounted on a carbon sticky tab and
Australia) and Fluka (Germany), respectively. platinum coated (10 nm thickness; Edwards
E306A Sputter Coater, UK), prior to analysis.
Images were obtained at magnifications of 1000
Preparation of Lactose Monohydrate Samples
and 5000.
Mechanical treatment of lactose monohydrate
samples was achieved by comminution in a Amorphous Content Quantification of
small volume ball mill (approximately 1 L) Lactose Monohydrate
containing 60 ceramic balls (mean diameter of Organic Dynamic Vapor Sorption (Organic DVS)
19.3 0.7 mm). Samples of lactose monohydrate was used to quantitatively determine the amor-
(approximately 100 g) were weighed into the ball phous content in the milled lactose monohydrate
mill which was rotated at 42 rev min1 for samples using a method described elsewhere.22
durations of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min. Each In simple terms, the technique measures the
sample was then collected and stored in tightly adsorption of a dispersive molecule (n-octane) into
sealed containers over phosphorus pentoxide the surface of a sample as a function of partial
prior to sampling or blending. pressure. Since the relative adsorption of the
In addition, to crystallize any amorphous molecule into amorphous and onto crystalline
material, present in the milled samples, approxi- samples will vary, a calibration curve may be con-
mately 10 g of each milled lactose monohydrate structed by comparing the relative adsorption in
sample was transferred onto glass Petri-dishes blends of 100% crystalline and 100% amorphous
and stored (3 weeks) in tightly sealed containers samples. From this, the amorphous content of an
with a saturated solution of potassium chloride unknown sample may be determined. Measure-
(relative humidity, RH, of 85%). The samples were ments were conducted using a DVS-1 (Surface
regularly stirred to ensure moisture penetration Measurement Systems, Alperton, UK), at 258C,
into the powder bed. After 3 weeks, each sample using n-octane as the organic probe. Approxi-
was removed and transferred into containers with mately 100 mg of lactose monohydrate was
phosphorous pentoxide (0% RH) for a minimum of weighed into the sample pan and exposed to a
24 h before sampling or blending. two-step octane partial pressure (p/po) cycle of
090%. Equilibrium at each step was deter-
Physical Characterization mined by a dm/dt of 0.0002% min1. Each milled
sample (n 5), and the amorphous content calcu-
Particle Sizing of Processed Lactose lated from the calibration data reported else-
Monohydrate Samples and NST where.22 In addition, a sample of the 60 min
Particle sizing was performed by laser diffraction recrystallized sample was analysed to ensure full
(Malvern Mastersizer S, Malvern Instruments recrystallization.
Ltd., Malvern, UK) using a 300RF lens and auto-
Drug Content Determination
mated small volume dispersion sampling unit.
Approximately 200 mg of each lactose monohy- Quantification of NST content uniformity and
drate sample or NST was dispersed in about in vitro deposition was determined by UV spectro-
10 mL of chloroform, and added drop-wise into the photometry (U-2000 spectrophotometer, Hitachi,
sampling unit containing chloroform until an Japan) at a wavelength of 376.5 nm. Samples
obscuration between 10% and 30% was obtained. were prepared and diluted appropriately in water.
Size distributions were based on 2000 sweeps for The calibration plot for NST was linear over the
each sample, with refractive indices of 1.533, range 0.550.0 mg mL1 (R2 1.00). Lactose
1.358, and 1.444 for lactose monohydrate, NST monohydrate did not interfere with the analysis
and chloroform, respectively. Each sample was at the wavelength used.
analysed in triplicate.
Dispersion Studies
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Preparation of Blends
Visualization of lactose monohydrate surface
morphology and the uniformity in blends were The influence of carrier milling on the drug
investigated using scanning electron microscopy aerosolization efficiency was evaluated using 5%
(SEM) (XL30, Philips, Japan) at 10 keV. Each w/w blends of NST. Blends of 1 g were prepared
DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007
1334 YOUNG ET AL.
by geometric hand mixing 50.00 mg NST with particles with an MMAD < 6.8 mm) as a percentage
950.00 mg of lactose monohydrate sample in a of the total recovered dose. The total recovered
glass mortar using a spatula. Blend homogeneity dose (loaded dose) was calculated as the total
was performed by analysing 35.00 1.00 mg amount collected from the inhaler, throat, and all
samples of each blend (n 5, due to the relatively stages of the MSLI. Emitted dose was calculated as
small blend size) five times for each powder total recovered from all stages, postdevice.
mixture. In all cases, an acceptable degree of All samples were evaluated in triplicate and
homogeneity was achieved with the mean drug were randomized for formulation. Temperature
content across all blends being within 100.0 and humidity during the in vitro investigation was
3.0% of the theoretical value and each blend 258C and 45% RH, respectively.
exhibiting a coefficient of variance <5.0%. Ap-
proximately 35.00 1.00 mg samples of each
blend were manually filled into size 3 hard RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
gelatine capsules (Capsugel1, NSW, Australia)
and stored at 45% RH and 258C for 24 h prior to Particle Sizing of Processed Lactose Monohydrate
testing. Samples and NST
Particle size analysis of NST gave median
In Vitro Aerosolization Studies diameter of 1.10 mm with 90% particles less than
5.40 mm, suggesting the model drug was suitable
The influence of the carrier humidity conditioning
for inhalation and DPI studies.
on the aerosolization of NST from the freshly
The influence of milling time on the particle size
milled and milled-recrystallized lactose monohy-
distributions of both freshly milled and recrystal-
drate carrier was investigated using apparatus C,
lized lactose monohydrate samples was investi-
the MSLI (Copley Scientific, Nottingham, UK),
gated. As expected, the milling process resulted in
according to the method described in the British
a significant reduction (ANOVA, p < 0.05) in the
Pharmacopoeia 2005. Briefly, the apparatus con-
median particle diameter with respect to time
sisted of a USP throat, four stages, each stage
(Fig. 1). Such observations are in agreement
containing 20 mL of water, and a filter stage,
with previous investigations.2325 In general, a
which, at a flow rate of 60 L min1 produces
decrease in median diameter from 115 1 mm for
MMAD cut-off points of 13.0, 6.8, 3.1, and 1.7 mm
the untreated lactose monohydrate to 63 1 and
for stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The flow
65 1 mm for freshly milled and recrystallized
rate through the MSLI was controlled by a GAST
lactose monohydrate samples was observed,
rotary vein pump and solenoid valve timer
respectively. It interesting to note however, that
(Copley Scientific). Prior to testing, a 60 L min1
incremental increases in mill time resulted in an
flow rate through the MSLI was set using a
calibrated flow meter.
The aerosolization performance of each blend
was investigated using a CyclohalerTM DPI
(Novartis, Surrey, UK). Briefly, a capsule of the
formulation was placed into the sample compart-
ment of the CyclohalerTM, inserted into a specially
constructed MSLI mouthpiece adapter, primed
and tested at 60 L min1 for 4 s. A 3 s delay prior to
testing was instigated to allow the pump to settle.
Deposited drug fractions were collected from the
DPI and MSLI stages using water. In addition,
the extracted solution for the filter stage was
filtered through a 0.22 mm PVDF filter (Millex GV,
Millipore, Billerica, MA) to remove traces of the
glass filter. The amount of active contained in each
aliquot was determined by UV spectrophotometry
using the method described previously. The FPF Figure 1. Influence of mill time on the median
was defined as the total amount of NST particles particle diameter for freshly milled (*) and recrystal-
deposited in stages 3, 4 and filter (corresponding to lized milled (*) lactose monohydrate samples.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007 DOI 10.1002/jps
DRUG AEROSOLIZATION PERFORMANCE 1335
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1336 YOUNG ET AL.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007 DOI 10.1002/jps
DRUG AEROSOLIZATION PERFORMANCE 1337
amorphous content (Fig. 5) (R2 0.999), correlat- significant difference in either loaded or emitted
ing with the concurrent decrease in median dose across all mill times and for either freshly
diameter observed by size analysis. Again, such milled or recrystallized lactose monohydrate
observations may be expected, since amorphous samples (ANOVA, p > 0.05). Mean loaded doses
content was introduced into the sample by surface of 1614 79 and 1602 81 mg and emitted doses of
molecular modification during the milling pro- 1264 58 and 1274 41 mg were observed for
cess.17 As the degree of comminution decreases, it freshly milled and recrystallized samples, respec-
is logical to conclude that the introduction of tively. Since no difference in loaded or emitted
surface molecular damage would follow suit. In dose was observed between all samples, the
comparison, organic-DVS analysis of the 60 min influence of milling and recrystallization of
mill time recrystallized sample suggested a lactose monohydrate carriers on the aerosoliza-
completely crystalline material (0.0% amorphous tion performance could be confidently evaluated.
content). Since the milling process, would most The FPF (MMAD < 6.8 mm) of the loaded dose
likely induce amorphous domains on the surface was used as a measure of DPI performance. The
of the lactose, differences in interfacial forces influence of mill time on the FPF of both freshly
between NST and the freshly milled or recrystal- milled and recrystallized lactose monohydrate
lized system should exist. The freshly milled samples is shown in Figure 6. In general, the
sample, under the experimental conditions used comminution process had a significant in-
here, would be thermodynamically unstable and fluence on aerosolization performance of NST in
would have surface amorphous domains with a both freshly milled and recrystallized samples
degree of molecular mobility relative to the (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Furthermore, with the
environmental conditions (45% RH). Clearly, changes in the physical properties of the carrier
under such conditions, the force of interaction induced by ball milling, a linear relationship1
would be higher and result in a reduced FPF was observed between FPF and milling time for
when compared to the re-crystallized lactose both freshly milled and recrystallized samples
system. (R2 0.954 and 0.938 for freshly milled and
recrystallized samples, respectively). It is inter-
esting to note however, a deviation from linearity
In Vitro Aerosolization Performance
for FPF occurred for the freshly milled samples,
The aerosolization performance of NST from after 40 min mill time. In addition, analysis of FPF
blends of milled and recrystallized lactose mono-
hydrate was studied using a MSLI. Analysis of the 1
Linear analysis for freshly milled samples is only applied
deposition data suggested milling resulted in no between 0 and 40 min mill times.
DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007
1338 YOUNG ET AL.
between freshly milled and recrystallized samples efficiency and median particle size was not as
suggested after 10 min mill time, significant evident.
differences in FPF over the linear region between A review of the literature revealed conflicting
20, 30, and 40 min mill times was observed reports concerning the relationship between med-
(ANOVA, p < 0.05). ian particle size and FPF. As previously discussed,
Clearly, the process of milling induces signifi- many early studies have suggested that reducing
cant variation in aerosolization performance with the median particle diameter of carriers signifi-
an apparent linear relationship between mill time cantly improves FPF,4,5,31 however, it should be
and FPF over the range 040 and 060 min for remembered that with any energy induced particle
freshly milled and recrystallized lactose mono- size reduction processes, fine particles are intro-
hydrate samples, respectively. As previously dis- duced. Furthermore, no detailed information
cussed, such observations may be attributed to concerning the fines content was given in these
many physical characteristics including amor- studies. Interestingly, two recent study by Islam
phous content, variation in median diameter and et al.,7,12 and Steckel et al.,13 investigating the
an increase in fines. The relationships between influence of particle size on DPI performance,
such factors are discussed in more detail below. reported no significant relationship between FPF
and decreasing median particle diameter, which
correlates with the data presented here.
Influence of Median Particle Diameter on
In Vitro Performance
As discussed earlier, multiple changes in the Influence of Amorphous Content on
physical properties of the carrier system were In Vitro Performance
introduced into the system while milling. The
The presence of meta-stable, that is amorphous,
most obvious change was the significant reduction
material in the surface of DPI carriers may have
in median particle diameter. Since the median
implications for product performance. An appar-
particle diameter for both freshly milled and
ent relationship between amorphous content and
recrystallized samples was similar, analysis of
FPF for freshly milled samples was observed
the FPF, with respect to lactose monohydrate
(R2 0.921). However, since recrystallized sam-
median diameter, suggested a poor relationship
ples contained no detectable amorphous content
for both samples. In general, R2 values of 0.894
there would be no relationship between FPF and
and 0.823 were observed for freshly milled and
amorphous content (e.g. a plot of % amorphous
recrystallized samples, respectively (Fig. 7).
content against FPF in the recrystallized sam-
Thus, a relationship between NST aerosolization
ples, would result in all data sitting at 0%).
Furthermore, previous reports have suggested
increased amorphous content in DPI systems
resulted in decreased aerosolization perfor-
mance.17,19,21 Clearly such relationships need to
be studied further, in isolation of other physical
factors.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007 DOI 10.1002/jps
DRUG AEROSOLIZATION PERFORMANCE 1339
DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007
1340 YOUNG ET AL.
CONCLUSION
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007 DOI 10.1002/jps
DRUG AEROSOLIZATION PERFORMANCE 1341
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DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 96, NO. 5, MAY 2007