Metalurgi Fisik 1 /

Physical Metallurgy 1
ENMT 603006 / ENMT 613010

Wahyuaji NP Myrna AM Yudha P

Departemen Teknik Metalurgi dan Material FTUI

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Class info
Credits : 4
Semester : 3
Prerequisite : -
Grading Systems : Homework, In Class Assgn., Midtest
Textbook & References
Borchardt-Ott, W, Crystallography, Springer, 1995.
McKie, D and C. McKie, Essentials of Crystallography, Blackwell Scientific, 1986
Abbaschian, R and Reed-Hill, R.E, Physical Metallurgy Principles, 4th ed, Brooks
Cole, 2008.
Callister, W.D, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 7 th ed., Wiley.,
2006
Smallman, R.E and Bishop, R.L, Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering, 6th ed., Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Philips, R, Crystals, Defects and Microstructures, Modeling Across Scale,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001.
Mangonon, P. L, The Principles of Materials Selection for Engineering Design,
Prentice-Hall, 1998
Hull, D and Bacon, D,J, Introduction to Dislocations, 4th ed., Pergamon, 2001
Class Schedule
Date Subject Note
28/29 Aug 2017 SAP. Class Introduction & Rules. Review.
30/31 Aug 2017 Introduction to Crystal
04/05 Sep 2017 Miller Indices
06/07 Sep 2017 Miller Indices Exercise
11/12 Sep 2017 Stereographic Projections
13/14 Sep 2017 Stereographic Projections Exercise Home work
18/19 Sep 2017 Crystal Symmetry
20/21 Sep 2017 Crystal Symmetry Exercise
25/26 Sep 2017 Crystal Formation
27/28 Sep 2017 Crystal Identification
02/03 Oct 2017 In Class Assignment In Class Assignment
04/05 Oct 2017 Intro to Crystal Defects Point Defects
09/10 Oct 2017 Line Defects
11/12 Oct 2017 Planar Defects
16/17 Oct 2017 Review
18/19 Oct 2017 Mid Semester Test Mid Test
Class Rules
Attendance is important but not mandatory
No sleep in class
Candies and drinks are allowed
Late arrival is acceptable
Dont be noisy
Homework submission
Submit electronically
Minus 10 points per day for late submission
No plagiarism, no copy-paste
In Class Assignment, Mid test & Final test
No cheating, no cell-phone, no restroom-break
Late arrival is acceptable, however, no additional time
Your answer-book will not be returned
Any complaint, please come to my office directly
Materials and Packing
Crystalline materials...
atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers
crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Noncrystalline materials...
Si Oxygen
atoms have no periodic packing
occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Metallic Crystal Structures
How can we stack metal atoms to minimize empty
space?
2-dimensions

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

Metallic Crystal Structures
Tend to be densely packed.
Reasons for dense packing:
- Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
- Metallic bonding is not directional.
- Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
- Electron cloud shields cores from each other
Have the simplest crystal structures.

We will examine three such structures...

Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
Close-packed directions are cube edges.

Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

Click once on image to start animation

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a) 3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.24,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Click once on image to start animation Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
a
atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 p ( 3a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Click once on image to start animation
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8
Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a), atoms volume
Callister & 4
Rethwisch 8e.
unit cell 4 p ( 2a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
 Crystals as Building Blocks
Some engineering applications require single crystals:
-- diamond single -- turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 8.33(c), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 8.33(c)
(Courtesy Martin Deakins,
courtesy of Pratt and
GE Superabrasives,
Whitney).
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)

Properties of crystalline materials

often related to crystal structure.
-- Ex: Quartz fractures more easily
along some crystal planes than
others.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Polycrystals Anisotropic
Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

Adapted from Fig. K,

color inset pages of
Callister 5e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
1 mm

Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. Isotropic

Each "grain" is a single crystal.
If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
 Single vs Polycrystals
Single Crystals
-Properties vary with
direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.
E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Source of data is
R.W. Hertzberg,
Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials,
3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1989.)
E (edge) = 125 GPa
200 mm Adapted from Fig.
4.14(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now
the National Institute of
Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
Polymorphism
Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same
material (allotropy/polymorphism)
iron system
titanium
liquid
, -Ti
1538C
BCC -Fe
carbon
diamond, graphite 1394C
FCC -Fe
912C
BCC -Fe
Crystal Systems
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.

7 crystal systems

14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Fig. 3.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Point zCoordinates
111 Point coordinates for unit cell
c center are
a/2, b/2, c/2

000
y
a b
Point coordinates for unit cell
x corner are 111
z 2c

Translation: integer multiple of
lattice constants identical
b y position in another unit cell
b
Crystallographic Directions
z Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

x [uvw]

ex: 1, 0, => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]

-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a
negative index
families of directions <uvw>
Crystallographic Planes

Adapted from Fig. 3.10,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Crystallographic Planes
Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial
intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have same
Miller indices.

Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)
X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure
Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal planes.

reflections must
be in phase for
a detectable signal
extra l Adapted from Fig. 3.20,
q q
distance
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
travelled
by wave 2 spacing
d between
planes

Measurement of X-ray
nl
critical angle, qc, intensity d=
(from 2 sin qc
allows computation of
detector)
planar spacing, d.
q
qc
 X-Ray
z
Diffraction
z
Pattern z
c c c

y (110) y y
a b a b a b
Intensity (relative)

x x x (211)

(200)

Diffraction angle 2q

Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline -iron (BCC)

Adapted from Fig. 3.22, Callister 8e.
Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries
regions between crystals
transition from lattice of one
region to that of the other
slightly disordered
low density in grain
boundaries
high mobility
high diffusivity
high chemical reactivity

Adapted from Fig. 4.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Imperfections in Solids
Solidification- result of casting of molten material
2 steps
Nuclei form
Nuclei grow to form crystals grain structure
Start with a molten material all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid Adapted from Fig. 4.14(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Crystals grow until they meet each other

Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
Adapted from Fig. 5.17, T) near wall
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

Imperfections in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
What are these imperfections?
Why are they important?

Many of the important properties of materials are due to the

presence of imperfections.
Types of Imperfections
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms Point defects
Substitutional atoms

Dislocations Line defects

Grain Boundaries Area defects

Point Defects in Metals
Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes
Imperfections in Metals (i)
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR

Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
-- different composition
-- often different structure.
Line Defects
Dislocations:
are line defects,
slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

before deformation after tensile elongation

slip steps
Imperfections in Solids
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are misaligned
Edge dislocation:
extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
b perpendicular () to dislocation line
Screw dislocation:
spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
b parallel () to dislocation line

Burgers vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

Imperfections in Solids
Edge Dislocation

Fig. 4.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

 Imperfections in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b (b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Fig. 4.6, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Planar Defects in Solids
One case is a twin boundary (plane)
Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin plane.
Stacking faults
For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
Ex: ABCABABC

Adapted from Fig. 4.9,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
SUMMARY
Atoms may assemble into crystalline or
amorphous structures.
Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and
HCP. Coordination number and atomic packing factor
are the same for both FCC and HCP crystal structures.
We can predict the density of a material, provided we
know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal
geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC, HCP).
Crystallographic points, directions and planes are
specified in terms of indexing schemes.
Crystallographic directions and planes are related
to atomic linear densities and planar densities.
SUMMARY
Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline.
Material properties generally vary with single crystal
orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally
non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals
with randomly oriented grains.
Some materials can have more than one crystal
structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or
allotropy).
X-ray diffraction is used for crystal structure and
interplanar spacing determinations.
Summary
Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.

The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)