Semantic change:

I. Metaphor transference based on resemblance (similarity)( n d)

Transference of the word as a name from one object onto another on the basis of
similarity of certain features (signs) characteristic of both objects is called metaphor.
Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of resemblance:
1. similarity of shape. E.g. head of a cabbage, bottleneck, eye of a needle, teeth of a
saw, teeth of a comb; sl. nut, onion (for head), saucers (for eyes) (mt to v
trn), rails (for legs).
2. similarity of position. E.g. foot of a page, foot of a mountain, head of a procession.
3. similarity of function, behavior. E.g. bookworm, film star, whip (an official in the
British parliament whose duty is to monitor the presence of parliament members at the
voting).
4. similarity of colour. E.g. orange, hazel, chestnut, sl. carrot (for red-headed boy).
5. In some cases we have a complex similarity. E.g. the leg of a table has a similarity
to a human leg in its shape, position and function. Many metaphors are based on parts
of human body. E.g. arms and mouth of a river, head of an army, minute hand of a
watch.
6. A special type of metaphor is when proper names become common nouns.
E.g. vandals (destructive people), a Don Juan (a lover of many women), quisling (the
traitor)( k phn bi), a Scrooge(a mean, miserly person).
II. Metonymy transference based on contiguity( hon d)
Metonymical associations are based upon subtle psychological links between different
objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with difficulty. E.g. The kettle
is boiling means that the water in the kettle is boiling; The White House is in a panic
means that people in the White House are in a panic.
The nature of metonymical associations may be different:
1. the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a
glass (from glass), an iron (from iron), a nickel (a coin of 5 cent).
2. names of inventors and their work: browning (by the name of its inventor Robert
Browning); Ohm, Watt.
3. the names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they
are united in an orchestra: the violin( the person who play the violin), the saxophone,
the piano.
4. some geographical names became common nouns through
metonymy: Holland (vi lanh H Lan) (made in Holland), china( s, s)(made in
 China), Madeira( ru vang Madeira)( (was firstly made on Madeira), Bikkini( 2
mnh)( from Bikini island)
5. The name of a painter or writer is frequently transferred onto one of its pictures,
works: a Matisse = a painting by Matisse; I like to read Shakespeare (plays of
Shakespeare).
6. A word as a name of the whole can be transferred onto the part, or the name of the
part can be transferred onto the whole. Such transference is called synecdoche and is
related as subtype of metonymy.
E.g: the whole for the partVietnam win Thailand( the football player of Vietnam win
that of Thailand)
The part for the whole I want to have a word with you
Other types of semantic change:
1. Hyperbole /haprbli/ (ni qu): e.g: a thousand thanks, I hate troubling you,
Its monstrous, Havent seen you for ages, Id love to do it, etc.
2. Litotes / lait:ti:z/(ni gim ni trnh): e.g: stupid = not very clever, not bad
= good, not small = great, no coward = brave, I could do with a coup of tea =
give me a cup of tea.
3. Euphemism /jufmzm/ (ngn ng uyn chuyn): e.g: queer = mad
III. Synonymy:
e.g: hope-expectation-anticipation, small = little, big = large, father and mother =
parents, politician = stateman
Note: synonym may differ
. in emotional coloring: alone = lonely( sad)
. in valency: win = gain
. in style: begin(neutral) = commence( literacy)
IV. Antonymy:
1. Root
a. absolute antonym/ antonym proper:
e.g: big-small, good-bad, fast-low, young-old
b. complementary antonyms:
e.g: male-female, alive-dead, present-absent, awake-asleep
c. relational/converse antonyms:
e.g: buy-sell, push-pull, command-serve, give-take, teach-learn, master-servant,
teacher-pupil, doctor-patient, borrow-lend, husband-wife

2. Derivational antonyms:
e.g: happy-unhappy, entity-nonentity, visible-invisible
3. Contronyms: (phn ny khng thi)
 e.g: dust(n): bi dust(v): phi bi
VI. Homonymy: two or more words identitied in sounds or spelling but different in
meaning
e.g: liver: + a living person
+ a organ in humans body that bla bla ( l gan)
Classification of homonymy:
+ Homonymy proper( ng t + m)
+ Homophones( ng m)
+ Homographs( ng t)