Hydrology

Lecture4Porosity,PermeabilityandDarcysLaw

Readingassignment:Chapter4,pg.8093,paycloseattentionto8690.

Finally,webeginourstudyofgroundwater.First,weneedtoconsiderthevariablesthat
affectthestorageandmovementofwaterinaquifers.

Porosity

Groundwateroccursinthevoidspacesofearthmaterials:soils,unconsolidated
sediments,androck.

Evenrockthatwasformedasasolidmasswillfractureasitisbroughttowardsthe
surface.Thesefracturesprovidespaceforthestorageandmovementofgroundwater.

Porosityisdefinedasthepercentageofavolumeofrock(theallpurposeterm
hydrologistsuseforearthmaterials)thatisemptyspace.

Effectiveporosity:voidspacesthataretoosmalltoadmitwatermoleculesareoflittle
interesttohydrologists.Theamountofvoidspaceavailableforfluidflowistheeffective
porosity.

Evenlargevoidspacesthatareinterconnectedbysmallporethroatsareunavailablefor
fluidflow.

Fortunately,studieshaveshownthatevenfineclayshaveporethroatsthatarelargerthan
watermolecules,sothat,atleastinsediments,effectiveporosityisequaltototalporosity.

Totalporositycanbecomputedfrommeasurementsofdensity:

pbulkisthedensityofthebulkaquifermaterial

ppdisthedensityoftheparticlesthatmakeuptheaquifermaterial

Formostrockandsoil,theparticledensityisabout2.65g/cm3,roughlythedensityof
quartzandclayminerals.
Factorsaffectingporosity

Grainsize:Inandofitself,grainsizehasnoeffectonporosity.Wellroundedsediments
thatarepackedintothesamearrangementgenerallyhaveporositiesfrom26%to48%
dependingonthepacking.

AroomfullofbowlingballsandaroomfullofBBswouldhavethesameporositiesif
thesphereswerepackedthesameway.

Sorting:Wellsortedsedimentsgenerallyhavehigherporositiesthanpoorlysorted
sedimentsforthesimplereasonthatifasedimentisarangeofparticlesizesthenthe
smallerparticlesmayfillinthevoidsbetweenthelargerparticles.

Sortingismeasuredasaratioofthelargertosmallerparticlesizesinthesediment.This
measureiscalledauniformitycoefficient.

d60thegrainsizebelowwhich60%ofthesedimentisfiner

d10thegrainsizebelowwhich10%ofthesedimentisfiner

Grainshape:Irregularlyshapedparticlestendnottopackasneatlyasroundedparticles,
resultinginhigherproportionsofvoidspace.

Clayandorganiccontent:Organicparticlestendtobeirregularlyshapedandcan
increasevoidspace.Clayparticlestendtoelectrostaticallyrepelloneanotheralongthe
surfaceoftheparticles.Thisresultsinarelativelylargeproportionofvoidspace.

Primaryvssecondaryporosity

Primaryporosityistheporositythatexistsbetweenindividualgrainsintherock.

Secondaryporosityistheporositythatresultsfromfracturing,dissolution,andseparation
oftherockafteritsformation.

Specificyield

Knowingtheporosityofarockwillnottellyouhowmuchwatercanberemovedfrom
thatrock(sediment,soil,etc..).
Waterissticky.Watermoleculesarepolarmeaningthattheycarryanetpositiveand
negativechargeacrossthemoleculesotheyliketoattracteachother,andtheyliketo
attracttootherchargedmaterials,includingmostsurfaces.

Weseethestickynatureofwaterassurfacetensionandasthetendencyforwatertocoat
surfaceswithathinfilm.

Ifyousaturateavolumeofsedimentandthenallowthewatertodrainoutofthe
sedimentundergravity,allofthesedimentswillbecoatedwithathinfilmofpendular
water(waterlefthangingonthegrains).

Specificyieldisthusameasureofhowmuchwatercandrainawayfromtherockunder
gravityvshowmuchwatertherockactuallyholds(thetotalvoidspace).

Specificretention,contrariwise,istheamountofwaterthattherockretainsasasurface
filmonthesediments.

Thesumofspecificyieldandspecificretentionisthetotalporosity.

Whateffectsspecificyield?

Grainsurfaceareaasgrainsizedecreases,totalsurfaceareaincreases,leadingto
smallerspecificyieldsatsmallergrainsizes.

Thehighestspecificyieldscomefromcoarsesandsandfinegravels.Atlargergravel
sizesspecificyielddecreases(why???).

Thelowestspecificyieldscomefromclays,whichhavesmallparticlesandvoidspaces
withlargesurfaceareas.Clayscanhaveporositiesof50%combinedwithspecificyields
ofonly3%.

Permeability

Permeabilitydescribesofhoweasilywaterisabletomovethroughrock.Permeabilityis
relatedtotheconnectednessofthevoidspacesandtothegrainsizeoftherock.

Obviously,arockcouldbeextremelyporous,butifeachporewasisolatedfromthe
others,therockwouldbeimpermeableandthusmakealousyaquifer.Oftenvolcanic
rockswillhavemanyvessicles,butthevessicleswillbeisolated,renderingtherock
impermeable.

Grainsizeaffectspermeabilityinamannorsimilartothewaythatiteffectsspecific
yield.
Thethinfilmofwaterthatclingstothesurfaceofparticlesistenaceous.Ifvoidspaces
arelarge,thenadditionalwatercaneasilymovepastthewatercoatedparticle
surfaces.

However,ifvoidspacesaresmall,thenthesurfacefilmofwatercanactuallychokethe
movementofadditionalwaterthroughthesmallspaces.

Thisexplainswhyclaysaresoimpermeable,eventhoughtheirporositiescanbeashigh
as50%.Thevoidspacesinclayaresmallandcloggedwithpendularwater.

Sofromtheabovediscussion,wecanseewhysandsmakethebestaquifersandclays
maketheworst(claysarenotreferredtoasaquifersatall,rathertheyarecalled
aquicludes).

HydraulicConductivity

Hydraulicconductivityisameasureofhoweasilyaparticularfluidwillpassthrougha
particularearthmaterial.

ItiscalculatedusingaformulawidelyknownasDarcysLaw(theE=MC2of
hydrology).

DarcywasaFrenchengineerwhomadesomeexperimentsinthemidnineteethcentury
onhowfluidsmovethroughsediments.WhatDarcydidwastomeasuretherateofflow
ofwaterdrainingbygravitythroughpipesfilledwithdifferenttypesofmaterials.The
relationshipsthathediscoverednowbearhisname.

WhatdidDarcydiscover?

First,flowisdirectlyproportionaltotheareaofthepipe(nosurprisetherethebigger
thepipe,themorewaterwillflow).

Flowisalsoproportionaltothedifferenceinheightofthewaterfromwhenitbegins
flowingthroughthepipetowhenitcomesoutofthepipe.Wecalltheheightofwaterin
anaquifer(measuredfromsomedefineddatum)thehydraulichead.

Obviously,itisthedifferenceinhydraulicheadfromthestartofthepipetotheendof
thepipethatisgeneratingthepressurepushingthewaterthroughthepipe.Wecallthis
differenceinheight=pressurethehydraulicgradient.

Finally,flowisinverselyproportionaltothelengthofthepipe.Themoresedimentthat
thewaterhastoflowthrough,themoreitwillbeimpeded.

So,Darcymadehismeasurementsandwrotethefollowingformula:
ha?hbismoregenerallyexpressedasdh,andLcanbethoughtofasdLaswell.

dhisnegativebecausethechangeinelevationisfromhightolow.

WecanrearrangethisequationtosolveforK:

ThecoefficientKiscalledtheHydraulicConductivityandisparticulartospecific
combinationsoffluidandearthmaterial.ThegreaterthevalueofK,thehigherwillbe
therateofflowofafluidthroughamaterial.

Hydraulicconductivityissimilartopermeability.Thedifferenceisthatpermeabilityisa
propertythatisspecifictothesediment,whilehydraulicconductivitydescribesthe
behaviorofaspecificfluidandaspecificsediment.

TheunitsofhydraulicconductivitycanbeobtainedfromtheaboveequationL/T.
However,commonlyhydraulicconductivityisreportedascubicunitspertimeperarea.
OnecanseethatthisconversionisaccomplishedeasilybymultiplyingL/TXL2/L2.

Inlabtoday,wewillexperimentallydeterminethehydraulicconductivitiesofthree
differentsedimentsusingasimpleversionofDarcysoriginalexperiment.
Theapparatususedtomeasurehydraulicconductivityiscalledapermeameter.
Discussion

Predicting porosity and permeability in subsurface deposits is of prime importance to

Reservoir engineers. These variables are notoriously difficult to predict on account of the
large number of factors that influence the pore-size and shape distributions during and
after deposition.

Effects of Grain size and Grain Size Distribution on Porosity

Porosity is the measure of void volume to total volume, and is independent of grain size.
Porosity depends on:
1) Sorting of the grains or uniformity of grain size. ie. Are the grains all the same size
(well sorted), or are a variety of grain sizes present, with finer grains filling the
spaces between the larger grains (poorly sorted).
2) Shape of the grains.
3) Packing and arrangement of grains

When the variance of the rock size from the mean is large, so that there is very large
grains and very small grains, the porosity decreases. This is due to the small sized grains
filling in the spaces left between the larger ones, thereby cutting down on the available
void space. Well-sorted deposits will have a grain size distribution with the smallest
variation in sizes from the mean and will therefore achieve a higher porosity.

Effects of Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution on Permeability

Permeability is the ease with which fluid flows through a rock or sediment. A rock is
permeable if fluids pass through it and impermeable if fluid-flow through the rock is
negligible. Grain size distribution will affect the permeability of a sample because the
permeability is related to the amount of free space there is for fluids to flow. If the fluid
path is blocked due poorly sorted rock sizes, the effect will in turn cut down on the
amount of fluid that can flow through. This is accounted for mathematically by the
tortuosity constant.

Permeability depends on:

1) Grain size (coarser-grained sediments are more permeable than fine-grained
sediments because the pores between the grains are larger)
2) Sorting
3) Grain shape
4) Packing

Grain size distribution can be used to:

1) Determine filter pack.
2) Estimate hydraulic conductivity.
3) Oil reservoir characteristics.
4) Geo-technical analysis.
Permeability from grain size:
1) As meridian grain size increases, permeability increases due to the larger pore
openings.
2) Permeability decreases for more poorly sorted sediments (well graded).
3) Coarser samples show greater decreases in permeability with increases in standard
deviation of grain sizes than those of fine samples.

Permeability is favored by larger grain sizes because the holes in between the packed
grains are larger than with small ones. Larger spaces will allow for more flow. It can be
seen from Poiseuilles equation and Darcys equation that Q and K are proportional to the
pore throat radius r.

The relationship between porosity and permeability is expressed through the Carmen-
Kozeny relationship that states that permeability is related to porosity as well as the grain
specific area. For certain conditions of cementation and grain size, it is possible that the
porosity be high (as in shales) but this is countered by an increase in grain specific area
and these two effects counter each other. The net result could be a rock with high porosity
but medium to low permeability.

Effects of Fluid Distribution on Resistivity

Some substances, like metals and salt water, conduct electricity well. Others, such as
rubber, plastic, and glass, resist the flow of electricity. Often water has salts dissolved in
it and is a good conductor of electricity. Most rock has a high resistivity. Porous rock that
is soaked in salt water will allow electricity to pass fairly easily because the liquid in its
pores has a low resistivity. Hydrocarbons do not conduct electricity well. This is why
logging is of interest to Reservoir engineers.

Water has a lower resistivity than oil and therefore the water saturation of a rock will
have a large impact on the resistivity. Fluid distribution commonly varies, depending on
the capillarity of the rock and whether it is Water Wetting or Oil Wetting. In the case of
Oil Wetting rocks, water will be trapped in the larger pores and oil in the smaller pores.
Since the smaller pores determine the passage of current (path of least resistance),
resistivity will be high until the oil in the small pores is substituted by water. At that
condition, even though the water saturation shows only a small change, the corresponding
change in resistivity could be significant. The profile of resistivity versus water saturation
therefore shows a slight curvature.

In the case of Water Wetting rocks, however, the water resides in the smallest pores. In
this case as saturation increases, water starts to force the oil out of the big pores. The
saturation of water continually increases by significant amounts and this accompanied by
decreasing resistivity of the rock. In this case the profile of rock resistivity versus
saturation is more linear.
Darcys Experiment and Hydraulic Conductivity
Prof. Patrick M. Colgan This page was last updated on 10-17-99

Flow through a porous medium

The volume of water that can be drained from a porous rock is less than the pore
volume of the rock, and it may be considerably less in rocks with small pores.
In studying permeability (or the ability of a material to transmit a fluid) we find
that the character of the pore openings rather than their total volume exerts the
chief control on the rate of flow of water through a sediment or rock.
The driving force for all groundwater flow is gravity. The resisting force is
friction between water and the pore surfaces as well as friction within the fluid
itself (viscosity).
Quantitative studies of the flow of water through natural porous materials are
based on an empirical relationship known as Darcys Law.
Darcy's Law only holds for low velocities generally much less than 1 cm/s where
flow is laminar (see p. 143-144 for details).

Darcys Law
In 1856 Henri Darcy described an experiment of flow through a porous media in a
paper called, Water Supply of the City of Dijon, France.
The experiment measured the rate of water flow (Q = discharge = m3/s) through a
porous sand filter. Darcy related Q to cross-sectional area and hydraulic gradient.
The constant relating these variables is a material property that we now call
hydraulic conductivity. This material property varies enormously (over 14 orders
of magnitude) in different types of natural porous media.
The results of Darcy's experiment were:
1. Q is proportional to the cross sectional area of the filter(A).
2. Q is proportional to ha - hb.
3. Q is inversely proportional to L the length of the filter.
4. The constant of proportionality (K) for a given porous material can be
found by such an experiment.
5. K depends on grain size and pore shape. It is assumed that water is used in
this experiment.
This can be summarized into what is now known as Darcys Law:

Q=-KAI

where I = hydraulic gradient = (ha - hb) / L

or more generally as

Q = -K A dh/dl
 the negative sign indicates that flow is in the direction of decreasing hydraulic
head

Intrinsic Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity

hydrualic conductivity = K = -Q / (A dh/dl)

The units of K are L/T

Q is also inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and proportional to the
specific weight of the fluid. Q is also a function of grain shape and particle diameter.
Because of this a better description of an intrinsic property of the porous media is called
the intrinsic permeability.

intrinsic permeability - takes into account, specific weight (Ws) of fluid and viscosity (m)
of the fluid.

Q = C d2 Ws/ m (dh/dl)

where C is shape factor and d is particle diameter

intrinsic permeability = Ki = C d2

K = Ki ( Ws/m )

or K = Ki ( D x g/ m)

where D is density and g is acceleration of gravity

The dimensions for Ki are L2.

1 darcy is a unit of intrinsic permeability used by petroleum engineers.

lab standard for K is pure water at T = 15.5 degrees C

See table from Cherry for how units are related to each other.

Measurement of Hydraulic Head

The piezometer is a tube that measures the total hydraulic head at a point in an aquifer.

The gradient is equal to the change in head divided by the distance between the screens in
the piezometers.

Geometric mean vs arithmetic mean for conductivity values

The variation of K in natural materials is over 14 orders of magnitude. Because of this we
can't use an arithmetic average of K values like we do with other numbers. We must use a
geometric mean. an arithmetic average of numbers that vary by several orders of
magnitude will be influenced by the largest numbers. This is why it is better to use a
geometric mean.

Study the example problem on page 102 for calculating a geometric mean.

Permeameters
Permeameters are used for calculating the hydraulic conductivity of natural materials in
the lab. There are two major problems with using these numbers. One is that sands must
be recompacted to approximate their original packing, this is hard to do and will
significantly change the lab value from the field value. The other more basic problem is
that lab values of K are commonly one to three orders of magnitude lower than values
derived in the field by tests such as the slug test. This is because the size of the sample in
field tests is much larger and may incorporate secondary porosity such as fractures or
bedding planes and other high K layers.
constant head - this method is used for relativity for permeable sediments such as
sand and fine gravel. See pages 103-107 in the text for an explanation of this test.
falling head - this method is used for low permeability sediments such as silts and
clays. See pages 103-107 in the text for an explanation of this test.

Study the handout from the lab manual for an example of how the tests are run and how
K and Ki can be calculated.