Experiment No: 1

Aim:

To find focal length of a convex lens by using u-v method. Using a convex lens, optical bench and two pins,
obtain the positions of the images for various positions of the object; f<u<2f, u~2f, and u>2f. Draw the
following set of graphs using data from the experiments:

i) v against u. It will be a curve.

v
ii) Magnification ( m ) against v and to find focal length by intercept.
u
iii) y = (100/v) against x = (100/u) and find f by intercepts.

Apparatus:
a) a convex lens.
b) an optical bench with three uprights (two for optical pin and one for lens).
c) a half meter wooden scale.

Theory:

The position of the image formed by the convex lens depends upon the position of the object with respect to the
lens. The relation between u, v and f for a
convex lens is

1 1 1 uv
or, f
f v u uv

Where u is the object distance, v is image

distance and f is the focal length of the lens.

Procedure:
a) The rough focal length of the given convex lens is found by wall focusing method or distance object method.
b) The optical bench provided is labeled with the help of a spirit level.
c) The convex lens (held in its holder) on the center upright and two needles on the remaining two uprights are
mounted on the optical bench.
d) The position of the object needle is shifted to a distance greater than f or 2f from the lens. It is seen from the
other side of the lens along its principal axis from the end of the bench. If the setting is correct, an inverted
image of the object is seen. Now the position of the second needle (image pin) is adjusted that the parallax
between the image of the object needle and the image needle is removed.
e) The positions of the lens, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale are noted down and thus
the observed value of u and v are recorded up to one decimal place.

f) The above steps are repeated for five different positions of the object by placing it beyond 2f and between f and
2f.
v 100 100
g) Find magnification m in two decimal places also calculate x and y in one decimal place for
u u v
each set of reading.
1
 h) Plot a graph v vs u. it will be a rectangular hyperbola.

i) Plot another graph m vs v without shifting the origin.

m
j) Find the slop S of the straight line up to three significant figure and note the intercept (v0 ) from
v
the v-axis.
1
k) Find the focal length f up to one decimal place.
S
l) Interpret the intercept (v0 ) from v-axis.
uv
m) Also calculate the focal length using the lens formula f . Find the mean value of f in one decimal place.
uv
100 100
n) Plot another graph y vs. x without shifting the origin. Find the intercept on x-axis and y-axis p 0
v u
and q 0 respectively. Find the mean value of p 0 and q 0 hence find the focal length of the given convex lens by
200
using the formula: f in one decimal place.
( p0 q0 )

Observation:
...... ..... ....
Approximate focal length of the lens f cm. [Take 3 readings] in one decimal place.
3
Mean focal length f cm. [in one decimal place.]

Table: 1

No of Position Position of Position of Object Image Magnification 100 100

Obs. of the the lens the image distance(u) distance (v) v x y
m u v
object pin in cm. pin in cm. in cm u in cm-1 in cm-1
in cm. in cm.
1 0 25.0 25.0
2 0 30.0 30.0

3 0 35.0 35.0

4 0 40.0 40.0

5 0 45.0 45.0

2
 Calculation:

m
Slop from the m vs. v graph ( S ) ..........cm 1 (in three significant figures.)
v
1
Hence focal length ( f ) .........cm. (in one decimal place.)
S
Intercept on v-axis v0 .........cm. (in one decimal place.) [This intercept also give the focal length of the lens.]

100 100
From y vs x graph intercept p 0 = in cm-1 and q 0 = in cm-1 hence mean
v u
p0 q0
of p 0 and q 0 is = in cm-1.
2
200
Therefore the focal length of the given convex lens f =.. in cm. [in one decimal place.]
( p0 q0 )

Comparison of three results:

1 200
(f) .........cm. v0 .........cm. (From the interpretation) f =. In cm.
S ( p0 q0 )

Precautions:

a) The tips of the needles are set at the same height as the optical center of the lens.

b) Parallax is removed between the tips of the image pin and object pin in all cases.

c) The eye is placed at such a position that the distance between the image needle and the eye is more than 25 cm.

d) The image and object needles are not interchange for different sets of observation.

Note:
Hint for scale of the graph:
1. For u vs v graph take origin as O (20, 20) and 20 small division equal to 10 cm. along both the axis.
2. For m vs. v graph take the origin as O (0, 0) and along x-axis 10 small division equal to 4 cm. and along y-axis
10 small division equal to 0.2.
100 100
3. For y vs. x graph take the origin as O (0, 0) and along x and y-axis 10 small division equal to 0.5
v u
cm-1.

3
 Experiment No: 2

Aim: To find out the focal length of a given convex lens by displacement method.
Apparatus:
1. A convex lens 2. An optical bench with four uprights 3. A half meter scale 4. Screen
Theory:
If an object is placed between f and 2f of a convex lens beyond the principal focus, its real image is formed on the
other side of the lens. In this
situation, the position of the
object and its real image are
interchangeable and as such
are called conjugate positions.
If the object is placed on the
left of a convex lens between
the points F and 2F, its image
is formed beyond 2F as
depicted in figure.

On shifting the convex lens closer to the image pin, at a certain position L2, the image of the pin I will be formed
at position of pin O, the position O and I are thus conjugate positions.
Let the distance between the object pin O at A and the image pin I at A be denoted by D. the distance D has to
be greater than four times of f for formation of a real image, i.e. D 4 f .
Distance between the positions of the lens to form a real image at A and A is denoted by d. due to symmetrical
conjugate positions,
Dd Dd
v ,u
2 2
Substituting for v and u in lens formula, 1 1 1

We get , f v u

(D2 d 2 )
f
4D
For a pair of conjugate positions, knowing D and d, the focal length of the convex lens can be determined.

Procedure:
1. Determine the approximate focal length f of the given convex lens by projecting the image of a distant
object on a wall or a screen. Record the value of f in cm.
2. Now arrange the object pin O, the image pin I and the lens on the optical bench so that the tips of O
and I lie on the principal axis of the lens.
3. Adjust the distance D between O and I to be equal to (4f + 10) cm. ensure that this separation is
maintained throughout this particular setup.

4
 4. Move the convex lens towards the pin I and adjust its position until the diminished and inverted image
of O coincides with the image pin I. Record the position L2 of the lens.
5. Now move the lens towards the object pin O and adjust its position until the magnified and inverted
image of O coincides with I. Record the new position L1 of the lens.
6. The difference between the two positions L1 and L2 is the displacement of the lens. Calculate the value
of d.
7. Repeat the experiment to obtained 4 more sets of D and d where the range of D is between (4f + 10)
cm. and 100 cm.
8. Tabulate 5 sets of value of D, d, D2, d2 and D 2 d 2 . Compute D 2 d 2 up to four significant figures only.
y
9. Plot a graph D 2 d 2 vs. D. draw the line of best fit and determine its slope S . Calculate the focal
x
S
length f up to one decimal place, where f up to one decimal place.
4
Observations:

No. Position of Distance X=D Y=

Of in cm D d2
2

Obs. Object Lens when Image Lens when Between Displaceme

pin O closer to O pin I closer to I object and nts of the in cm2
image OI=D lens
(cm) L1 (cm.) L2
in cm L2~L1 =d in
(cm.) (cm.)
cm.

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

Calculations:
y
Slope of the graph, S =
x
S
Therefore, the focal length of the lens, f =.cm. in one decimal place.
4

5
 Precautions:

e) The tips of the needles are set at the same height as the optical center of the lens.

f) Parallax is removed between the tips of the image pin and object pin in all cases.

g) The eye is placed at such a position that the distance between the image needle and the eye is more
than 25 cm.

h) The image and object needles are not interchange for different sets of observation.

**************************************

Note:
Hint for scale of the graph:

For x(d ) vs. y( D 2 d 2 ) graph take origin as O (50, 2000). Along x -axis 50 small divisions are equal to 10 cm and
along y -axis 10 small division is equal to 100 cm2.

6
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

Aim:
To determine the focal length of a given convex lens with the help of an auxiliary convex lens.

Apparatus: 1.Optical bench with four upright 2. Two biconvex lenses A and B 3. A half meter scale.

Theory:
If two convex lenses are placed at d distance apart from each other, then the combination focal length of the system
is obtained by the help of the formula:
1 1 1 2d

F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
The position of the image formed by the convex lens depends upon the position of the object with respect to the
lens. The relation between u, v
and f for a convex lens is:
1 1 1 uv
or, f
f v u uv
Where u is the object distance, v is
image distance and f is the focal
length of the lens.

Procedure:
1. Lens B is arranged on an optical bench between object pin (O) and image pin (I).
2. Position of the image pin is adjusted until an inverted image of the object pin (O) is seen through the lens B.
3. Position of the image pin is adjusted until the parallax between the real image of the object pin (O) and image
pin is resolved completely.
uv'
4. The value of f 2 is calculated by using the formula f 2 .
u v'
5. Now the lenses A and B are arranged on optical bench co-axially at the same height in between the object pin
(O) and image pin (I).
6. The distance between the lenses A and B is adjusted to f 2 (focal length of lens B).
7. Position of the object pin (O) is as adjusted as an inverted real image is seen through the combination of lenses.
8. Position of the image pin is adjusted until the parallax between the object pin (O) and image pin (I) is resolved
completely.
9. The distances u OA and y BI are measured up to one decimal place.
10. Steps 7 to 9 are repeated for four more sets of u and y .
100
11. Five sets of u , y and x are recorded.
u
12. A graph y against x is plotted. Slope of the graph is calculated from two distinct points on the straight line
(at least one un-plotted point). The focal length of the given convex lens B is calculated by using the
formula: f 10 S .

7
 Observation:

Determination of approximate focal length of the convex lens B:

Table: 1

No of Object distance (u ) Image distance Focal length of lens B Mean focal

Obs. in cm. (v ) in cm. uv ' length of
f2
u v' lens B ( f 2 )
in cm
1. 18.0
2. 23.0
3. 28.0

Table: 2

No of Position of Position of Position of Position of Object Image 100

x in
obs. object pin lens A lens B image pin distance distance u
u OA cm 1
(O) in cm. in cm. In cm. (I) in cm. y BI
in cm.
in cm.

1. 35.0 50.0 15.0

2. 30.0 50.0 20.0

3. 25.0 50.0 25.0

4. 20.0 50.0 30.0

5. 15.0 50.0 35.0

Calculation of the slope from graph:

y
Slope S ..............cm 2
x

Focal Length of lens B f B 10 S in cm.

Result:
Focal length of the given convex lens = cm.

8
 EXPERIMENT: 4

Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave lens, using an auxiliary convex lens, not in
contact and plotting appropriate graph

Apparatus:

i. Optical bench with five uprights (two for lenses, two for optical pins and one for screen)
ii. A convex lens Marked A.
iii. A concave lens Marked B.
iv. A half meter scale.

Theory:

If a concave lens is placed between the convex lens and the image formal by it, the convergent
beam falls on the concave lens and is diverged a little and is focused at a little more distant point to
form a real image. The first image formed by the convex lens is acted as the object for the concave

lens. The lens formula is given by

1 1 1

f v u

Procedure:

1. A convex lens is arranged on an optical bench between object pin O and image pin I. The

position of the lens is adjusted and the focal length of the given convex lens is found out by

simple u-v method (only one reading is required). The reading is taken out and is recorded (up

to three significant digits only).

9
2. Now the distance between the object pin O and the convex lens A is so adjusted that the

distance is exactly 2 f a . This distance is kept constant throughout the experiment.

3. The concave lens B is adjusted between lens A and image pin I. The tips of the pins and the

optical centers are kept at a same horizontal line.

4. The position of the concave lens B is adjusted until a real inverted and sharp image is seen

through the combination of lenses. Then the position of the image pin I is adjusted till the

parallax between the object pin O and the image pin I is removed completely.

5. The positions of the object pin O, lens A, lens B, and the image pin I are noted down. The
values d=AB, and v=BI are found out, hence the value of x and y is also calculated (up to two
decimal places).
6. The experiment is repeated for four more sets of d and v by keeping the distance OA same
and varying d only.
100 100
7. The new variable x and y are define and calculated. The values of x and y are
(2 f a d ) v
tabulated.
8. Now a graph y against x is plotted from where the y-intercept ( y ' ) is calculated.
9. Hence the focal length of the given concave lens is found out by the help of the equation
100
fb . (In three significant figures.)
y'

Observation:

To find out the focal length of a given convex lens by uv method.

Table: 1

10
 Object distance Image distance Focal length

(u ) (v ) uv
fa
uv
in cm in cm

To find out the focal length of given concave lens.

Table: 2

Ob Position Position Position d= v = BI 2fa x

100
y
100
(2 f a d ) v
s of Lens of Lens of Image AB in in (cm)
in (cm)
No. (cm) in cm-1. in cm-1
(A) (B) pin

in (cm) in (cm) (I)

in (cm)

1. 50.0 60.0 10.0

2. 50.0 63.0 13.0

11
 3. 50.0 66.0 16.0

4. 50.0 69.0 19.0

5. 50.0 72.0 22.0

Calculation:

Y-intercept from graph y' .................cm 1

Result:
100
Hence focal length of the concave lens is f b = cm.
y'

Precaution:

1. The centers of all the lenses and the optical pins were kept in the same horizontal line.
2. Focal length of the convex lens should be smaller than that of concave lens.
3. Parallaxes were removed tip to tip.
4. Concave lens were placed closer to the convex lens.

EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM:

To determine focal length of concave mirror by using two pins (by u-v method).

APPARATUS:
i) an optical bench along with three uprights
ii) one mirror holder
iii) two needles, concave mirror
iv) a knitting needle and a meter scale.
THEORY:

The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a concave mirror is given
as
12
 1 1 1 uv
or f
f u v uv

In the case of concave mirror,

for real image both u and v
are negative as per new
Cartesian sign convention.
The focal length f is also
negative.

OBSERVATION:

Rough focal length of the concave mirror = .cm.

No of Position of Object Image Focal length

Observation Distance Distance (v) u.v
The mirror (P) in Object Image
(u) in cm. f in cm.
cm. needle (O) needle (I) uv
In cm.
in cm. in cm.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

RESULT: Mean focal length f = ..cm

EXPERIMENT : 6
AIM: To determine the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and a plane mirror.

APPARATUS:
1.Convex lens of unknown focal length
2.Clamp and stand arrangement.
3.Half meter scale
4.Optical pin

THEORY:

13
If a liquid of refractive index l is filled between a convex lens A and a plane mirror as shown in figure. A Plano convex
1 1 1 fF
lens is formed between A and B in this way focal length of the combined lens. or f l where F
F f fl f F
the focal length of the combined lens is, f l is the focal length of the liquid lens and f is the focal length of the convex
lens. Focal length comes negative as it is Plano concave lens.

By the lens makers formula:

1 1 1
( l 1) ; where l is refractive index of the liquid.
fl R1 R2

1 ( l 1)
Here, R1 R and R2 (plane surface)
fl R

R
Thus, l 1 [Note that R and f l are both negative]
fl

OBSERVATION:
A. Determination of focal length of the liquid lens:
TABLE: I
Focal length of the convex lens Focal length of the combination Focal length
lenses of the liquid
No of obs. lens
Reading Reading Focal Reading Reading Focal
1 1 1
from the from the length from the from the length
top top ab top top a ' b' fl F f
f F
2 2
surface of surface of surface of surface of

14
 the mirror the lens in cm. the mirror the lens in cm.
in cm. in cm.
In cm. In cm.

(a) (a )
(b) (b)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean focal length of the liquid lens ( f l ) = .. cm

B. To determine the radius of curvature of the convex lens:

TABLE: II

Reading of Reading on the plane Additional h m pitch n L.C Average

the circular glass plate no of in cm.
No of obs scale on circular h
the convex No of Circular scale in cm
surface(x) complete scale rotation
rotation reading
n=(x~y) or
(m)
(y) [100-(x~y)]

1.

2.

3.

CALCULATION:
l1 l 2 l3
Calculation of (l ) .............. cm
3
l2 h
Radius of curvature of the convex lens(R) = ................. cm
6h 2

Focal length of the liquid lens ( f l ) = ................ cm.

15
 R
Therefore refractive index of the liquid l 1 =......................
fl

RESULT:
Refractive index of the liquid =.............

EXPERIMENT: 8
Aim:
Using a meter bridge, determine the resistance of about 100 cm of (constantan) wire. Measure its length and radius
and hence, calculate the specific resistance of the material.

Apparatus:
i) A D.C source ii) plug key iii) Resistance box iv) Ammeter v) A 100cm wire fixed on a wooden scale vi) Voltmeter
vii) Jockey viii) micrometer screw gauge. ix) Specimen wire W

16
 Theory:
If the temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
If potential difference be V ad current flowing through the conductor is I then, V I ; V = I R; Where R is constant,
known as resistance of the conductor.

Procedure:
1. The circuit is made as shown in the figure below.
2. It is ensured that all the connection in the circuit is tight enough. Least count of the ammeter and the voltmeter
are noted down.
3. A resistance of 1 is applied in the resistance box. Ammeter reading ( I ), voltmeter reading ( V ) are noted
down in that condition.
4. The experiment is repeated to obtained four more values of I and V by changing the values of R = 2 , 3 , 4
, 5 respectively.
V
5. A graph V against I is drawn and the slope S is obtained from the graph.
I
[Origin of the graph must be changed to obtain a line of best fit covering 60% of the graph paper.]
6. The least count of the given screw gauge is measured. Using it, the diameters of the given specimen wire W is
calculated.
d 2
7. Hence the specific resistance of the wire is calculated using the formula S in cm. Where S is the
400
slope of the g V vs. I graph and d is the diameter of the wire.

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:

Least count of the ammeter: 0.02 A

Least count of the voltmeter: 0.05 V
Table: 1
No of Value of resistance in the Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (I)
Obs. resistance box in Volt in A
1 1
2 2

17
 3 3
4 4
5 5

Least count of the screw gauge: 0.001 cm

Table: 2
Main scale Circular scale Total reading ( d ' ) Zero error (e ) Corrected reading
reading reading
( msr csr l.c )
(d d ' e) in cm

Calculation:
V
Slope from the V vs. I graph ( S ) = (up to 3 significant figures)
I
d 2
Hence, specific resistance of the wire S = .. m
40000
Result:
Resistance of the 100 cm wire =
Specific resistance of the wire = . m

Precautions:
1) The connections were neat, clean, and tight. The end of the connecting wires were rubbed and cleaned with a
sand paper.
2) The apparatus was arranged according to the circuit diagram given and the connections were made accordingly.
3) Plugs in the resistance box were pressed and made tight by screwing them a little in the clockwise direction.

Note:
For graph you may choose the origin O ' (0.2 , 0) . Along X-axis 20 small div. is 0.1 A and along Y-axis 20 small
div. is 0.5 V.

EXPERIMENT: 9

Aim:

Verify Ohms law for the given unknown resistance (a 100-cm constantan wire), plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current. Also, calculate the resistance per cm of the wire from the slope of the graph and the length of the wire.

Apparatus:
i) A D.C source ii) plug key iii) Resistance box iv) Ammeter v) A 100cm wire fixed on a wooden scale vi) Voltmeter
18
vii) Jockey.

Theory:
If the temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
If potential difference be V ad current flowing through the conductor is I then, V I ; V = I R; Where R is
constant.

Procedure:
1. It is ensured that all the connection in the circuit is tight enough. Least count of the ammeter and the voltmeter
2. It is ensured that all the connection in the circuit is tight enough. Least count of the ammeter and the voltmeter
are noted down.
3. A resistance of 1 is applied in the resistance box. Ammeter reading ( I ), voltmeter reading (V ) are noted down in
that condition.
4. The experiment is repeated to obtained four more values of I and V by changing the values of R = 2, 3 , 4 and
5 .
V
5. A graph V against I is drawn and the slope m is obtained.
I
m
6. Hence resistance per unit length of the given wire is calculated from the relation cm 1
100

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.05 V Least count of Ammeter = 0.02 A
Table: 1

Sr. No. Value of resistance in the Voltmeter reading (V) Value of ammeter
resistance box reading (I) in Amp.
In Volt

19
 2

Calculation:
V
Slope from the V vs I graph (m)= =. (up to three significant figures)
I
m
Hence resistance per unit length of the given wire is ............. / cm
100
Result: Resistance per unit length of the given wire = . / cm

Experiment No: 10

Aim: Compare the e.m.f of two cells using potentiometer.

Theory: The potential drop per unit length of the

potentiometers is always the same when a constant

20
 current flows through the potentiometer wire. If the e.m.f (E 1) of the first cell is balanced on a
length L1 of the potentiometer and the e.m.f (E2) of the second cell is balanced of a length (L2)
of the potentiometer wire then
E l
E1l1 And E2l2 and 1 1
E2 l2

Apparatus:
(i) One wire potentiometer (ii) d.c source (iii) plug key (iv) resistance box
(v) Leclanche cell (vi) dry cell (vii) Galvanometer (viii) connecting wires and jockey

Procedure:
(1) The circuit is made as shown in figure above.

(2) Bring E1 into the circuit. The jockey J is put with the beginning of the wire and the end of the
wire of the potentiometer with minimum resistance in the resistance box.

(3) If the deflection in the either side is shown, the approximate position of the null points for
the cell is determined. The length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to this null point L 1
is noted.

(4)The cell E2 is brought in contact with galvanometer without altering anything the null point
for this cell is found. The length (L2) corresponding to this null point is measured.

(5) Another four sets of L1 and L2 is obtained changing the current in the above circuit by
changing the value of R in the box

21
 Observations:
Voltage applied in driving circuit (E ) = 4.0 V

Table: 1

Obs. Value of R Null Points Ratio

E1 l1
Mean
E1
E2 l2 E2
No in the
Cell E1 in the Cell E2 in the
resistance
circuit l1 in circuit l2 in
box
cm. cm.
( in )

1 2

2 3

3 4

4 5

5 6

Result:

The ratio of e.m.fs E1: E2 =

Precaution:

i) The potentiometer wire must be of uniform cross-section.

ii) The emf of the cells to be compared must be less than the emf of the driver cell.

22
 Experiment No. 11

Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a cell by a potentiometer.

Apparatus:
i) Potentiometer, ii) battery iii) two one way key, iv) rheostat of low resistance,
v) galvanometer, vi) high resistance box, vii) fractional resistance box, viii) ammeter, ix) voltmeter, x)
cell, xi) jockey, xii) connecting wires.

Theory: The internal resistance of a cell is given by r l l

1 2
R
l 2

Where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without

shunt & with shunt, respectively &R is the shunt
resistance in parallel with the given cell.

Observation

E.M.F. of battery = V E.M.F. of Cell = 1.4 V

R(l1 l 2)
Internal resistance (r) =
l 2

No Resistance Balancing length for Lechlanche cell in (cm.) Internal

of (R) in Resistance
Open Circuit when key K2 is open Closed Circuit when key K2 is closed
obs (l1 l2 )
r R
Length in cm Length in cm l2
(l1 ) (l2 )
23
 Increasing Decreasing Mean Increasing Decreasing Mean in
(l1 ) (l2 )

1. 2 476.0 476.0 476.0 59.5 59.5 59.5 17.0

2. 3 474.5 474.5 474.5 80.5 80.5 80.5 14.7

3. 4 484.0 484.0 484.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 15.4

4. 5 495.6 495.6 495.6 125.8 125.8 125.8 14.7

5. 6 517.8 517.8 517.8 151.4 151.4 151.4 14.5

Result: The internal resistance of the given cell is

ExperimentNo: 12

Aim:
From a potentiometer set up, measure the fall in potential (i.e p.d) for increasing length of a constantan
wire, through which a steady current is flowing; plot a graph of p.d(V) versus length
( l ). Calculate the potential gradient of the wire and specific resistance of its material. Using the same circuit
find out the e.m.f of a cell.

Apparatus:
1. A 100 cm. wire fixed on a wooden scale 2. Resistance box (0-10 ) 3. Key (K). 4. Voltmeter.
5. D.C source (0 to 6 volt). 6. Jockey (J). 7. Connecting wires. 8. Ammeter 9. A micrometer screw gauge. 10. A
dry cell (E1).

Theory:
If a steady current is maintained by a battery E, through a wire of homogeneous composition and
uniform area of cross-section then the potential drop V along the wire is directly proportional to its
length l . i.e.

V l
V24
K
l
Here K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is known as potential gradient.

The graph of potential drop (V) vs. length of wire ( l ) for steady current (I) is called potential gradient
graph of the potentiometer.

Specific resistance is defined as the resistance per unit length per unit cross-sectional area. Its unit is ohm-
m ( m). It is a specific property of a conductor. If a steady current I is flowing through a conductor of
V
cross-sectional area A having Potential gradient across the wire is . Then specific resistance may be
l
V d 2
expressed as ( ),
l 4 I

When an unknown e.m.f E1 is connected in the circuit, then at the null deflection, the potential drop
V
across the length becomes equal to unknown e.m.f E1 = V1 = k.l , where V = is the potential gradient.
l

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1) The zero error, least count and range of given meters are recorded.

2) The jockey is touched at the point B of the wire AB and the reading of the voltmeter is recorded.

The value of R in the resistance box is so adjusted that the reading of the voltmeter is maximum. This
value of R and the current reading (I) in the ammeter are kept fixed throughout the experiment.
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 The value of the resistance and the steady current (I0) through the circuit is recorded

3) Five different readings (V) of the voltmeter are recorded by touching jockey (J) at C on the wire AB
such that AC (L) = 20cm, 40cm, 60cm, 80cm, and 100cm.

4) The length (L) and corresponding potential drop (V) are tabulated along with fixed resistance(R) and
constant current (l) in the circuit.

5) A graph of V vs l is plotted and the best fit straight line is drawn to obtain the calibration graph of
V
the potentiometer. Hence slope k ; is obtained from the graph.
l
6) The least count of the micrometer screw gauge is calculated and recorded. The diameter of the
wire through which the steady current is flowing is measured and recorded in cm unit, up to three
decimal places. Hence the specific resistance of the material wire is measured by using the formula
V d 2
( );
l 4 I
7) A dry cell connected in series with a galvanometer is attached in the previous circuit by
replacing the voltmeter.(As shown in fig. 2)

8) By trial the point C1 at which the galvanometer needle shows no deflection is obtained keeping the
R value in the resistance box R.B same as was obtained in step 2.

9) The length AC1= L is noted down.

10) The potential difference V1 corresponding to the length AC1= L is recorded from the calibration
graph of the potentiometer and also by the formula E1= slope(S) *L.

Observation:

Zero error of ammeter= Nil Least count of ammeter = 0.02 A

Zero error of voltmeter=Nil Least count of voltmeter= 0.05 V

Least count of the micrometer screw gauge = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.

e.m.f of the stabilized voltage source = 4.00 V

Table: 1

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 SL. R in resistance Ammeter Length of wire Potential Drop
No. box in in ( l ) in cm. (V) in volts.
reading (I ) in

1 A 20.0
2 40.0
3 1 60.0
4 80.0
5 100.0

Calculation of the slope:

V V V1
Slope k =..= 2 =.. in V/cm. [in three significant figures]
l l2 l1
Diameter of the specimen wire = . cm. = . m
Steady current through the circuit (I0) = A

Slope of the calibration graph (K) = V/cm = V/m

V d 2
Specific Resistance of the wire in m .
l 4 I

Length of the wire AC1 (after connecting E1) at no deflection position (L) =cm.
Potential drop (V1) from graph corresponding to the length AC1 (L) =volt.
Potential drop (V1) from equation (1) = slope(S) L =..............volt. [in one decimal place].

Result:
1. Graph of drop of potential vs. length of wire for steady current is found to be a straight line with
slope = V/cm.
2. Specific resistance of the material wire is = in m

3. The value of the unknown e.m.f of the given dry cell as obtained from the calibration

graph =.....volt

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