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Ore deposits in an evolving Earth: an introduction

GAWEN R. T. JENKIN1*, PAUL A. J. LUSTY2, IAIN MCDONALD3, MARTIN P. SMITH4,
ADRIAN J. BOYCE5 & JAMIE J. WILKINSON6
1
Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
2
British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Nicker Hill,
Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK
3
School of Earth & Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Main Building,
Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK
4
School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton,
Moulsecoomb, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
5
Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Rankine Avenue, Scottish
Enterprise Technology Park, East Kilbride G75 0QF, UK
6
Earth Sciences Department, Natural History Museum,
Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
*Corresponding author (email: grtj1@le.ac.uk)

Abstract: Ore deposits form by a variety of natural processes that concentrate elements into a
small volume that can be economically mined. Their type, character and abundance reflect the
environment in which they formed and thus they preserve key evidence for the evolution of mag-
matic and tectonic processes, the state of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and the evolution of life
over geological time. This volume presents 13 papers on topical subjects in ore deposit research
viewed in the context of Earth evolution. These diverse, yet interlinked, papers cover topics includ-
ing: controls on the temporal and spatial distribution of ore deposits; the sources of fluid, gold and
other components in orogenic gold deposits; the degree of oxygenation in the Neoproterozoic
ocean; bacterial immobilization of gold in the semi-arid near-surface environment; and mineral
resources for the future, including issues of resource estimation, sustainability of supply and the
criticality of certain elements to society.

Ore deposits are the source of the vast bulk of our
metals, industrial minerals and materials. They
are volumes of rock where natural processes have
acted to concentrate the element (or elements) of
interest significantly above their typical abundance
so that they might be economically mined. In addi-
tion to being key primary sources of wealth gener-
ation and vital for a burgeoning global population,
these deposits are also valuable windows through
which to view aspects of Earth evolution and their
interrelationships within the Earth system. Evol-
ution is used here in its broadest sense meaning
any unidirectional change that is a function of prior
conditions. Because ore deposits formed at various,
often critical, stages in Earth history, and their
type, character and abundance are a function of the
environment in which they formed, they preserve
key evidence for the evolution of magmatic and tec-
tonic processes, the state of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere, and the evolution of life over geologi-
cal time (Kesler & Ohmoto 2006). Furthermore, the
very activities of exploration, evaluation and mining
generate more comprehensive three-dimensional
geological information than is generally obtainable
in non-mineralized rocks. Ore deposit studies over
the last 50 years have acted as a catalyst for blue-
skies research into wider aspects of Earth processes,
and vice versa.
This volume results from the Fermor Flagship
meeting of the Geological Society of London Ore
deposits in an evolving Earth held at Burlington
House, 7 9 September 2011, and convened by
members of the Mineral Deposits Studies Group, a
specialist group affiliated to the Geological Society
of London. The overarching aim of the meeting was
to bring together researchers to address topical sub-
jects in ore deposit research, viewed in the context
of Earth evolution. The 13 papers assembled here
were chosen from about 50 scientific contributions
at the meeting, including about 30 oral presentations
and 20 posters. These state of the art papers reflect
the breadth of the meeting, spanning both the globe

From: Jenkin, G. R. T., Lusty, P. A. J., McDonald, I., Smith, M. P., Boyce, A. J. & Wilkinson, J. J. (eds) Ore Deposits
in an Evolving Earth. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 393, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP393.14
# The Geological Society of London 2015. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Natural History Museum on February 17, 2015
G. R. T. JENKIN ET AL.
and time from some of the oldest ore deposits to
discussions regarding future mineral resources for
a resource-hungry population. The latter aspect is
a direct consequence of the biological evolution of
the species Homo sapiens on planet Earth, its devel-
opment of agriculture, followed by its industrializ-
ation, urbanization and population explosion. This
has led to unprecedented rates of transformation of
the Earths surface, such that it is speculated that it
has caused Earth to enter a new geological Epoch,
the Anthropocene (Zalasiewicz et al. 2010; Pimm
et al. 2014). Thus we live within a critical stage
of Earths evolution (may you live in interesting
times), and it is no understatement to suggest that
Earth scientists, and resource geologists in particu-
lar, will play a key role in determining the future of
the species.
There have been numerous studies of the distri-
bution ore deposits in space and through geological
time, with variations reflecting tectonic setting, the
evolving atmosphere and oceans, and decreasing
heat production in the Earth (e.g. Groves & Bierlein
2007; Goldfarb et al. 2010; Maier & Groves 2011).
However, Cawood & Hawkesworth (2013) cau-
tion that the spatial and temporal distribution of
ore deposits is likely to be preservationally biased,
with different deposits affected to greater or lesser
extents depending on their tectonic setting. Only
small volumes of magma are produced in the colli-
sional phase of the super-continent cycle, but their
preservation potential is very high. It is argued
that deposits formed in the collisional phase may
therefore be disproportionately well-preserved com-
pared with those formed in the earlier convergent
or later extensional phases. Much remains to be
explained, such as the paucity of orogenic gold and
volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits during the
Rodinian supercontinent cycle, c. 1.70.7 Ga. How-
ever, variable preservation potential among differ-
ent deposit types has not hitherto been considered
in studies examining the distribution of ore deposits,
yet such studies are crucial both for our ability to
predict the regional distribution of undiscovered
ore deposits, and for the interpretation of ore depos-
its to understand Earth processes.
Archaean cratons are often richly endowed with
a range of mineralization types, including, inter
alia, orogenic gold, komatiite-hosted nickel and
banded iron formation (BIF). Although Archaean
crust represents ,6% of the volume of current con-
tinental crust (Cawood & Hawkesworth 2013),
it contains c. 25% of the gold resource (Goldfarb
et al. 2001), c. 60% of the komatiite-hosted Ni
resource (Naldrett 2010) and c. 25% of the mass
of all BIF (Bekker et al. 2010). Although it has
long been apparent that known occurrences of
these mineralization types are not homogeneously
distributed throughout a craton, controls on their
distribution are not well understood. Mole et al.
(2013) demonstrate how the evolution in space
and time of the lithospheric architecture of the
Yilgarn Craton can be deciphered by mapping the
Nd isotope signature of crustal rocks. This three-
dimensional intra-cratonic lithospheric architecture
is then demonstrated to play a key role in the local-
ization of these gold, nickel and BIF mineral-
ized systems at a mining camp scale (c. ,200 km).
Localization of mineralization is thought to result
from a range of processes, including: deflection
of mantle plumes by areas of older, thicker crust;
development of trans-lithospheric structures at
boundaries between isotopically distinct blocks;
and the development of fertile juvenile crust. This
approach provides an important tool for under-
standing and predicting regional prospectivity in
Archaean cratons.
High-grade iron ore bodies formed in BIF are the
largest single metal concentrations in the Earths
crust and Angerer et al. (2014) identify the critical
elements of a minerals system that are required to
form these deposits in the Archaean and Palaeopro-
terozoic of Western Australia. To form high-grade
iron ore, a primary BIF (2045 wt% Fe) needs to
be enriched in Fe (to 5869 wt% Fe) by dissolution
of quartz, carbonates and Fe-silicates and the addi-
tion of further Fe-oxides. On a global scale, the well-
recognized secular variation in the formation of BIF
with time (e.g. Cawood & Hawkesworth 2013) is
attributed to both the increase in oxygenation of
the oceanatmosphere system and the prevalence
of large igneous provinces that reflect mantle plume
breakout events and an increased hydrothermal flux
to the oceans (Bekker et al. 2010). Angerer et al.
(2014) show that, on a regional scale, the formation
of a suitable primary host BIF is a function of the
stratigraphic and geodynamic setting (cf. Mole et al.
2013). However, the subsequent upgrading and pre-
servation of the deposits are contingent on a num-
ber of other factors that must all occur and that
span the geological history of the deposit right up
to the present. Thus these high-grade iron deposits
tell us little about the original conditions when they
formed, but a great deal about the subsequent geo-
logical evolution of the area. The minerals system
model developed will be used to suggest mappable
features that can be used within a refined explora-
tion scheme.
Many ore deposits are unequivocally of hydro-
thermal origin formed where changes in physico-
chemical conditions precipitate dissolved ore
components from dominantly aqueous fluids, often
in concert with the physical focussing of the fluid
by geological structures. However, a variety of ori-
gins have been invoked for the fluid in many depos-
its, including magmatic, metamorphic, meteoric,
mantle or sedimentary/diagenetic/basinal leading
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Natural History Museum on February 17, 2015
INTRODUCTION
to consequent uncertainty in genetic models and
thus exploration models derived from them. No-
where is this better exemplified than in the long-
running debate regarding orogenic gold deposits,
which account for more than 75% of cumulative
gold production (Phillips 2013). These hydrother-
mal quartz vein-related deposits form in metamor-
phic terranes during the late stages of orogeny and
typically post-date regional metamorphism of the
host rocks (Goldfarb et al. 2005; Tomkins 2013b).
A metamorphogenic origin is most commonly advo-
cated for the fluids and by implication the gold
source (e.g. Craw et al. 2010; Phillips & Powell
2010). However, late orogenic magmatism is also
a widespread feature in many orogenic belts, and
many gold deposits show a spatial association with
intrusions, as well as a broad temporal relationship
(Goldfarb et al. 2005). Thus, in some cases, an ex-
solved magmatic origin for the fluid (and gold) can
be invoked (e.g. Burrows & Spooner 1989). Alterna-
tive explanations here could be that the intrusions
play only a structural role in focussing fluid flow,
are just a heat source or that they are simply another
expression of the same tectonothermal event that
also caused metamorphic fluid generation. The dif-
ficulty of uniquely interpreting data from these
orogenic gold deposits can be exemplified by the
Macraes deposit, New Zealand. This occurs in
the Otago Schist; a sequence devoid of magmatic
rocks. De Ronde et al. (2000) provide fluid inclu-
sion and oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope data
for the Macraes deposit, which they interpret to indi-
cate a magmatic input to the ore fluid. In contrast,
Craw (2002) interprets the same dataset, in combi-
nation with the observation that the fluid deposited
graphite, to indicate a purely metamorphic origin
for the fluid.
Yardley & Cleverley (2013) critically examine
the role that metamorphic fluids may play in the for-
mation of hydrothermal ore deposits. They argue
that favourable fluid chemistries to carry metals,
and gold in particular, can develop in metamorphic
fluids, but that only in specific circumstances will
the generation and flow of fluid be rapid enough to
satisfy geochronological constraints that indicate
geologically rapid deposit formation. They empha-
size that, whilst fluids will be released in an oro-
genic belt during prograde metamorphism, these
same rocks usually become fluid sinks during retro-
grade cooling. A possible exception to this may be
where rapid pressure drop owing to uplift and ero-
sion causes dehydration reactions to be encountered
on the retrograde path. The formation of orogenic
gold deposits from metamorphic fluids is thus con-
sidered feasible. However, a detailed Sr-isotope
study presented for the Sunrise Dam deposit, West-
ern Australia, suggests that mantle-derived fluids
were critical in the development of high-grade
gold seams here and, importantly, that such evi-
dence elsewhere might be cryptically preserved
and only observable on a sub-grain scale. Treloar
et al. (2014) also argue for magmatic derivation of
the fluid forming another orogenic gold deposit:
the Massawa deposit, Senegal. Here the mineral-
ization is closely associated with quartzfeldspar
porphyries and two gold-bearing stages of mineral-
ization are separated by a molybdenite stage. Taken
together with the relatively shallow formation depth
(,6 km), magmatic sulphur and oxygen isotope
signatures and the presence of gold antimonide (aur-
ostibite), these features, in combination, are inter-
preted to indicate strong circumstantial evidence
for a magmatic origin.
Even in cases where there is unequivocally a
metamorphic source for the fluid in orogenic gold
deposits, such as the giant Bendigo deposit, Vic-
toria, Australia (Wilson et al. 2013), there is still
debate concerning the source rock for the gold. It
has been proposed that gold comes from either
mafic sills and volcanics in the sedimentary pile
(Phillips & Powell 2010; Wilson et al. 2013) or
diagenetic pyrite-bearing sediments (Pitcairn et al.
2006), in particular carbon-rich black shales that
are predicted to generate more gold-rich meta-
morphic fluids than mafic igneous rocks (Tomkins
2010; 2013a). The latter hypothesis gains support
from measurements of the CH4/C2H6 ratio in fluid
inclusions from a range of orogenic gold veins that
indicate a source for the fluids from carbon-rich
pyritic sediments even in the Detour Lake
deposit, Canada, which is hosted in mafic ultrama-
fic volcanic rocks (Gaboury 2013). Bull & Large
(2014) reinterpret the depositional setting of the
Ordovician sediments that host the Bendigo de-
posit to suggest that they were deposited in deep
water, far offshore from the mouth of a major river
system such as the Amazon. Within this sedimen-
tary package, the black shales in particular are
shown to be notably enriched in gold, along with
other elements that are also associated with gold
in the mineralization, such as Ag, As, Sb, Bi and
Se. Many of these elements are demonstrated to
be hosted in diagenetic pyrite, although they are
likely to have been transported into the sediments
absorbed on clay particles or associated with
organic matter. Thus it is shown that the Ordovi-
cian sedimentary succession at Bendigo is a viable
source for the gold, and other elements present in
the mineralization, during its subsequent metamor-
phism. This combined sedimentological and geo-
chemical approach may ultimately lead to better
prospectivity assessments of Phanerozoic sediment
packages worldwide.
Papers by Moles et al. (2014) and Hill et al.
(2013) provide complimentary sulphur isotope
studies on the Neoproterozoic early Palaeozoic
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Natural History Museum on February 17, 2015
G. R. T. JENKIN ET AL.
Dalradian Supergroup of Scotland. Moles et al.
(2014) demonstrate how the homogeneity in sulphur
isotope composition of barite in the stratabound
sedimentary exhalative Aberfeldy deposit can be
used to infer that sulphate was abundant in Neo-
proterozoic seawater when the deposit formed.
This is significant because the abundance of sul-
phate reflects the degree of oxygenation of the
global ocean, which is in turn coupled to oxygen-
ation of the atmosphere. Whilst it is acknowledged
that the oceans had relatively low oxygen contents
in the Proterozoic before c. 850 Ma, and that they
attained modern values of oxygenation by the
Cambrian, evidence for the timing and form of the
transition between these two times is currently con-
flicting, and thus the causes remain hotly debated
(Lyons et al. 2014). The confirmation of high
ocean sulphate during ore deposition at Aberfeldy
is important because this was either around the
time of the global Marinoan Snowball Earth gla-
ciation, or not long afterwards, and it is conceivable
that this event could have been the trigger for
increased organic productivity and/or burial that
resulted in increased ocean oxidation in the early
Ediacaran Period (Sahoo et al. 2012).
Hill et al. (2013) demonstrate how the global
sulphur isotope dataset for Neoproterozoic sedimen-
tary pyrite can be correlated with the Dalradian
sequence to help estimate the S-isotope composition
of the local sequence where data are absent. This is
work in progress because further age constraints on
the sequence are needed. Nevertheless, the data can
be used to show that the sulphides in gold-bearing
quartz veins in the area must contain significant
sulphide from the metasedimentary pile. Further-
more, the only viable source for the metasedimen-
tary sulphide is not the immediate host rocks, but
the stratigraphically higher Easdale Subgroup
coincidentally the same unit that hosts the Aberfeldy
deposit studied by Moles et al. (2014). Given that
this unit contains significant black slates and gra-
phitic schists, as well as mafic lavas and sills, and
stratabound exhalative horizons, it is hypothesized
that this unit could also be the source for the gold
in the veins. However, despite the strong meta-
sedimentary signature in the gold-bearing veins,
geochronological and other data are more consis-
tent with a magmatic-related vein system, empha-
sizing once again the complex multicomponent
nature of many vein gold systems hosted in meta-
morphic rocks.
School-level chemistry might suggest that gold,
a noble metal, would be inert at the Earths surface,
yet not only is gold soluble under certain condi-
tions (including in seawater, which globally con-
tains c. 14 000 tonnes; Falkner & Edmond 1990),
but recent research shows that microorganisms are
involved in the biogeochemical cycling of gold,
including its dissolution and re-precipitation at the
surface and deep underground (e.g. Lengke &
Southam 2006; Reith & McPhail 2006; Reith et al.
2006; Johnston et al. 2013). Thus the microbiology
of gold has implications for its dispersion from ore
deposits in the weathering environment and the
design of geochemical exploration programmes to
locate them. Furthermore, it could be exploited to
improve the liberation of gold from some ores or
recover gold from mine wastewater. The recogni-
tion that certain microorganisms may be associated
with gold in solution suggests the development of
bioindicators for gold that rely on detection of these
specific microorganisms, and of biosensors employ-
ing gold-binding proteins from bacteria that allow
rapid field-based analysis of gold at very low levels
(Gwynne 2013). Shuster et al. (2013) contribute to
this rapidly expanding field of research by demon-
strating that sulphate-reducing bacteria can immo-
bilize gold from saline and hypersaline solutions
where chloride occurs in excess. This has impli-
cations for the development of geochemical haloes
around weathering gold deposits in semi-arid
regions, where evaporation of groundwaters leads
to high salinities and the development of gold-
enriched calcretes (e.g. Lintern et al. 2012). Shuster
et al. (2013) show that the gold is precipitated as
nano-particles, which have potential applications
in optoelectronics for imaging technologies, catal-
ysis and drug delivery (Gwynne 2013). Thus it may
be that microbiological processing of gold ores
might have the additional advantage of producing
gold nanoparticles in a form that is directly useful
for high-tech industries.
Whilst the academic study of ore deposit genesis
contributes to our understanding of Earth pro-
cesses through geological time, the continued evolu-
tion of genetic models for ore deposits also enhances
our ability to predict where new deposits may occur,
and hence how to conduct exploration for new
resources most efficiently and effectively. Thus
although rooted in understanding the deep geologi-
cal past, the study of ore deposits is also strongly
forward-looking. Population growth and economic
development will continue to drive mineral resource
use on an upward trajectory. The global challenge
of maintaining adequate and reliable mineral sup-
ply is considerable. It is likely that many of the
near-surface easy to find deposits have already
been located, and discovery rates of major mineral
deposits have declined over the last half-century
thus exploration companies need, by necessity, to
locate and exploit lower-grade deposits in more
extreme environments and perhaps process ores pre-
viously considered too difficult to deal with (Beaty
2010; McKeith et al. 2010). Furthermore, the pro-
liferation of electronic devices and the demand for
green energy technologies, such as photovoltaic
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Natural History Museum on February 17, 2015
INTRODUCTION
cells and wind turbines, is rapidly increasing the
demand for a range of elements previously only
mined in very small quantities. The possibility of
supply shortages, coupled with their economic
importance, has led to some metals being described
as critical and this often includes the e-tech ele-
ments needed for environmental technologies.
Lusty & Gunn (2014) outline the challenges for
future global resource security and the potential
options for future supply. It is emphasized that
some concerns about future mineral shortages are
based on over-simplistic analysis there are, unde-
niably, enough mineral resources in the potentially
mineable section of the Earths crust and the oceans
to meet demand for centuries. The issue is, rather,
how can resources be located and extracted effi-
ciently enough to be economically and environmen-
tally sustainable? A historical perspective shows
that increasing demand for minerals and higher
prices has led to scientific and technological devel-
opments that increase supply to meet demand. This,
however, requires both investment in science
to better understand the processes that form and
locate deposits, in particular for the hitherto little-
studied e-tech or critical elements and invest-
ment in technology for improved exploration and
to develop more efficient extraction processes that
reduce the CO2 footprint. Mining is a very energy-
intensive process and, as noted by Mike Harris
in his presentation at the Fermor meeting and
published elsewhere (Harris 2013), a major min-
ing company can produce more CO2 than the
entire country of Norway. Harris emphasizes that
mining companies must interact with the global
society in which they operate in order to establish
the acceptable environmental and social costs of
their activities (Nature Geoscience 2011). Lusty &
Gunn (2014) provide an introduction to the sub-
sequent papers in this volume, which address issues
of resource estimation, sustainability of mineral
supply and the criticality of certain elements to
society.
Estimating the reserves of minerals that are
potentially available for future mining remains pro-
blematic. Kesler & Wilkinson (2013) outline the
application of a tectonic-diffusion model to estimate
the abundance of Phanerozoic tin deposits through
the entire crust. This number can be multiplied
by the average size of tin deposits to determine the
global endowment. Furthermore, the model can
predict the endowments at different depths in the
crust, allowing estimates of resources to be adjusted
in light of advances in mining technology and thus
the depth to which mining might be economi-
cally viable. Resources that could be reached with
current mining technology are estimated by this pro-
cedure to be sufficient to meet current tin demand
for decades provided that the deposits can be
located. It is possible that models such as this for
major commodities might also be used to obtain
first-order estimates of the endowments of asso-
ciated minor elements that occur as by-products
(e.g. Te as a by-product of porphyry copper miner-
alization) through simply measuring the average
ratio of by-product to major commodity in known
deposits and scaling results accordingly. However,
at present, even these fundamental ratio data are
poorly known for many e-tech and critical metals.
The methodology for the determination of the
relative criticality of metals is discussed by
Graedel & Nassar (2013). There is no rigorous
definition and results are dependent on the rela-
tive importance that the investigator attaches to
the different possible variables. However, geologi-
cal factors are particularly important, playing a
major role in controlling supply risk, as well as sub-
sidiary roles in environmental risk and the vulner-
ability to supply restriction. A significant problem
is that the geological data are currently poor for
most potentially critical elements and the authors
stress the role that economic geologists have to
play in providing these essential data.
Geoscientists will play a fundamental role in
providing resources and a habitable environment
for the population of the planet over the next cen-
tury. With concerns about resource shortages, crea-
tive solutions are being examined. So called urban
mining to recover raw materials previously dis-
carded as waste in landfills has been proposed and
a large-scale pilot project implemented (Jones et al.
2013). The possibility of mining asteroids, long
taken for granted in science fiction, is now the goal
of a major company (Planetary Resources) and
is being discussed in the pages of Nature (Elvis
2012). Cathles (2013), however, proposes that the
seafloor, and potentially seawater itself, provide
the best alternatives, as these are repositories of
sufficient metals and minerals to sustain a world
population of 10.5 billion at a European standard
of living for hundreds of centuries. For example,
the total amount of lithium required for the batte-
ries to electrify every car on the planet exceeds
the present known terrestrial reserves of lithium,
yet represents ,0.001% of the lithium dissolved
in the oceans. Energy, as Cathles (2013) notes, is
the most essential resource, but to concentrate met-
als from very low concentrations (reducing disor-
der and entropy) requires large amounts of energy.
However, considering that the estimated present
day consumption of energy by human activity
(industrial and agricultural) is greater than all that
produced from the Earths interior, and about one-
quarter of that produced by photosynthesis, our
energy usage is already a considerable term in the
free energy budget of the planet (Kleidon 2012).
The future suggested by Cathles (2013) would be
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Natural History Museum on February 17, 2015
G. R. T. JENKIN ET AL.
powered by low-carbon energy supplied predomi-
nantly by thousands of nuclear plants and country-
sized solar facilities. Whilst perhaps technically
feasible (but see alternative viewpoint in Bardi
2014), the ecological, environmental and geopoliti-
cal ramifications of such a future need to be care-
fully examined it is essential that geoscientists
play a prominent part in this debate.
The editors are grateful to the Geological Society of
London for the opportunity to produce this publication
and, in particular, to A. Hills for her continued support.
We wish to express our gratitude to the reviewers who con-
tributed their time and expertise: J. P. L. Kenney (Sweden),
E. J. Carranza (Australia), P. Weihed (Sweden), S. E.
Kesler (USA), D. L. Huston (Australia), D. Craw (New
Zealand), S. C. Bergman (USA), S. D. Scott (Canada),
J. Zalasiewicz (UK), D. J. Smith (UK), C. J. Stanley
(UK), L. J. Robb (UK), J. R. Ridley (USA), I. L. Cope
(UK), J. Gutzmer (Germany), G. Shields (UK), D. Lowry
(UK), W. Maier (UK), A. J. Naldrett (UK), S. Roberts
(UK), N. R. Moles (UK), S. F. Simmons (New Zealand),
J. A. Saunders (USA) and a number of anonymous
reviewers. Finally we would like to thank the authors for
producing a stimulating set of papers that reflect the
conference itself.
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