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We know that some solids are good conductors of electricity while others are insulators.
There is also an intermediate class known as semiconductors.
2. Bonds in Semiconductors:
The atoms of every element are held together by the bonding action of valence
electrons. This bonding is due to the fact that it is the tendency of each atom to
complete its last orbit by acquiring 8 electrons in it. However, in most of the substances,
the last orbit is incomplete i.e. the last orbit does not have 8 electrons. This makes the
atom active to acquire 8 electrons in the last orbit. To do so, the atom may lose, gain or
share valence electrons with other atoms.
In semiconductors, bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons. Such
bonds are called covalent bonds. In the formation of a covalent bond, each atom
contributes equal number of valence electrons and the contributed electrons are shared
by the atoms engaged in the formation of the bond.
i.e., it is a tetravalent element. Right side figure shows how the various germanium
atoms are held through covalent bonds. As the atoms are arranged in an orderly
pattern, therefore, germanium has crystalline structure.
The free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some covalent bonds
by thermal energy. At the same time, holes are created in the covalent bonds. Under
the influence of electric field, conduction through the semiconductor is by both free
electrons and holes. Therefore, the total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of
currents due to free electrons and holes.
It may be noted that current in the external wires is fully electronic i.e. by
electrons. What about the holes? Holes being positively charged move towards the
negative terminal of supply. As the holes reach the negative terminal B, electrons enter
the semiconductor crystal near the terminal and combine with holes.
place in covalent bonds and is thus free as shown in above figure. Therefore, for each
Arsenic atom added, one free electron will be available in the germanium crystal.
As the holes are positively charged, therefore, they are directed towards the
negative terminal, constituting what is known as hole current. It may be noted that in p-
type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to another unlike
the n-type where current conduction is by free electrons.
Hall Effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879. The voltage or electric field
produced due to the application of magnetic field is also referred to as Hall voltage or
Hall field.
5.1. Drift Current: The drift current, is the current in semiconductor due to the motion of
charge carriers due to the force exerted on them by an electric field.
5.2. Diffusion Current: The Diffusion current is a current is due to the diffusion of
charge carriers (holes and/or electrons). Diffusion current can be in the same or
opposite direction of a drift current.
For example: The current near the depletion region of a pn junction is dominated by
the diffusion current. Inside the depletion region, both diffusion current and drift current
are present. At equilibrium in a pn junction, the forward diffusion current in the
depletion region is balanced with a reverse drift current, so that the net current is zero.
Where,
Dp = Diffusion coefficient of holes
Dn = Diffusion coefficient of electrons
p = Mobility of holes
n = Mobility of electrons
VT is called voltage equivalent of temperature and it can be expressed as
VT = KT/q = T/11600
VT = 26 mV at 300 K
6. Semiconductor Materials:
Semiconductor materials are nominally small band gap insulators. The defining
property of a semiconductor material is that it can be doped with impurities that alter its
electronic properties.
Most commonly used semiconductor materials are crystalline inorganic solids.
Silicon and Germanium are the popular semiconductors and are called as elemental
semiconductors. There are another important type of semiconductors; III-V compound
semiconductors. Similarly there is one more semiconductor compound called as II-VI
compound.
Band gap
Material Formula Description
(eV)
Nanoparticles used as quantum dots. Possible use
Cadmium
CdSe 1.74 in optoelectronics. Tested for high-efficiency solar
selenide
cells.
Cadmium
CdS 2.42 Used in photo resistors and solar cells.
sulfide
Used in thin film solar cells and other cadmium
Cadmium
CdTe 1.49 telluride photovoltaics. Used in electro-optic
telluride
modulators.
Zinc
ZnSe 2.7 Used for blue lasers and LEDs.
selenide
Band gap 3.54 eV (cubic), 3.91 (hexagonal).
Zinc sulfide ZnS 3.54/3.91 Common scintillator/phosphor when suitably
doped.
Zinc Used in solar cells, components of microwave
ZnTe 2.25
telluride generators, blue LEDs and lasers.
Used for preparing transparent conductive
Zinc oxide ZnO 3.37 coatings. Resistant to radiation damage. Possible
use in LEDs and laser diodes.
III V Binary semiconductor compounds are made from element of III group and
V group. The fundamental properties of III V binary compounds are:
Average atomic number Band gap energy
Refractive index Effective mass
Dielectric constant
Band
Material Formula Description
gap (eV)
Boron
BN 6.36 Useful for ultraviolet LEDs
nitride
Boron Resistant to radiation damage, possible
BAs 1.14
arsenide applications in betavoltaics.
Gallium Used in early low to medium brightness cheap
GaP 2.26
phosphide red/orange/green LEDs.
Gallium Used for near-IR LEDs, fast electronics and high-
GaAs 1.43
arsenide efficiency solar cells.
Band
Material Formula Description
gap (eV)
Aluminium
Used for infrared laser diodes. Used as a barrier layer
gallium AlxGa1xAs 1.42
in GaAs devices.
arsenide
Indium Used in infrared sensors, photodiodes, laser diodes,
gallium InxGa1xAs 0.36 optical fiber communication detectors, and short-
arsenide wavelength infrared cameras.
Used for HEMT and HBT structures and high-
gallium efficiency multi-junction solar cells. Ga0.5In0.5P is
InxGa1xP 1.35
phosphide almost lattice-matched to GaAs, with AlGaIn used for
quantum wells for red lasers.
Band
Material Formula Description
gap (eV)
Copper zinc
Cu2ZnSnS4 is derived from CIGS, replacing the
tin sulfide, Cu2ZnSnS4 1.49
Indium/Gallium with earth abundant Zinc/Tin.
CZTS
Copper zinc Copper zinc antimony sulfide is derived from
Cu1.18Zn0.40Sb
antimony 2.2 copper antimony sulfide (CAS), a famatinite class
1.90S7.2
sulfide, CZAS of compound.
Aluminium
gallium indium AlGaInP Used for waveengths between 560650 nm
phosphide
Forward biasing:
When external d. c. voltage is applied to the
junction, it will cancel the potential barrier,
permitting the current flow is called as forward
biasing.
To apply forward bias, connect positive terminal of the battery to p-type and
negative terminal to n-type as shown in above figure. Once the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge) junction resistance
becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit.
Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.
Reverse biasing:
When the external d. c. voltage is applied to
the junction which will increase the potential
barrier is called as reverse biasing.
To apply reverse bias, connect negative
terminal of the battery to p-type and positive
terminal to n-type as shown in figure. The
increased potential barrier prevents the flow of
charge carriers across the junction.
Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence the
current does not flow.
The V-I characteristics curve of p-n junction diode is as shown in figure. Forward
characteristics are there in I quadrant. When the forward voltage is increased, the
current increase slowly. As soon as the externally applied voltage exceeds the barrier
voltage, heavy current starts to flow. Reverse characteristics are shown in III
quadrant. When reverse voltage is increased, it will further increase the barrier voltage.
At one instance, the barrier breaks and heavy current (reverse current) starts to flow.
Breakdown Voltage: It is the minimum reverse voltage at which p-n junction breaks
down with sudden rise in reverse current.
Knee Voltage: It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts
to increase rapidly.
Where,
I = current flowing through the diode
I0 = dark saturation current
q = charge on the electron
V = Voltage applied across the diode
= constant, (for Ge, = 1 & for Si, = 2)
is the Boltzmann constant (26mV at room temp.)
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
KT = 26 mV at room temperature
I0 is the Dark Saturation Current. It indicates the leakage current density flowing through
the diode in the absence of light.
is the constant. The value of is typically considered to be 1 for germanium diodes
and 2 for silicon diodes.
In forward biased condition, there will a large amount of current flow through the diode.
On the other hand, if the diode is reverse biased, then the exponential term in above
equation becomes negligible. Thus we have
Anode-Cathode Diode
Resistance Test
Take the ohmmeter place the positive probe of the multimeter on the cathode of the
diode and the negative probe on the anode. In this setup now, the diode should read a
much higher resistance, over few K - 1 M.
Open Diode
If the diode reads high resistance in both directions, this is a sign that the diode is open.
A diode should not measure very high resistance in the forward biased direction.
Shorted Diode
If the diode reads low resistances in both directions, this is a sign that the diode is short
circuited. A diode should not measure low resistance in the reverse biased direction.
The diode should be replaced in the circuit.
8. Other Diodes:
A number of specific types of diodes are manufactured for specific applications. Some
of the more common special-purpose diodes are:
a. Zener diode e. Varactor Diode
b. Light-emitting diode (LED) f. PIN Diode
c. Photo-diode g. Schottky diode
d. Tunnel diode h.
8. 1. Zener Diode:
8. 3. Photo Diode:
A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium p-n junction in which
reverse current increases when the junction is exposed to light.
The reverse current in a photo-diode is directly proportional to the intensity of
light falling on its p-n junction. This means that greater the intensity of light falling on the
p-n junction of photo-diode, the greater will be the reverse current.
8. 4. Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode is a p-n junction that exhibits negative resistance between two
values of forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage).
The tunnel diode is basically a p-n junction with heavy doping of p-type and n-
type semiconductor materials. A tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as
heavily as a conventional diode. This heavy doping, result in a large number of majority
carriers. In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is
100 times narrower.
Tunneling effect: Because of the large number of
carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n sections.
This causes many valence electrons to have their energy
levels raised closer to the conduction region. Therefore, it Symbol of Tunnel Diode
takes only a very small applied forward voltage to cause
conduction.
The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the
conduction band with little or no
applied forward voltage is called
tunneling.
8. 5. Varactor Diode:
A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under changing reverse bias
is known as a varactor diode.
When a p-n junction is formed, depletion layer is created in the junction area.
Since there are no charge carriers within the depletion zone, the zone acts as an
insulator. The p-type material with holes (+ve charge) as majority carriers and n-type
material with electrons (ve charge) as majority carriers act as charged plates. Thus the
diode may be considered as a capacitor with n-region and p-region forming oppositely
charged plates and with depletion zone between them acting as a dielectric.
8. 6. PIN Diode:
PIN diode is composed of three sections.
Intrinsic semiconductor (I-layer) is sandwiched
between P and N type material, as shown in figure.
Being intrinsic (or undoped) layer, it offers relatively
high resistance. This high-resistance region gives it
two advantages as compared to an ordinary P-N
diode.
The advantages are:
1. Decrease in capacitance Cpn because capacitance is inversely proportional to the
separation of P-and N-regions. It allows the diode a faster response time. Hence, PIN
diodes are used at high frequencies (more than 300 MHz);
2. Possibility of greater electric field between the P-and N-junctions. It enhances the
electron-hole pair generation thereby enabling PIN diode to process even very weak
input signals.
(b) Operation
When the diode is unbiased, electrons on the n-side have lower energy levels
than electrons in the metal. Hence, they cannot surmount the junction barrier (called
Schottky barrier) for going over to the metal.
When the diode is forward-biased, conduction electrons on n-side gain enough energy
to cross the junction and enter the metal. Since these electrons pushed into the metal
with very large energy, they are commonly called hot-carriers hence this diode is often
referred to as hot-carrier diode.
(c) Applications
This diode possesses two unique features as compared to an ordinary P-N junction
diode:
1. It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as majority carriers on both sides of
the junction;
2. Since no holes are available in metal, there is no depletion layer or stored charges.
Hence, Schottky diode can switch OFF faster than a bipolar diode.