CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

CAD/CAMinCommon
TampereUniversityofTechnologyHeikkiTikka,TuulaHk

5-axis
Milling
3-axis
Milling

Turning Wire 2-axis

Punching
2- to 4- Milling
axis cutting Bending Nesting CMM

BASIC SYSTEM

Image1. Typical modules of CAMsoftware for machine tools and CMMs. Offline pro
grammingofrobotsarenormallyseparatesoftwares.

The following image on the next page presents phases in CAD / CAM program
ming.Innextparagraphsthephasesareexplainedindetail.

CADModelandCADProductionModel
It is rather common that CAD models contain more information than necessary
from the machining tools programming point of view. Only the features, which
formpartgeometry,areneeded.ThisgeometryiscalledaProductionModel.The
production model might need some additional features like a blank, thread and
tolerated elements in other than nominal positions. The geometry has to be con
tinuous. There should not be bad CAD geometry elements like holes between
surfacesoroverlappingsurfaces.ItispossiblethattheCAMsoftwarecalculatesa
toolpatherroneouslyaroundbadgeometry:Thetoolcansliponsideordropout.

Choosingasuitablemachiningtool,cuttingtoolsandparametersselection
The next step is selection of the best machining tool. Usually the programming
processisdifferentinthecaseofdifferentmachinetools.Thetoolpathcannotbe
transferredtoanothermachinetool.Theselectionbetweenavailablemachinetools
usuallymakestheselectionofcuttingtoolsalso.Thisisduethefactthatdifferent
machinetoolshaveaspecificrangeofcuttingtools,fixturesandclampingdevices.
Environmentalissuesforcemachineshopstocirculatewastematerial.Itispossible
that some machine tools are used in cutting some specially selected materials in
order to ease the waste material collection. The materials are recycled in material
groups like structural steel, tool steel, stainless steel, aluminum. One milling ma
chine is for aluminum, another for structural steel, etc. Cutting fluids are also
specifictomaterialstobecut.

CAD/CAMinCommon1
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Generatingthetoolpath
CAMprogrammerusessomeCAMsoftwareingeneratingNCoperationsandtool
paths. This phase includes also defining postprocessor (PP) commands. PP com
mandsdonotaffecttoolpathsimulation,buttheydoaffectthefinalcuttingprocess
in the machine tool. PP commands are parameters to control for example spindle
rotatingorcuttingspeed,toolandpalletchangeoperations,feedrate,cooling,etc.
In part these parameters are common for every machine tool, old or new even
independent of the NC control they have.
But there are also a plenty of machine
specificparameters.TheNCprogramisnot
common but very much pointed to the
chosenmachinetool.

Simulationandpathmodification
The main important target in tool path
simulation is to avoid collisions. Properly
done simulation fastens the production
startup phase. Machine tool operating
personnelcanrelyonthesimulationresults
and use the NC program in the selected
machine tool after a minimum number of
tests.

Image2. AstepbystepworkingstreamofCAM
OffLineProgramming.

CLandAPTData
CLdata (Cutter Location Data) and APT (Automatically Programmed Tools) are
standardCAMoutputformats.Theyconsistofcommonexpressionsformanufac
turing processes and post processor commands. CL is an IBM standard from
1950ties. APT is a MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) programming
language. It was made in 1955 together with AIA (Aerospace Industries Associa
tion). APT language was the very first programming language for describing tool
geometry and the movements according to the geometry; and for translating the
tool path into CLdata format. APT contains also postprocessor commands to
controlthemachinetools.

Postprocessing
The last step is to convert (to Post Process PP) the NCprogram into a native
format,whichwillbeacceptedbythemachinetoolcontrolsystem.Theoutputwill
beISOtextcode.Itisfinallyreadytobetransferredtothemachinetool.Usuallythe
code is transferred through a local network. Each different machine tool has a
unique post processor. Post processors input CLdata and output NCcode. Post
processors are typically programmed in small software houses or by CAD/CAM
users.

CAD/CAMinCommon2
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Millingparametersinofflineprogramming
Millingmeansthatacuttingtoolisrotating.Thetoolandthespindleaxesareboth
called Z axis. The two main milling operations are rough and finish machining.
Toolmovementsarecomposedwitharcsandlines.
Standardmachinetooloperateswiththreenumericallycontrolledaxes.Themove
mentsareoftenprocessedwithtwoaxes(XandY)atthetime.Basicgeometrieslike
plane, hole and groove are easy to rough and finish. There are special milling
operations like pocketing, threading and milling. High speed milling process re
quiresextracontrolincornermovementstokeepthecuttingforcesconstant.High
speedmillingistypicallyusedforhardenedmaterial.
Parameterslikecuttingspeed,toolfeedrateandchipthicknessaffecttheworkpiece
surfacequality.Toolmaterialandcoolingaffectalso.Inadditiontothese,thereare
some software related parameters which affect workpiece surface roughness, chip
removal,aswellasthelengthoftheNCprogramandthetimerequiredformachin
ing.Theseparametersare:
ScallopHeight(CuspHeight)
ConstantStepOver
Thecuttinggeometryoftooltip
Tolerance(TOL,OUTTOL,INTOL)
MaximumSweep
Whichtypeofmilling,3,or5axis

Scallop Height (Cusp Height) affect workpiece surface roughness together with
the tool and CADgeometries. Scallop height controls the passing distance of
toolpathsperpendiculartothefeedratedirection.Theheightofthefinishedsurface
textureandtopographydependsontoolgeometry,cuttingprocedure(forexample
thenumberofpasses,cuttingdirection,etc.).Distancebetweencuttingpassesisnot
constant.ThisparametercannotbeusedatthesametimewiththeConstantStep
Over parameter. Constant step over means, that the distance between cutting
passesisconstant.Defaultdistanceis50%oftooldiameter.

Image3. Therest(R)materialaftertoolpassesiscalledScallopHeight(alsoCuspHeight).
Restmaterialappearsonsurfaceswhicharenotperpendiculartoaspindle.Theformofthe
restmaterialandappearingsurfaceroughnessdependsoncombinationofthetoolgeometry
andthepartsurfacegeometry.

CAD/CAMinCommon3
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Tooltipcuttinggeometry

The axis of tool

Length
Diameter

Corner
Flatradius
nose

Image4. Thetoolcuttingedgeisconstructedbyparameters(leftAPTparameters).

The tool is described with parameters when the CAM software calculates a tool
path(controlpoints)andalsowhentheCAMsoftwarecalculatesatoolpathsimu
lation. The tool model must be as close as possible to the real tool geometry.
Otherwisecuttingparametersdonotproduceanaccuratecuttingresultandcolli
siondetectingdoesnotpresentreallifesituations.
The tool path consists of small segments of arcs and curves. CAD model surfaces
are broken down into short line segments brakelines. A tool path tolerance de
fines how accurately the cutting tool follows the CAD model surface. Tolerance
affects the distance of control points in the NCprogram or in other words, the
length of the brakelines. With this arrangement, the tool side and surface rough
ness are controlled in the direction of feed rate of the tool. Tolerance affects also
rapidlytothesizeandlengthoftheNCprogram.CAMtoolpathtoleranceisnot
the same as a geometrical tolerance (ISO 1101) determining the size or form of a
feature. The tolerance can be symmetrical, outside or inside the CADsurface (or
CAD profile). If the tolerance is small,the brakelines might be short, but theline
lengthdependsalsoontheCADmodelcurvature.

Image5. Tolerancedoesnotdeterminedimensions.Itdeterminesonwhichsideandhowfar
thetoolpathisallowedtogofromtheCADmodelsurface.Thetoleranceaffectsonthetool
side,lengthofbrakelinesinNCprogramandthesurfacequalityinthedirectionofthefeed
rate.

CAD/CAMinCommon4
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

CAM software can adopt yet another parameter to control the brakeline length,
MaximumSweep.Withthisparameterthedistanceofcontrolpointsinthedirec
tionoffeedrateislimited.OnflatorsmoothlycurvedCADmodelthisparameter
forcesthesoftwaretogeneratetoolpathcontrolpointsindistanceandallowslong
brakelines.
Thenextpicturepresentsadifferencein3axisand5axismilling.In3axismilling
machinethespindleandtoolorientationsarefixed.Dependingontheconstruction
of the machine tool, the spindle can be vertical or horizontal. If a machine tool is
equipped with more than three controllable axes, either the spindle or workpiece
canbetilted.In5axismachinetoolsthisgivesapossibilitytocontrolthetoolaxis
perpendicular to the workpiece surface in order to get a better surface roughness
(Seeimagebelow).Stillinmanycasesthe5axismillingmachineoperatordoesnot
usealladvantagesof5axismillingevenifitmightprovideabettersurfacequality.

Image6. Threeaxismilling(left)ofcurvedpartsurfacewithafixedspindleleavesmorerest
material(R)than5axismilling(right)wherethespindleandtoolaxesarerotatednormal
totheworkpiecesurface.

After finish machining operations the workpiece surfaces must have a proper
surfaceroughnessaswellasacorrectshape,dimensionsandtolerances.Theseare
based on a correct CAD data, but also the manufacturing process, machine tool,
cutting tools, clamping, and cutting technology parameters affect tolerances and
surfaceroughness.Machiningresultdependsonskillsofthemachineoperatorand
the CAM programmer. The programmer affects the process, strategy of cutting
direction and cutting steps. Together with the tool and CAD data all these will
affecttothefinishedtopography.
The parameters affect also to the length of the NCprogram. Old machine tools
sometimes have a very small memory capacity and are not able to use long NC
programs. On the other hand long programs need more time to run. An accurate
NCprogramgivesabetterworkpiecesurfacequalitybutatthesametimeitvery
timeconsumingandexpensive.

CAD/CAMinCommon5
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Millingoperations
CAMsoftwarehelpstogeneratetoolpaths.Stillitisveryimportanttohaveadeep
practical knowledge and experience of milling to be able to produce effective
cuttingprograms.
The next simple examples present typical milling operations, which are normally
used for quick removal of material if cutting forces are an issue. There are lots of
parameterstocontroltoolpassesanddirections,buttherearealsodifferentcalcula
tion methods. The leftmost image below presents one example, an offset method,
whichcopiestheoutsidecurvaturelimitingtheareatoberemoved.

Image7. Some examples of different milling operations to be used in roughing and fine
machining.

Surfacemillingisnormallydonewithatleast3axes.5axistoolpathcanprogress
as zigzag (lace), zig (nolace) or spiral cutting to a selected direction. If exists, the
limiting geometry must be treated with a special procedure. The question is how
thecuttingofonesurfaceiscontrolledattheedges.Inmanycasesthereisagroup
ofsurfaces,whicharemilledtogetherasonesurface
Rough machining is best executed with big and rigid tools. The aim is to remove
materialasmuchaspossibleandwiththecheapestpossibleway.Mostoftherest
materialwillbeininternalcorners.Ifthesoftwareiscapableofrecognizingtherest
material,itisquicklyremovedwithasmallertool.Restmaterialmachiningsavesa
lotoftimecomparedtotheoldermethodtomillallsurfacesagain.

CAD/CAMinCommon6
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Image8. Anexampleofmillingadoublecurvedsurface(SURFCUT).NOLACEmeansthat
thetoolpathproceedstoonedirectionandretractsbyrapidmovement.

Image9. Itistypicaltouselargediametertoolsinroughmachiningphases.Largediameter
toolsareabletoremovematerialeffectively.Therestmaterialisblankforthenextopera
tionswithsmalltools.

5axismilling
5axismillingisareasonableespeciallyforfinishingoperations.Thetoolgeometry
togetherwiththebestorientationagainsttheworkpiecesurfacegeneratesawished
surfaceroughnesseconomically.Thereareafewmainprinciples:swarfcut,keeping
a cutting tool axis linear to the workpiece surface normal, heading a tool axis to
wards a set point, heading a tool axis towards a nearest point in a specifically
drawncurvatureorheadingatoolaxisparalleltoaspecificallydrawncurvature.In
all these cases it is possible to limit the tool tilting angle within XY, YZ or XZ
planes.ThebestCAMproductscandetectpossiblecollisionsandretracttoolauto
matically. Usually the programmer has to be careful enough to avoid collisions,
whichareverydifficulttopredictwithoutgoodsimulationtools.

CAD/CAMinCommon7
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

In some cases it is better to usea 5axis milling machine as a3axis machine. The
tool is oriented to the best machining position using 5axis capabilities, locked to
theselectedpositionandtheactualtoolpathprogresseswithmovementssimilarto
3axis machining. Clamped axes are rigid and stand more cutting forces. More
material can be removed and the result is more accurate than with freely moving
axes.
Differencesbetween3axisand4or5axismachines:
5axismachinesarebiggerandneedgreatertravelsasstandardmilling
machines
Itispossibletomoveallfiveorfouraxesatthesametime.Sometimesitis
morepracticaltorotatethetooltooptimalalignmentagainsttheworkpiece
anddothemillingbyusingthree,twoorbyoneaxisatatime.Lockedaxes
providelessfreedomtomove,butmorerigidcuttingconditions.
Longcuttingtoolshelptoavoidcollisionwithtoolholderandspindlehead
Insomecasestheworkpiecemustbemachinedaround.Thisneedsalotof
extraworkingspace.
Themachinetoolmustbedynamicallyrigidenoughtodothepointsmen
tionedabove
Thespindleheadmustberigidandstandbigcuttingforcesaswellasmo
mentseveninstaticsituationswheresomeaxesareclamped.Thisistypical
duringroughing

Image10. 5axis milling machine spindle and tool orientation is controlled by the
normalofCADsurface.Goodmethodinmachiningopendoublecurvedsurfaces.

CAD/CAMinCommon8
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Image11. In 5axis milling it is possible to mill

withthesideoftool

1. 2.

Image12. 5axismillinginmouldapplications.Toolaxis
iskeptparalleltotheworkpiecesurfacenormal.Norestrictionsin
tilting angles. The situation in the image 1 is possible. The
situation in the image 2 more problematic. And as soon as the
tool has passed the corner rounding, it raises up to a vertical
position. With small corner roundings a collision occurs. Unre
stricted5axismillinginthesurfacenormaldirectionisrarelya
goodoptioninmouldcavitymilling.

Image13. Bettertoheadthetoolaxisthroughaclosestpointinadrawncurvature
whenmachiningcoresurfaces(outsidesurfaces).

CAD/CAMinCommon9
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Image14. Cavitysurfaces(insidesurfaces)canbemachinedifthetoolaxisisheaded
throughacurvature(left)orapoint(right).Some5axismillingCAMproductsaresmart
enough to calculate a retracting movement in the case of collision with the cavity wall.
Withoutthesekindoftools,theprogrammerhastobecarefulinavoidingcollisions.

Image15. Cuttingfeedrateisdependentofthedistancefromtherotatingcenterlike
tableandspindlehead.

Image16. Cutting feed rate should be

constantonthesurface.Becauseoflongtoolsit
leads to over speed of the axis which the NC
controlcannotprovide.

CAD/CAMinCommon10
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Image17. Tilting tool. In

thefiguretheorientationofthetool
iscontrolledbythenormaldirection
ofsurface.Itiscommontotiltatool
for example forward (lead angle) to
getabettercuttingsituation.

Theresultintiltedfacemillingisslightlyconcavesurface.Withballnosetoolsthere
isnocenterpointwithzerocuttingspeed.

Image18. Aproblemwherea
tilted tool nose is controlled but can
unexpectedly catch the workpiece by
thetail.

SomeaspectoftheNCControl
Processorandcalculationsspeedmustbehigherthanintraditionalmilling
BadNCcontrolwillproducebadsurfacequality
Radiusandlengthcompensationsmightnotbepossibleatthesametime
Somecontrolscanorientthetoolinfiveaxisbutonlythreecanmovesi
multaneouslyduringthecuttingprocess

CAD/CAMinCommon11
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Insomecasesaconstantfeedratemustbeusedforrotationalorlinear
movements
InfutureitispossibletocalculatetheNCpathandtunethefeedrateby
monitoringthepreviouslycutsurface
Arealtimemachiningiscoming.ThegeometryisusedattheNCcontrol.
Thecuttingprocessstartsatthesamemomentasthecalculationofatool
path.Thebenefitisthatthediameterandfinishingtolerancecanbeinput
tedinthemachinetoolcontrol

Fiveaxismachinesexistindifferentconstructions.Alotofdifferencesandtechni
caldetails,whichareimportanttotakeintoaccount.

Construction 1: Rotational axes are in the table (a workpiece is rotating and tilt
ing):
Aspindlecanbesmall,whichmakesiteasiertoaccesssmallgeometryfea
tures
Notverycostlyconstruction
Suitableforsmallpieces
Rathereasytomakeacollisionontothefixture
Inertialforcesmightlimitthefeedratebecauseaheavymasstobemoved

Image19. Afixedspindlewitharotaryandtiltingtable

Construction2:Thespindleisrotatingandtilting:
Usuallytheanglesofaspindlearecontrolled
Suitsverywellforlargeworkpieces(portalmachines)
Awideworkspaceisneeded.Themachinesarelargeandexpensive
Nottoodifficulttoavoidcollisions
Spindlepowercanbelimitedifbiganglesareused.Complicatedconstruc
tion,wherethemotorisoutsidethechangeablespindlehead
Thesimplestconstructionistopackthespindleandmotortogether.Then
thewholepackageisturnedandtilted
Thebigcuttingforcesinroughmachiningmightbelimiting.Thiscanbe
helpedbylockingsomeoftheaxesinthespindle

CAD/CAMinCommon12
 CAEDSMouldPartsManufacturing

Image20. Fixedorrotarytablewitharotatingandtiltingspindle

The latest constructionsfor light machining are called hexapoids. The movements
aswellasrotatingandtiltingofthetableorspindlearerealizedbysixfreedomof
lineartelescopes.Thenextimagepresentssomeexamples.

Image21. Hexapoid (6 degrees of freedom) where the spindle is fixed on the table
(jointsoftelescopes)andcanbemovedlikearobot.Itcanalsoberotatedaswellasmoved
linearlylikemachinetools.Constructedwithsixlinearelectricservotelescopes.

CAD/CAMinCommon13