ARTICLE IN PRESS

Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17

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Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engappai

A neural network model-based observer for idle speed control of ignition

in SI engine
Jacek Czarnigowski 
Lublin University of Technology, Machine Design, Nadbystrzycka 36, Lublin, Poland

a r t i c l e in fo abstract

Article history: The paper presents an algorithm of idle speed stabilization in the spark ignition automotive engine by
Received 16 April 2008 means of spark advance control. The algorithm is based on a well-known approach of a model-based
Received in revised form adaptive control and uses articial neural networks. The control algorithm is based on a neural network
19 October 2008
model observer of the additional effective torque. The additional load is estimated as difference
Accepted 11 September 2009
Available online 28 October 2009
between effective torque, estimated by the neural network observer, and brake torque, estimated on the
basis of a linear quadratic model. In that case the additional load is understood as the sum of the
Keywords: alternator brake torque (additional load form electric car equipments) and the momentary and/or
Internal combustion engine permanent changes of the engines characteristics.
Idle speed
On the basis of estimated values of the additional load, the required value of angular acceleration is
Ignition control
determined to make the engine return to the specied speed. This acceleration is achieved by adjusting
Model-based observer
Spark advance control the spark advance. The required value of spark advance is estimated by means of a neural network
model converse to that of the effective torque.
The algorithm was experimentally compared with PID and adaptive algorithms in the same test bed.
The tests were conducted under sudden change of external load. The proposed algorithm proved to be
more effective in terms of control error.
& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Internal combustion engine control algorithms are required to
provide stable work of the engine, regardless of the variability of
loads, operating conditions and changes of the engine character-
istics. In the same time, the market demands also a reduction of
toxic emissions, noise and vibrations, and improvement of the
systems reliability. All these requirements impose implementa-
tion of new additional systems (e.g. exhaust gases recirculation
valve, variable valve timing systems) and more exible and
accurate control algorithms.
Energy produced by the engine is also used for supplementary
onboard devices, the presence of which determines the quality of
the car in terms of the users safety and comfort. It is estimated
that in the next few years an average demand for electric power
will exceed 2 kW (AlternatorsTechnical Instruction, 19971998;
Nicastri and Huang, 2000). Such loads consume a considerable
share of energy produced by the engine, especially during its work
in idle speed, which takes from 15% to 20% of the total engine
service life (Wendeker and Czarnigowski, 2000). Switching on (or
off) individual electric devices is done discretely, which results in
the engine being engaged (or disengaged) with a torque of several
 Tel.: + 48 815384204; fax: +48 815384200.
E-mail address: j.czarnigowski@pollub.pl
Nm. Especially in the case of the idle run, this can results in
undesirable changes of the engine speed.
Another problem is non-stationarity and non-uniformity of
engine work. This is the effect of changes to the engines
characteristics during its service life. The changes may be
explained by changes of operating conditions that escape the
control systems sensors, such as humidity, position above sea
level or air pollution, but also by natural wear of the engine, or
variability of oil and fuel parameters.
The purpose of controlling the engine in idle run is to stabilize
the engine speed at a desirable level. Any oscillation in the speed
of a crankshaft results in vibrations of the components of the
vehicles body. These are important from the point of the users
comfort. Moreover, they hinder control of airfuel mixture
composition. This is due to variability of mixture mass reaching
the cylinder caused by changes of the lling time.
Key control variables, such as the spark advance and the
mixture mass (cylinder lling factor) are used to control the
engine speed. In most cases, both of them are used in parallel. If
the changes of the additional loads are considerable, the mixture
mass to reach the cylinder is being adjusted, e.g. by means of the
by-pass valve. If the changes are smaller and quick response is
required, control is executed by adjusting spark advance.
Most of the currently used idle speed control algorithms are
based on a PID controller. There are many publications discussing
examples of synthesizing the parameters for such controllers

0952-1976/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2009.09.008
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2 J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17
(Badreddine et al., 2001; Hrovat and Sun, 1997; Howell and Best,
2000; Shim et al., 1995). However, these algorithms do not satisfy
growing performance requirements, and better solutions are
looked for.
Algorithms such as PID or H-innity base on simple linear
models of the controlled phenomenon (Badreddine et al., 2001;
Howell and Best, 2000; Shim et al., 1995). Therefore, the engines
operation is brought to a linear function describing either the
relationship between the engine speed in the idle run and the
spark advance (PID controller), or between the engine speed and
the spark advance plus state parameters (LQR and H-innity
algorithms (Shim et al., 1995).
As is generally known, the engines characteristics are far from
being linear (Wendeker and Czarnigowski, 2003a). This is
particularly visible in the case of the effective torque. To solve
control problems arising from this fact, non-linear models are
applied. It is argued that the most effective tools for that are
articial neural networks. Once the effective torque value is
known, the additional loads can be easily estimated, and
consequently control can be exercised.
2. Model-based observer algorithm
An original control algorithm developed by the authors is
based on the indirect adaptation, with one parameter identied
by means of a neural-network observer. The parameter is the
additional load on the engine in idle run M b add . This parameter
reects not only the actual alternator load, resulting from
engaging an energy-consuming onboard device, but also any
momentary changes of the effective torque or braking torque. The
parameter is then used by the regulator for calculating a new
control value. A owchart of this approach to control is presented
in Fig. 1.
The additional load is estimated according to
_ _ _ In the case of the tested engine, the duration of the calculation
b add i M i i  M b i  M inertia i
M 1
_
In the above equation, the indicated torque M i is estimated by
means of a neural network model, inputs of which are: engine
speed n, intake-manifold pressure MAP and spark advance angle
fi.
_
M i i ANNni; MAPi; fi i  1
_
The braking torque M b is estimated by means of a model
described by a quadratic function of engine speed
_ of these calculations is presented in Fig. 2.
M b i a2 Uni2 a1 Uni a0
The third summand in Eq. (1) is the braking torque due to the
engines inertia, calculated on the basis of the moment of engines
_
inertia J and the reduced engine acceleration a. The latter is
Fig. 1. Model-based control algorithm owchart.
calculated from the difference between the current engine speed
and the speed measured in the previous step.
_ _
Minertia i JUai 4
In order to reduce the systems vulnerability to measurement
noise and non-repeatability of the engines operation, the
acceleration is to be ltered, and the reduced acceleration is
calculated using
_
_ ai ga Uai  1
ai 5
1 ga
where a(i) is the actual momentary engine acceleration calculated
in the i step of calculations, ga the coefcient of the rate of the
estimation procedure adaptation, its value 2.4 has been estab-
lished experimentally.
The additional load Mb add is used for calculating the value of the
required effective torquesufcient for achieving a required
engine speed in the next step of calculations. The value of
indicated torque to correct the engine speed is calculated using
M b
i i 1 M add i M b i M inertia i 1 6
It is assumed that the braking torque M b is to change from its
value calculated in the previous step, which is due to the change
of the engine speed. The authors adopted a simplied method of
estimating Mb on the basis of the average initial engine speed n(i)
and the required engine speed n0. The method allows also for the
braking torque (M inertia ) caused by acceleration from the current
speed to the required speed during one step of calculations (i.e.
during one control cycle)
p n0  ni
M inertia i 1 J 7
30 Dt
where n0 is the required engine speed, n(i) the current (measured)
engine speed of the i step of calculations, Dt the duration of one
step of calculations.
step (one control cycle) has been established to be a half of the
duration of the crankshaft turn.
The last stage of calculations is aimed at nding the value of
the control parameter, i.e. the spark advance angle, to achieve the
required indicated torque:
2
ji fmi 1 9ji M i i 1 8
The function dening the required spark advance was
calculated on the basis of successive approximations. A owchart
3 In terms of the control systems design theory, the rst part of
the algorithm, described by Eqs. (1)(7), is a neural network-based
disturbance observer. The second part Eq. (8) uses the indicated
torque model to determine control value; it is thus an element of a
model-based control algorithm.
3. Test stand
The experiments were conducted in the laboratory of the Chair
of Combustion Engines of the Lublin University of Technology. The
test stand (Fig. 3) was divided in two sections. The engine section
comprised a brake, the engines systems of electric power, fuel
supply, cooling water circulation and exhaust disposal, and the
engine itself together with its sensors and actuators. The control
section housed recording and control systems. The test stand
allowed applying variable loads to the engine and stabilizing its
speed by means of the SAK-N-760 brake (by VEB Elbtalwerk),
equipped with an AMX 231 controller (by Automex). The cooling
system, controlled by means of the ADAM 5510 system (by
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J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17
Fig. 2. Model-based control calculation owchart.
Fig. 3. Test bed diagram.
Advantech), stabilized the temperature of the coolant. The fuel
consumption was measured by weight by means of AMX 212F
scales (by Automex) (Fig. 4). For the measurement of pressure in
the combustion chamber a piezoelectric sensor (601A type) with
7055B spark plug adapter was used, both manufactured by
Kristler. The measured signal was recorded by means of PCL
818HG data acquisition device by Advantech, connected to a PC.
The engine was equipped with a camshaft position sensor. It
was a MH420-6 optoelectronic converter by Megatron. Its 10-bit
3
Fig. 4. Engine of a POLONEZ 1.5 GLI car in the test bed.
Table 1
POLONEZ 1.5 GLIbasic parameters.
Engine capacity 1481 cm3
Cylinder diameter 77.0 mm
Piston stroke 79.5 mm
Compression ratio 9.2
Valves per cylinder 2
Power 57 kW5300 RPM
Torque 115 Nm2800 RPM
Injection system Single point MULTEC ACG TBI 700
Ignition system Distributorless ignition systemDIS
converter permitted determining the angle with the graduation of
1024 points per rotation.
The object of tests was a standard engine of a POLONEZ 1.5 GLI
car, equipped by the manufacturer with a MULTEC control system
(one-point injection system with Distributorless Ignition Sys-
temDIS). (Table 1).
The control unit was a universal engine controller AMX 200
CAN designed and constructed at the Lublin University of
Technology for purposes of testing control algorithms. The system
was designed to control single-point or multi-point injection
system engines (up to 4 injector groups) with a DIS ignition
system and a by-pass air control system with a stepper motor. The
controller processed signals from eight onboard sensors. Installa-
tion of a CAN bus enabled the real-time control of the engine by
means of a PC.
TDC signal sent by DIS activated the measurement of signals
from all available sensors. The data obtained that way were then
transmitted through the CAN bus to the data transmission
servicing module, then coded and transmitted to the PC, where
the control algorithm was calculated and control parameters were
produced (Fig. 5). On their receipt, the transmission servicing
module was decoding and transferring them to the control
module. Control parameters were realized by the control
module in the next cycle of the engines operation.
The source of the additional load was a set of light bulbs
connected in parallel to the engine wiring. A discrete change in the
consumption of power resulted in an increased power generation
in the alternator as a result of voltage controller operation, i.e.
increasing the alternators load. The use of bulbs permitted
attaching a stable load in a discrete manner, as the power
consumed by bulbs did not change signicantly while switching
the system on and off. At the same time, activation of a full power
consumption occurred in a sufciently short time (shorter than a
single computation cycle of the control system). It was deter-
mined that the consumption of energy at the level of 100 W
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4 J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17
Fig. 5. Control system software.
corresponded to the increase in the external torque of the engine
of approximately 2.5 Nm.
4. Algorithm identication and verication
The algorithm required identifying the parameters of the
model of the effective torque, brake torque and the moment of the
engines inertia. The identication of the parameters covered
exclusively the idle speed, as it was designed for the synthesis and
verication of idle speed control algorithms. The scope of
verication was therefore conned to
 engine speed range from 600 to 1300 RPM,
 manifold pressure range from 30 to 60 kPa,
 spark advance range from 01 to 301 before TDC.
The experiments covered overall 108 test points. The tests were
conducted in a steady state. The coolant temperature was
7572 1C, the oil temperature was 50 72 1C, and the temperature
of the surrounding was 25 71 1C. The air humidity was 50 75%
and the air pressure 100473 hPa. The indicated torque was
calculated on the basis of the combustion chamber pressure as
average from 200 cycles, which was assumed to eliminate the
interferences resulting from the adopted measurement and
calculation methods. The data were used for constructing a neural
network model of the indicated mean effective pressure as
described in Section 4.1.
In parallel with the in-cylinder pressure measurements, the
braking torque was tested. Using a direct current device facilitated
not only braking, but also propelling the engine during the tests. The
results were approximated with a polynomial of second degree:
_
M b i a2 Uni2 a1 Uni a0
where n(i) is the engine speed in RPM; a0 =3.80; a1 = 0.0084;
a2 =0.000018.
The last parameter to be identied was the engines moment of
inertia. The test of free coasting was conducted and deceleration
measured (Fig. 6). On its basis, the average value of moment of
inertia was estimated to be J =0.16 kg m2.
4.1. Neural network models
The effective torque model was constructed on the basis of a
MLP BP neural network. The inputs were: the engine speed, the
Fig. 6. Deceleration on free coasting of the engine.
intake-manifold pressure and the injection start angle. The
network type was a one-direction with one or two hidden layers
and of bi-polar sigmoid activation function (multi-layer precep-
tor). As the literature on the subject (Kimura et al., 1998; Shi-Wei
and Ding-Li, 2005; He and Rutland, 2004) argued that MLP
networks were suitable for modeling internal combustion en-
gines, the author decided to use the same network type.
The choice of input signals resulted from the analysis of
parameters affecting the indicated torque. In order to increase
precision of the network, the inputs and output were standardized
to take values from the range from 0 to 1. The process of teaching
used the back propagation algorithm (Bromnick, 1999) and
proceeded off-line on the basis of data obtained during the
identication tests.
The results of the identication tests used in the teaching
process were divided in two sets: a teaching one and a testing one,
in such a way that they were representative for the whole range of
engine operation examined (Table 3). The number of samples was
dened at the stage of planning the experiment.
The author developed his own C++ program for calculations and
teaching the neural network. The reason was the need for
compatibility with the software used by the controller.
The structure of the network was based on preliminary
calculations and a compromise between the accuracy and speed
of data processing. A very important factor considered while
choosing the network type was the duration of calculations. It had
to be shorter than 1.4 ms, i.e. 101 of crank rotation at 1200 RPM.
Only under this condition the algorithm was capable of processing
data on-line.
For the preliminary tests, a set of 10 one-hidden-layer and 15
two-hidden-layers neural networks was used. A set of 70 samples
was used as a teaching set for all these networks. Table 2 presents
some results of teaching process with their learning errors and
calculation durations in ms. The learning factor and moment
9 factor were b =0.015 and L= 0.4 accordingly. These values were
assumed as by the authors of (Bromnick, 1999; Kimura et al.,
1998) and on the basis of preliminary tests.
MLP 3-5-4-1 BP was chosen to be the best network type for the
main tests as its learning error was the lowest among the networks
whose duration of calculations was below the required limit.
Table 3 contains results obtained in 200 000 epochs for MLP 3-
5-4-1 BP neural network. This corresponded in any case to the
moment of completing the teaching process. The correctness of
the model was veried on the basis of additional tests.
During the teaching process there was no interchange of
samples between the teaching and the testing sets. The learning
samples were fed into the network in a predened order. After
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J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17 5

feeding each sample into the network, the weights of the network
were adjusted. In the case of the teaching set, the assessment of
the networks approximation error took place after a whole epoch
of calculations. As for the testing set, the error assessment was
conducted after a xed number of epochs (1000). For both
teaching and testing variables, the teaching process was con-
tinued until a constant value of the dened mean error between

Table 2
The neural network learning results for different ANN types.

Articial neural Learning error for testing Duration of

network type samples calculations (ms)

One hidden layer

3-4-1 0.120 0.73
3-7-1 0.102 0.82
3-10-1 0.091 0.91
3-14-1 0.072 0.99
3-18-1 0.064 1.08
3-19-1 0.058 1.12
3-20-1 0.062 1.16 Fig. 8. Relationship between indicated torque and spark advance at constant
Two hidden layers pressure in manifold and engine speed.
3-4-3-1 0.092 1.21
3-4-4-1 0.083 1.24
the consecutive teaching iterations was obtained (Bromnick,
3-5-5-1 0.048 1.35
3-5-4-1 0.052 1.31 1999). The results are shown in Table 3 and in Figs. 7 and 8.
3-5-8-1 0.042 1.43
3-7-4-1 0.038 1.52
5. Application of the algorithm

Table 3 Tests were performed at the required speed of 800 rpm, in the
The neural network learning results MLP 3-5-4-1 BP.
steady state of a warm engine (the temperature of the coolant was
No. of samples Correlation coefcient 90 1C, the temperature of the lubricating oil was 92 1C). The initial
value of the spark advance was 101 before TDC. The recording of
Teaching Testing data started after 40 s from the experiments start (Fig. 9). After
the next 20 s, there was a discrete increase in the engagement of
70 10 0.994
the crankshaft of approximately 2.5 Nm, and after another several
Learning error seconds, the additional load was disengaged. After about 30 s, the
Teaching Testing recording of data was terminated. The rst 40 s of the test were
aimed at stabilizing the parameters of the adaptive algorithm. To
0.043 0.052
allow for the impact of the non-repeatability of the tests, the
experiment was performed three times, and the average of three
measurements was calculated.
To assess the performance of the developed algorithm, the
authors compared it with a PID and an adaptive algorithm
(Wendeker and Czarnigowski, 2003b; Czarnigowski et al., 2005).
The adaptive algorithm was a linear model-based control algo-
rithm with continuous identication of parameters.
The following aggregate indicator of the quality of control w
was calculated:
v
u N
1u X
w t n  n0 2 10
N i0 i

where ni is the engine speed in an ith performance, n0 the

Fig. 7. Comparison between the calculated and the measured values of the
indicated torque for MLP 3-5-4-1 BP.
desirable engine speed, N the number of measurement points
taken into account in an analysis.
The changes of the load, the control value and the rotational
speed of the crankshaft are presented in Fig. 9. The quality of
control was experimentally tested under steady and suddenly
changing loads.
It is worth considering, that the proposed algorithm reacted
promptly to the change of the actual additional load. The control
error in the case of changing load was minimalit did not exceed
20 RPM. As Fig. 10 shows, the estimated additional load covered
not only the actual additional load (average value 2.5 Nm), but
also momentary changes of the engines characteristics and other
disturbance.
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6 J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17

Fig. 9. The course of spark advance control by means of the model-based control
algorithm.

The engine speed oscillations around the required value were

signicantly lower than in the case of both PID and adaptive
control. This is due to the instant reaction of the controller: the
controller uses the correction based not only on the control error
but also on the estimated value necessary to recover the required
speed within the shorter possible time, i.e. one cycle. This
particular property makes the algorithm perform so efciently.
However, the proposed algorithm is very sensitive to changes of
the additional load and reacts to both real changes of engine load and
any momentary disturbance. This results in strong oscillations of
estimated additional load values (Fig. 9) and consequently oscillations
of spark advance. In the experiment, the cycle to cycle variability of
the latter ranged from 01 to 251 before TDC.
The sensitivity described above cannot be reduced due to the
construction of the algorithm. A reduction of the cycle to cycle
variability of spark advance is possible by means of an additional
lter at the algorithms output. A lter described by Eq. (5) could be
applied, but it would slow down the systems reaction to the real
changes of additional load, and thus increase the control error.
Analyses of the course of engine speed stabilization, based on
the smoothed average from a number of cycles (Figs. 11, 12),
conrm the advantage of the control algorithm based on the
neural network observer. In the case of increased load (Fig. 11), as Fig. 10. Stabilization of engine speed by sudden change of loadcomparison of
well as decreased load (Fig. 12), the engine speed did not vary three control algorithms.
from the required value by more than 20 RPM. There occurred no
overshoot, characteristic for both the PID and adaptive algorithms.
Moreover, the time of stabilizing the engine speed was and the model-based controllers during the same test. The
considerably shorter: in both analyzed cases it was only 1.5 s, indicator of control quality was calculated on the basis of
compared with 5 s required by the remaining algorithms. unsmoothed values, mean of three consecutive tests. The model-
Fig. 13 compares the performance of the PID, the adaptation based control algorithm proved to be the most precise in terms of
(Wedeneker and Czarnigowski, 2003b; Czarnigowski et al., 2005) keeping the engine speed at the desired level.
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J. Czarnigowski / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 17
Fig. 11. Mean time course of stabilization of engine speed by sudden increase of
loadcomparison of three control algorithms.
Fig. 12. Mean time course of stabilization of engine speed by sudden decrease of
loadcomparison of three control algorithms.
To sum up, the model-based control algorithm demonstrated
the lowest deviation from the required value and was the quickest
in stabilizing the engine speed without oscillation. This was
conrmed by comparing control errors, described by the aggre-
gate indicator of quality w.
6. Conclusions
It has been proved that combining a neural network observer
with an indirect adaptation based on a precise non-linear model of
the engine, reduces the error of the idle speed control signicantly.
Exploiting the knowledge on the engine operation characteristics
to develop a control algorithm facilitates more accurate estimation
7
Fig. 13. The aggregate indicator of control quality w according to the type of
algorithm.
of changes of the engine operation in terms of variability of
additional load and engine parameters. Therefore, the controller
can react quicker and more accurate to the changes of the object of
control. The deeper the understanding of the engines principles of
operation, the more precise the regulation. Both PID and adaptive
control algorithms determine corrections of the control parameter
(spark advance), while the model-based control algorithm offers a
direct value of the control parameter that comprises allowances
not only for the reaction to the detected change, but also for
returning to the required engine speed.
However, this property of the model-based algorithm results in
considerable uctuation of the spark advance. Its prompt changes
facilitate keeping the engine speed at a required level, but are
likely to increase toxic emissions. Thus, the rate of changes should
be reasonably reduced. This cannot be done without raising
control error. Another drawback of the model-based control
algorithm is the necessity of precise identication of the model.
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