COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HIGHWAY

DESIGN
AN END SEMESTER THESIS REPORT SUBMMITED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

BY
ARUN KUMAR BHARTI

(15-MTH-1154)
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF

Prof. SHIVAM SINGH PATEL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAHARISHI UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

LUCKNOW-226013

JUNE-2017
Certificate

This is to certify that the report entitled, Comparative

Analysis of Highway design, submitted by Arun Kumar
Bhartito Maharishi University of Information Technology
Lucknow, for partial fulfillment of award of the degree
Master of Technology in Highway Engineeringis a record
of bonafide work carried out by him under my supervision
and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the results embodied in

this thesis have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any other Degree or Diploma.

Assistant Prof.
Shivam singh Patel
Department of civil engineering
Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my

guide, Assistant Prof. Shivam Patel, for his outstanding
guidance and support during my dissertation work. I
benefited greatly from working under his guidance. His
encouragement, motivation, and support have been
invaluable throughout my studies at Maharishi University of
Information Technology Lucknow.
Special thanks to Assistant Prof. Shashishekhar.
andProf.Dr.S.r. Ali, who were the examiners for my thesis
work. Their comments have helped me a lot in understanding
of concepts clearly.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents
for the encouragement which helped me to complete my
M.tech studies. I also would like to thank my friend Mohit
Kumar Bharti for his support in my project work.

Arun Kumar Bharti

Abstract
New highway design construction and its maintenance are one of
the most vital application of civil engineering while carrying out of
a new road construction ,essential of civil engineering
fundamental such as surveying ,technology used ,earth work
compaction ,grading ,of the road surface etc. Are assured and
carried out very meticulously .in forthcoming chapters an
attempt has made to compared topic such as lying of WBM layer
,WMM layer which part of my project work .

Different design method used in highway design construction.

geometric design method ,pavement design method ,rigid
pavement design studies and continuously work under going
changes .in coming maintenance and testing of the road are also
include in proceeding chapters .these are not my academic
curriculum but also were the main my training work and project
work
 Table of contents
Title Page no.
1. Certificate from guide .....................................................................1

2. Acknowledgement .................................................................2

3. Abstract...................................................... 3

4. List of figures

(a) .lane width for single and two lane roads.

(b). Sight distance.

(c). Alignment of roads.

(d). Aggregates, soil.

(e). Fatigue cracking on road surface.

(f). Rutting on road surface.

(g). Highway drainage design.

(h). subbase and base course.

(i). Pcc use in highway.

(j). Maintenance of highway.

5.List of table

CHAPTER - 1
Introduction.....................................................................

1.1 History.
1.2 Planning and development...............................................
1.3 Financing..........................................................................
1.4 Highway safety
1.5 Design................................................................................
1.6 Requirement of pavements

CHAPTER -2

2. Asphalt or flexible pavement design...............................................

2.1. Asphalts pavement compositions..

2.2. Advantages of asphalt or flexible ..

CHAPTER-3

3. Geometric design.....................................................................

3.1. Geometric design of highway deals with following element...

3.2. cross section.....................................................................

3.3. Elements of cross section.................................................

3.4. Kerbs

3.5. Sight distance..................................................................

3.6. Highway alignment............................................................

CHAPTER-4

4.Highway material and tests

4.1. Components of highway

4.2. Used of material in highway.

4.3. Test of highways.

CHAPTER-5

5. Rigid pavement design............................................................

CHAPTER-6

6. Pavement structural design......................................................

6.1. Types of failure...............................................................

6.2. Fatigue.......................................................

6.3. Rutting........................................

6.4. Flexible pavement overlay design.

6.5. Rigid pavement overlay design

6.6. Drainage system design..

CHAPTER-7

7. Highway constructionmaintenance, andmanagement...............

7.1. Highway construction................................................

7.2. Subbase course construction......................................

7.3. Base course construction.............................................

7.4. Surface course construction

7.5. Hot mix asphalt layer

7.6. Portland cement concrete..

7.7. Highway maintenance..

7.8. Project management.

8. CONCLUSION

9. REFERENCES
Chapter:-1
Introduction
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching
from civil engineering that involves the planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges,
and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of
people and goods. Highway engineering became prominent
towards the latter half of the 20th Century after World War 2.
Standards of highway engineeringare continuously being
improved. Highway engineers must take into account future
traffic flows, design of highway intersections/interchanges,
geometric alignment and design, highway pavement materials
and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and
pavement maintenance.
1.1. History
The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time
of the Romans. With the advancement of technology from
carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles with power
equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit.
The construction of modern highways did not begin until the
late 19th to early 20th century.[
The first research dedicated to highway engineering was
initiated in the United Kingdom with the introduction
ofthe Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930.In the USA,
highway engineering became an important discipline with the
passing of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which aimed to
connect 90% of cities with a population of 50,000 or
more. With constant stress from vehicles which grew larger as
time passed, improvements to pavements were needed. With
technology out of date, in 1958 the construction of the first
motorway in Great Britain (the Preston bypass) played a major
role in the development of new pavement technology.
Design policies standards used in the United States are typically
based on publications of the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials as well as research
promulgated by the Transportation Research Board,
the Institute of Transportation Engineers, the Federal Highway
Administration, and the Department of Transportation.
1.2. Planning and development
Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future
traffic volumes on a road network. Highway engineers strive to
predict and analyze all possible civil impacts of highway
systems. Some considerations are the adverse effects on the
environment, such as noise pollution, air pollution, water
pollution, and other ecological impacts.
1.3. Financing
Developed countries are constantly faced with high
maintenance cost of aging transportation highways. The growth
of the motor vehicle industry and accompanying economic
growth has generated a demand for safer, better performing,
less congested highways. The growth of commerce, educational
institutions, housing, and defense have largely drawn from
government budgets in the past, making the financing of public
highways a challenge.
The multipurpose characteristics of highways, economic
environment, and the advances in highway pricing technology
are constantly changing. Therefore, the approaches to highway
financing, management, and maintenance are constantly
changing as well
1.4. Highway safety
Highway systems generate the highest price in human injury
and death, as nearly 50 million persons are injured in traffic
accidents every year, not including the 1.2 million deaths. Road
traffic injury is the single leading cause of unintentional death
in the first five decades of human life.
Management of safety is a systematic process that strives to
reduce the occurrence and severity of traffic accidents. The
machine interaction with road traffic systems is unstable and
poses a challenge to highway safety management. The key for
increasing the safety of highway systems is to design, build, and
maintain them to be far more tolerant of the average range of
this machine interaction with highways. Technological
advancements in highway engineering have improved the
design, construction, and maintenance methods used over the
years. These advancements have allowed for newer highway
safety innovations.
By ensuring that all situations and opportunities are identified,
considered, and implemented as appropriate, they can be
evaluated in every phase of highway planning, design,
construction, maintenance, and operation to increase the
safety of our highway systems.
1.5. Design
The most appropriate location, alignment, and shape of a
highway are selected during the design stage. Highway design
involves the consideration of three major factors (human,
vehicular, and roadway) and how these factors interact to
provide a safe highway. Human factors include reaction time
for braking and steering, visual acuity for traffic signs and
signals, and car-following behavior. Vehicle considerations
include vehicle size and dynamics that are essential for
determining lane width and maximum slopes, and for the
selection of design vehicles. Highway engineers design road
geometry to ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating
curves and grades and to provide adequate sight distances for
undertaking passing maneuvers along curves on two-lane, two-
way roads.
1.2. of Requirements a pavement
The pavement should meet the following requirements:

sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load

stresses to a safe value on the subgrade soil
Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses
imposed upon it

Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of

vehicles.
Smooth surface to provide comfort to read users
even at highspeed.
Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not
impaired by reducing visibility.
impervious surface, so that subgrade is well protected
Long design life with low maintenance.
 Chapter:- 2
2. Asphalt pavement Design
From some years ago, asphalt has been playing an important
role in our daily activities. We dont even think about it, but
when we go to any place or when we buy something, asphalt
roads are being used.
The European road network consists of about 6.1 million
kilometers of paved roads, andabout 90% of all these
roads are paved with asphalt. The other 10% is made of
concreteand pavers (bricks, cobblestones, etc.). Asphalt is
also used in railway beds,Airportrunways, playgrounds,
running tracks, tennis courts, bridges, tunnels, etc.
Roads are the most used mode of transport. Over 72% of
our inland goods and 83% of
Passengerstravels are done by road, rather than rail, air or
water, so here it is show theimportance of roads.
2.1 Asphalt pavement composition
Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler.
Aggregates used for asphalt couldbe crushed rock, sand,
gravel or slags. In order to get all the aggregates joined
into acohesive mixture, bitumen is used as a binder. The
common asphalt pavement designconsists on different
layers. The bottom layer is the existing soil or sub-grade.
The nextlayer is an aggregate base layer which sometimes
is stabilized with asphalt, cement orfly ash. Then, this is
followed by one or more layers of asphalt pavement.
The main objective of these layers is to give the pavement
the ability to distribute the loads of the traffic, stresses
and strains generated, before it arrives at the
foundationlevel. Also, the viscous nature of the bitumen
allows the pavement structure to sustain significant plastic
deformation, although fatigue from repeated loading is
the mostcommon failure mechanism.
2.2 Advantages of asphalt
Asphalt pavement surfaces offer a lot of benefits
Smoothness and comfort ability:- the construction way of
multiple layerpavements provides and structure
completely smooth, which gives the user thatsense of
comfort when they use the road.
2.2.1. Cost-efficient structure: asphalt has low initial costs,
lasts long, and due to itsrecyclability, has greater residual
value than other pavements. Porous asphaltpavements
are made so that water can drain through the pavement.
Also, usingAsphalt surfaces can significantly reduce the
noise inside and outside the vehicle.
 2.2.2.Safety:- asphalt structures provides a fast drainage
of surface water in order toAvoid floods, and consequently
aquaplaning, and provide better visibility todrivers in these
conditions. Also, it gives more grip to the vehicle wheels
for notslipping from the pavements.
2.2.3. Durability:- roads are commonly designed to last
about 15-20 years, dependingOn the traffic it is supposed
to suffer. When the wearing course has to bereplaced, the
old one is reused into a new asphalt layer. Some properly
designedAnd maintained roads may be more time without
needing total reconstruction.
2.2.4. Fast construction: asphalt pavement dont need cure
time, so constructiontime is short and there are fewer delays
for the traffic during the construction.
- Reusability: asphalt is one of the most recycling
construction products in Europe, so less bitumen has to be
used in the reconstruction of roads.
- Flexibility: roads can be designed to cope with any traffic
load and climate conditions.
Chapter:- 3
3.Geometric design of highways
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway
engineering concerned with the positioning of the physical
elements of the roadway according to standards and
constraints. The basic objectives in geometric design are to
optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and
environmental damage. Geometric design also affects an
emerging fifth objective called "livability," which is defined
as designing roads to foster broader community goals,
including providing access to employment, schools,
businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel
modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles,
and minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental
damage.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of road
design in stagesbut it is very expensive and rather difficult
to improve the geometric elements of a road in stages at a
later date .

3.1. Geometric design of highways deals with following

elements :
 (a). cross section elements
(b). sight distance consideration
(c). horizontal alignment details
(d). vertical alignment details
(e). intersection elements

3.2.(a).cross section:The cross section of a roadway can be

considered a representation of what one would see if an
excavator dug a trench across a roadway, showing the
number of lanes, their widths and cross slopes, as well as
the presence or absence of shoulders, curbs, sidewalks,
drains, ditches, and other roadway feature.
3.3. Elements of cross section

Camber:- is the cross slope provided to raise middle

of the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off rain water from road surface. The
objectives of providing camber are:
Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous
roads
Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface.
Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or2%) and
the value depends on the type of pavement surface. The
values suggested by IRC for various categories
of pavement is given in figure. The common types of
camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them.
Width of pavement orcarriageway:-
The width of pavements or carriageway depends upon(1)
width of traffic lane and (2) numbers of lanes.the lane
width to 3.75m if there is raised kerbsuch as foot path of
urban roads. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width
of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves
operating speed and safety. The maximum permissible
width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance
for single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of
lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road. the side
clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either side and 1.06
m in the center. Therefore, a two lane

Table 1: IRC Specification for carriage way width

Single lane 3.75

Two lane, no kerbs 7.0

 Two lane, raised kerbs 7.5

Intermediate carriage 5.5

Multi-lane 3.5

Figure 1: Lane width for single and two lane roads

3.4.Kerbs:-Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage

way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are
Low or mountable kerbs:This type of kerbs is provided
such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the
through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is
about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which
allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided
at medians and channelization schemes and also helps in
longitudinal drainage.
Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is
high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above
the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents
encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency
it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage
vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are provided
when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic.
They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement
edge with the step better.

Fig: - kerbsuse in pavement

3.5.SIGHTDISTANCE:-The safe and efficient operation of
vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of the
road ahead ofthe driver. Thus the geometric design of the road
should be done such that any obstruction on the road
lengthcould be visible to the driver from some distance ahead.
This distance is said to be the sight distance.

Types of sight distance:-

Sight distance available from a point is the actual

distance along the road surface, over which a driver
froma specified height above the carriage way has
visibility of stationary or moving objects. Three sight
distancesituations are considered for design:
Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute
minimum sight distance
Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as
twice SSD
Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking
operation
Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a
driver during night driving under the illumination
ofhead lights.
Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.
The most important consideration in all these is that
at all times the driver traveling at the design speed
 ofthe highway must have sufficient carriageway
distance within his line of vision to allow him to stop
his vehiclebefore colliding with a slowly moving or
stationary object appearing suddenly in his own
traffic lane.
The computation of sight distance depends on
Reaction time of the driver.
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the
instant the object is visible to the driver to
theinstant when the brakes are applied. The total
reaction time may be split up into four components
basedon PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are
usually combined into a total perception-reaction
timesuitable for design purposes as well as for easy
measurement.
Many of the studies show that driversrequire about
1.5 to 2 sec under normal conditions. However,
taking into consideration the variability.
Speed of the vehicle:-The speed of the vehicle very
much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed,
more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
 fig:- sight distance

Fig:- sight distance intersection

3.6.Highway alignment:- the position of the layout of the

Centre line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment .Highway alignment includes both horizontal and
vertical alignment of roadway. The horizontal alignment
includes the straight path, the deviations and horizontal curves.
Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under
vertical alignment of roads.

Figure:- alignment to roads

CHAPTER:-4
4. Highway material and tests :-
The materials used for roadway construction have progressed
with time, dating back to the early days of the Roman Empire.
Advancements in methods with which these materials are
characterized and applied to pavement structural design has
accompanied this advancement in materials.

There are two major types of pavement surfaces

(a). Portland cement concrete (PCC)
(b). hot-mix asphalt (HMA).

This wearing course is material layers that give

structural support for the pavement system. These
underlying surfaces may include either the aggregate
base and sub base layers, or treated base and sub
base layers, and additionally the underlying natural
or treated subgrade.
These treated layers may be cement-treated,
asphalt-treated, or lime-treated for additional
support.
4.1. Components of highway :-
2. (a). Embankment or fill
2. (b). Subgrade
2. (c). Pavement layer of flexible or rigid structure

4.2. used of material in highway:-

a. Soil used fill or embankment proper inhighway.
b. Stone aggregates- Aggregate is the component of
a composite material that resists compressive stress and
provides bulk to the composite material.

For efficient filling, aggregate should be much

smaller than the finished item, but have a wide
variety of sizes.
The particles of stone used to
make concrete typically include
both sand and gravel.
The aggregates are specified based on their grain
size, shape, texture and its gradation. The required
aggregates sizes are chosen to fulfill the desired
gradation. The grading, tests and specification of
stone aggregates for different road making purposes
have been specified by various agencies like the IRC,
BIS, ASTM and BSI.
Hard aggregates: - are preferred to resist the
abrading and crushing effects of heavy traffic loads
and to resist adverse weather conditions.
Softaggregates:- such as moorum, kankar, laterite,
bricks aggregates and slag have been used in the
lower layer of road pavement structure. A different
 set of tests and specifications are adfor soft
aggregates.

Fig:- aggregates

4.3.Tests of highway:-
 1. Aggregates impact test- to access the toughness or
resistance to impact.Sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and
2.36mm, a cylindrical metal measure of 75mm dia. and
50mm depth, a tamping rod of 10mm circular cross
section and 230mm length, rounded at one end and
Oven. The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a
temperature of 100 to 110oC and cooled.

Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100%

2. Aggregates crushing test-
(i) The aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained
on 10mm IS Sieve are oven-dried at a temperature of 100
TO110oc 3 to 4hrs.
(ii) The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each
layer tamped with 25 strokes of a tamping rod.
(iii) The weight of aggregates is measured (Weight A).
(iv) The surface of the aggregates is then leveled and the
plunger inserted. The apparatus is then placed in the
compression testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate
 so as to achieve 40t load in 10 minutes. After this, the load
is released.
(v) The sample is then sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve
and the fraction passing through the sieve is weighed
(Weights).
(vi) Two tests should be conducted.

Aggregate crushing value = (B/A) x 100%

3. Aggregates Abrasion test-
The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed
in the Los Angles abrasion testing machine and the
machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions/minute
for 1000 revolutions. At the completion of the test, the
material should be discharged and sieved through 1.70mm
IS Sieve.
 Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%
4. Cement fineness test-
(i) Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g
and place it on the sieve.
(ii) Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear
movements, until no more fine material passes through it.
(iii) Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1,
of the quantity first placed on the sieve to the nearest 0.1
percent.
(iv) Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.
(v) Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to
obtain R2. Then calculate R as the mean of R1 and R2 as a
percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the
results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third
sieving and calculate the mean of the three values.

Fig- sieve use in cement fineness test

5. Sieve analysis test-

(i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes 80mm, 63mm, 50mm,
40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm,
6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 300m,
150m and 75m.
(ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of
the weight of the test sample.

Fig-sieve analysis

6. Specific gravity of soil test-

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume
of a material at a standard temperature to the weight in air of
an equal volume of distilled water at the same stated
temperature.
The specific gravity G of the soil = (W2 W1) / [(W41)-(W3-
W2)].
7.Waterabsorption test-
This test helps to determine the water absorption of coarse
aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part III) 1963. For this test a
sample not less than 2000g should be used.

The apparatus used for this test are:-

Wire basket perforated, electroplated or plastic coated
with wire hangers for suspending it from the balance,
Water-tight container for suspending the basket, Dry soft
absorbent cloth 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.), Shallow tray of
minimum 650 sq.cm area, Air-tight container of a capacity
similar to the basket and Oven.
Formula used is Water absorption = [(A B)/B] x 100%.
8. Penetration Bitumen test-

The principle is that the penetration of a bituminous

material is the distance in tenths of a mm, that a standard
needle would penetrate vertically, into a sample of the
material under standard conditions of temperature, load
and time. The apparatus needed to determine the
penetration of bitumen is
(i).Penetrometer
 (ii).Water bath
(iii).Bath thermometer- Range 0 to 440C ,Graduation 0.20C

fig- penetration test apparatus

(i). Soften the bitumen above the softening point (between 75

and 100oC). Stir it thoroughly to remove air bubbles and water.
(ii) Pour it into a container to a depth of at least 15mm in
excess of the expected penetration.
(iii) Cool it at an atmospheric temperature of 15 to 30oC for
11/2 hours. Then place it in a transfer dish in the water bath at
25.0 + 0.1oC for 11/2 hrs.
(iv) Keep the container on the stand of the penetration
apparatus.
(v) Adjust the needle to make contact with the surface of the
sample.
(vi) Adjust the dial reading to zero.
(vii) With the help of the timer, release the needle for exactly 5
seconds.
Chapter:-5
Rigid pavement design
Rigid pavements are generally used in constructing airports and
major highways, such as those in the interstate highway
system. In addition, they commonly serve as heavy-duty
industrial floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and
heavy-vehicle park or terminal pavements. Like flexible
pavements, rigid highway pavements are designed as all-
weather, long-lasting structures to serve modern day high-
speed traffic. Offering high quality riding surfaces for safe
vehicular travel, they function as structural layers to distribute
vehicular wheel loads in such a manner that the induced
stresses transmitted to the subgrade soil are of acceptable
magnitudes.
5.1. Portland cement concrete (PCC):- is the most common
material used in the construction of rigid pavement slabs.
The reason for its popularity is due to its availability and
the economy. Rigid pavements must be designed to
endure frequently repeated traffic loadings. The typical
designed service life of a rigid pavement is between 30
and 40 years, lasting about twice as long as a flexible
pavement.
One major design consideration of rigid pavements
is reducing fatigue failure due to the repeated
stresses of traffic. Fatigue failure is common among
major roads because a typical highway will
experience millions of wheel passes throughout its
service life. In addition to design criteria such as
traffic loadings, tensile stresses due to thermal
energy must also be taken into consideration. As
pavement design has progressed, many highway
engineers have noted that thermally induced
stresses in rigid pavements can be just as intense
as those imposed by wheel loadings. Due to the
relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal
stresses are extremely important to the design
considerations of rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three
layers - a prepared subgrade, base or subbase, and a
concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed
according to a designed choice of plan dimensions for
the slab panels, directly influencing the intensity of
thermal stresses occurring within the pavement. In
 addition to the slab panels, temperature reinforcements
must be designed to control cracking behavior in the
slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab panel
dimensions.
5.2. Three main types of concrete pavements commonly used
are jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP), jointed
reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP), and continuously
reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). JPCPs are
constructed with contraction joints which direct the
natural cracking of the pavement. These pavements do not
use any reinforcing steel. JRCPs are constructed with both
contraction joints and reinforcing steel to control the
cracking of the pavement. High temperatures and
moisture stresses within the pavement creates cracking,
which the reinforcing steel holds tightly together. At
transverse joints, dowel bars are typically placed to assist
with transferring the load of the vehicle across the
cracking. CRCPs solely rely on continuous reinforcing steel
to hold the pavements natural transverse cracks together.
Prestressed concrete pavements have also been
used in the construction of highways; however,
they are not as common as the other three.
Prestressed pavements allow for a thinner slab
thickness by partly or wholly neutralizing thermally
induced stresses or loadings.
Fig:- layer of rigid pavement

fig:- reinforcement use rigid pavement

Chapter:-6
Pavement structure design
6.1. Types of failure
Pavement performance is normally evaluated using fatigue
cracking and rutting models. These models are primarily caused
by stresses and strains due to repetitions of high traffic loading.
Factors such as temperature, moisture, ageing, material mix
design, etc. also affect to pavement distress, although we wont
talk about them.
6.2.Fatigue

Fatigue cracking is the progressive cracking of the

asphalt surfacing or stabilized base layers due to
cumulative repeated traffic loading. This occurs as a
result of tensile stresses and strains in the bottom
zone of asphalt layer and propagates upward to the
top.
On the pavement surface, it finally appears as
alligator/crocodile cracks along wheel tracks, as we
appreciate in the
 Fig:- fatigue cracking on the road surface

Fatigue cracking in asphalt layers is considered a

major structural distress and is predominantly
caused by traffic loading. Moreover, the effect of rain
water the roughs the cracks can lead to serious
structural failureofunderlyinglayers particularly
granular andunbound materials including the
subgrade.
Logarithmic equations are normally used to obtain number
of load repetitions to failure cracking, taking into account
tensile stresses or strains and some other parameters
depending on the modal used.
6.3.Rutting:-
 Rutting is defined as the permanent deformation of a
pavement due to the accumulation of visco-plastic
vertical compressive strains under traffic loading. This
is the manifestation of gradual densification of
pavement layers, and shear displacement of the
subgrade. On the pavement surface, it looks like as
longitudinal depressions inthe wheel tracks, as we see
in the Figure Significant rutting can lead to major
structural failure and hydroplaning potentials.
fig:-rutting on road surface

6.4.Flexible pavement overlay design

Over the service life of a flexible pavement,
accumulated traffic loads may cause excessive rutting
or cracking, inadequate ride quality, or an inadequate
skid resistance. These problems can be avoided by
adequately maintaining the pavement, but the
solution usually has excessive maintenance costs, or
the pavement may have an in
Adequate structural capacity for the projected traffic
loads.
Throughout a highways life, its level of serviceability
is closely monitored and maintained.
One common method used to maintain a highways
level of serviceability is to place an overlay on the
pavements surface.
There are three general types of overlay used on
flexible pavements:
Asphalt-concrete overlay, Portland cement concrete
overlay, and ultra-thin Portland cement concrete
overlay. The concrete layer in a conventional PCC
overlay is placed unbounded on top of the flexible
surface. The typical thickness of an ultra-thin PCC
overlay is 4 inches (10 cm) or less.
 There are three main categories of flexible pavement
overlay design procedures:

Component Analysis Design

Deflection Based Design

6.5.Rigid pavement overlay design

Near the end of a rigid pavement's service life, a decision

must be made to either fully reconstruct the worn
pavement, or construct an overlay layer. Considering an
overlay can be constructed on a rigid pavement that has
not reached the end of its service life, it is often more
economically attractive to apply overlay layers more
frequently. The required overlay thickness for a
structurally sound rigid pavement is much smaller than for
one that has reached the end of its service life. Rigid and
flexible overlays are both used for rehabilitation of rigid
pavements such as JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP.
There are three subcategories of rigid pavement overlays
that are organized depending on the bonding condition at
the pavement overlay and existing slab interface.

Bonded overlays

Unbounded overlays

Partially bonded overlays

6.6.Drainage system design

Designing for proper drainage of highway systems is crucial to

their success. Regardless of how well other aspects of a road
are designed and constructed, adequate drainage is mandatory
for a road to survive its entire service life. Excess water in the
highway structure can inevitably lead to premature failure,
even if the failure is not catastrophic.
Each highway drainage system is site-specific and can be very
complex. Depending on the geography of the region, many
methods for proper drainage may not be applicable. The
highway engineer must determine which situations a particular
design process should be applied, usually a combination of
several appropriate methods and materials to direct water
away from the structure.

Fig:-highway drainage design

Chapter:7-
Construction, maintenance, and management:-
7.1. Highway construction

Highway construction is generally preceded by

detailed surveys and subgrade preparation.
The methods and technology for constructing
highways has evolved over time and become
increasingly sophisticated. This advancement in
technology has raised the level of skill sets
required to manage highway construction
projects.
This skill varies from project to project,
depending on factors such as the project's
complexity and nature, the contrasts between
new construction and reconstruction, and
differences between urban region and rural
region projects.
There are a number of elements of highway
construction which can be broken up into technical
and commercial elements of the system. Some
examples of each are listed below:

Technical Elements
Materials
 Material quality
Installation techniques
Traffic

Commercial Elements
Contract understanding
Environmental aspects
Political aspects
Legal aspects
Public concerns
Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation
of the site, regardless of the project type, and moves
upward. By reviewing the geotechnical specifications
of the project, information is given about
Existing ground conditions
Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material
transportation to and from the site
Properties of materials to be excavated
Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
Shoring requirements for excavation protection
 Water quantities for compaction and dust control
7.2. Subbase course construction
A subbase course is a layer designed of carefully
selected materials that is located between the
subgrade and base course of the pavement. The
subbase thickness is generally in the range of 4 to 16
inches, and it is designed to withstand the required
structural capacity of the pavement section.
Common materials used for a highway subbase
include gravel, crushed stone, or subgrade soil that is
stabilized with cement, fly ash, or lime. Permeable
subbase courses are becoming more prevalent
because of their ability to drain infiltrating water from
the surface. They also prevent subsurface water from
reaching the pavement surface.
When local material costs are excessively expensively
or the material requirements to increase the
structural bearing of the sub-base are not readily
available, highway engineers can increase the bearing
capacity of the underlying soil by mixing in Portland
cement, foamed asphalt, or with emerging
technologies such as the cross-linking styrene acrylic
polymer that increases the California Bearing Ratio of
in-situ materials by a factor 4 6.
7.3. Base course construction
The base course is the region of the pavement section
that is located directly under the surface course. If
there is a subbase course, the base course is
constructed directly about this layer. Otherwise, it is
built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical base
course thickness ranges from 4 to 6 inches and is
governed by underlying layer properties.
Heavy loads are continuously applied to pavement
surfaces, and the base layer absorbs the majority of
these stresses. Generally, the base course is
constructed with an untreated crushed aggregate
such as crushed stone, slag, or gravel. The base
course material will have stability under the
construction traffic and good drainage characteristics.
The base course materials are often treated with
cement, bitumen, calcium chloride, sodium chloride,
fly ash, or lime. These treatments provide improved
support for heavy loads, frost susceptibility, and
serves as a moisture barrier between the base and
surface layers.
Fig: - subbase and base course

7.4. Surface course construction

There are two most commonly used types of
pavement surfaces used in highway construction: hot-
mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These
pavement surface courses provide a smooth and safe
riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the
heavy traffic loads through the various base courses
and into the underlying subgrade soils.
7.5. Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layers
Hot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as
flexible pavements. The Super pave System was
developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes
to the design approach, mix design, specifications,
and quality testing of materials.
The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt
pavement requires an experienced construction crew,
 committed to their work quality and equipment
control.
Construction issues:
Asphalt mix segregation
Laydown
Compaction
Joints

A prime coat is low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the
base course prior to laying the HMA surface course. This
coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive layer
between the base course and asphalt surface.
A tack coat is a low viscosity asphalt emulsion
that is used to create a bond between an
existing pavement surface and new asphalt
overlay. Tack coats are typically applied on
adjacent pavements (curbs) to assist the bonding
of the HMA and concrete.
7.6. Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Portland cement concrete surface courses are
referred to as rigid pavements, or concrete
pavements. There are three general classifications of
concrete pavements - jointed plain, jointed
reinforced, and continuously reinforced.
Traffic loadings are transferred between sections
when larger aggregates in the PCC mix inter-lock
together, or through load transfer devices in the
transverse joints of the surface. Dowel bars are used
as load-transferring devices to efficiently transfer
loads across transverse joints while maintaining the
joint's horizontal and vertical alignment. Tie-bars are
deformed steel bars that are placed along
longitudinal joints to hold adjacent pavement
sections in plan.

Fig:-Pcc use in highway

7.7. Highway maintenance
The overall purpose of highway maintenance is to fix defects
and preserve the pavement's structure and serviceability.
Defects must be defined, understood, and recorded in order to
select an appropriate maintenance plan. Defects differ between
flexible and rigid pavements.
There are four main objectives of highway maintenance:
repair of functional pavement defects
extend the functional and structural service life of the
pavement
maintain road safety and signage
Keep road reserve in acceptable condition.

Fig:-maintenance of highway
7.8. Project management:-
Project management involves the organization and structuring
of project activities from inception to completion. Activities
could be the construction of infrastructure such as highways
and bridges or major and minor maintenance activities related
to constructing such infrastructure.
The entire project and involved activities must be handled in a
professional manner and completed within deadlines and
budget. In addition, minimizing social and environmental
impacts is essential to successful project management.
8. CONCLUSIONS:-
The main objective of this project was to compare highways
design method .we have done an introduction pavement design
and some geometric design method .we have done flexible and
rigid pavement structures.
Road are designed for a certain period of time.There has to be a
maintenance of them in order to extend the serviceability life
time and to keep the road in the best conditions as possible all
the time. Also mention that depending on the country we are
situated, there are some points to take into account while
designing and maintaining the pavement structure, such as
temperature or rainfall. So in some countries roads should have
more maintenance or cost much more money when
constructingthem in order to build a high quality road.
9. Reference
Dr.s.k.khanna,Highway Engineering,Nem Chand & bros,
roorkee, India.
Oglesby C, H, Highway Engineering, john Willy & sons.
WOODS, K.B., Highway engineering hand book, McGraw hill
book co.inc.
Chin, Antony T.H. "Financing Highways." The Handbook of
Highway Engineering. Ed. T.W. Fwa.
WELLS. G. R., Highway planning techniques-The balance of cost
and benefit. Griffin, London.
Cheu, R.L. "Highway Geometric Design." The Handbook of
Highway Engineering. Ed. T.W. Fwa.
Tam, Weng On. "Highway Materials." The Handbook of
Highway Engineering. Ed. T.W. Fwa.
Mamlouk, Michael S. "Design of Flexible Pavements." The
Handbook of Highway Engineering. Ed.
T.F. and Wei, Liu. "Design of Rigid Pavements." The Handbook
of Highway Engineering. Ed. T.W.