Geological Society of America

Memoir 162
1984

Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the

Falcon Basin, Venezuela, and adjacent areas
Karl W. Muessig
Exxon Minerals Company
P.O. Box 2189
Houston, Texas 77001

ABSTRACT
The Falcon Basin in northwestern Venezuela and adjacent offshore basins devel-
oped within a zone of extensional tectonics during Oligocene and Miocene times.
Extension resulted fromright-lateralmotion along offset, east-west-trending, transcur-
rent faults, including the Oca fault in western Venezuela, the Cuiza fault in northern
Colombia, and the San Sebastin fault along the coastal areas of central Venezuela. On
both local and regional scales, transcurrent and normal faults were active during the
early evolution of the basins. These faults define rhomb-shaped pullapart basins in map
plan. Extension occurred in a northeast direction causing normal faulting along north-
west trends. Basin subsidence was accompanied by crustal thinning and injection of
basaltic magmas.
Evidence of Oligocene magmatic activity is found in the central part of the Falcon
Basin where volcanic rocks and hypabyssal intrusions are exposed. These rocks are
similar to other suites of continental igneous rocks typically associated with rifting
environments. Basaltic rocks of both alkalic and subalkalic affinities are present. Xeno-
liths of the underlying crust and mantle are abundant. Felsic igneous rocks are relatively
rare.
Other structures within the Falcon and Bonaire basins formed during later stages of
basin development. These include folds and reverse faults of northeast trend and conju-
gate sets of small transcurrent faults. These structures were amplified by greater com-
pressional stresses during late Miocene and Pliocene time.
A similar Tertiary tectonic regime is postulated for the larger area of the Bonaire
Crustal Block, a block that includes the Falcon and Bonaire basins. This block is a broad
region of extensional pullapart structures which developed during the Oligocene to
Miocene, right-lateral motion between the Caribbean and South American crustal
plates. Minimum extension within the northern part of the block, along the Venezuelan
and Netherlands Antilles and the Paraguan and Guajira peninsulas, is estimated at 35 to
45 km in an east-west direction. The extension within this nonrigid block should be
considered when determining Tertiary movements between the Caribbean and South
American plates.

217
218 K. W. Muessig
INTRODUCTION
The Cenozoic tectonic boundary between the Caribbean
and South American areas is frequently interpreted as a right-
lateral transform boundary through or adjacent to the Falcon
Basin in northwestern Venezuela (Stainforth, 1969; Molnar and
Sykes, 1969; Malfait and Dinkelman, 1972; Silver and others,
1975). However, the origin of the basin has never been consid-
ered in detail. A transform plate boundary through the Falcon
region might be expressed as a series of right-lateral transcurrent
faults along a line connecting the Oca fault to the San Sebastin
fault (Fig. 1). However, the only documented evidence suggesting
a buried structure is the presence of en echelon folds and block
uplifts attributed to right-lateral wrenching (Vsquez and Dickey,
1972). Elsewhere in northern South America, east-west directed,
right-lateral, transcurrent faulting apparently began about mid-
Eocene (Bell, 1972). This initiation coincides with the cessation
of submarine thrusting and flysch deposition in the Siquisique-
Barquisimeto area south of the Falcon Basin (Stephan, 1977).
Thus it is possible that the Falcon Basin developed during a
period of transcurrent faulting that postdates compressional de-
formation and thrusting of Eocene and earlier times. Indeed, the
basin may have developed along transcurrent faults.
Case (1974) suggested that many Neogene basins along the
northern South American borderland, including the Falcon
Basin, may have originated by north- to northwest-directed ex-
tension. Silver and others (1975) briefly examined the basin in
relation to its offshore continuation, the Bonaire Basin. They
concluded that both developed in a zone of Oligocene to Mio-
cene rifting between the Venezuelan mainland and the Venezue-
lan and Netherlands Antilles.
Detailed studies of the Falcn Basin geology were under-
taken to clarify the history of the basin and to constrain the
Tertiary tectonic evolution of the southern Caribbean borderland.
This paper summarizes the stratigraphic, structural, geophysical,
and petrologic data obtained. Based on these data a tectonic
model for the basin is postulated, which reconciles the observed
regional extensional regime with the right-lateral, transcurrent
faulting. The model is extended to adjacent basins, and its impli-
cations for Caribbean-South American plate movements are
assessed.
FALCON BASIN STRATIGRAPHY
During Oligocene to Miocene time a large part of north-
western Venezuela was occupied by the marine Falcn Basin
(Fig. 1). It was elongate in an east-west direction and bordered by
topographic highs to the south, west, and north. The older Paleo-
cene to Eoceneflyschbasin, which contains allochthonous ophio-
lites in the Siquisique region (Bellizzia and others, 1972), was
deformed, uplifted and was being eroded at this time. It formed
the southern high. To the west, the basin shallowed onto the
Maracaibo Platform. The Dabajuro high bordered the basin to
the northwest. Exploration wells on this high bottom in Upper
Figure 1. Location map of the Falcn Basin, Venezuela, with paleogeo-
graphic features and surrounding structures. Broken line ( ) indi-
cates the approximate extent of the basin (Wheeler, 1963; Ferrell and
others, 1969). Stratigraphic cross section along lines N-S and W-E are
shown in Figure 2. Ruled area shows central Falcn Basin study area of
Figure 3. Bouguer gravity anomaly contours are included from Bonini
and others (1977).
Cretaceous black shales, and an underlying granitic basement is
suspected (unpublished report of the Texas Petroleum Company;
Ferrell and others, 1969). To the north, the Paraguan high re-
stricted access to the Falcn Basin to the Caribbean Sea. This
high is a basement massif of igneous and metamorphic rocks
(MacDonald, 1968; Martin-Bellizzia and Arozena, 1972) ranging
in age from Paleozoic through Paleocene (Santamara and Schu-
bert, 1974). The narrow Urumaco Trough connected the Falcn
Basin with the Gulf of Venezuela and separated the Dabajuro and
Paraguan highs. The eastern Falcn Basin opened into the Bo-
naire Basin (Fig. 1).
The earliest Falcn Basin deposits are considered to be
upper Eocene (Wheeler, 1963). Deposition continued intermit-
tently through Oligocene and Miocene time. Sedimentary thick-
nesses exceeding 9,000 m accumulated and are still preserved in
the northern and eastern parts of the basin (unpublished report of
the Texas Petroleum Company; Ferrell and others, 1969). In the
central basin area, deposition ceased after early Miocene time.
During Oligocene to lower Miocene time, approximately 3.5 km
of sediments were deposited in the central basin at rapid subsi-
dence rates of 500 to 700 m/m.y. (Diaz de Gamero, 1977).
The Oligocene and Miocene stratigraphy is complicated by
many lateral and vertical facies changes (Fig. 2). The stratigraphic
section is divided into the lower Oligocene El Paraso deltaic
sands and shales, which by middle Oligocene grade upward into
the Pecaya marine shales. Igneous intrusives and extrusives are
found within the upper El Paraso and lower Pecaya formations
(Fig. 3). The El Paraso Formation is a clastic sequence 500 to
1,000 m thick, composed of fine-grained, quartz sandstones and
siltstones intercalated with mudstones, shales, and thin lignites.
The sandstones are well indurated with siliceous cement and are
 Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin 219
NORTH SOUTH To the west, shallow-water clastics of the Castillo Forma-
tion replace the Pedregoso and part of the Pecaya formations
GUARABAL
SANn
AGUA CLARA (Wheeler, 1963). To the south, another complicated carbonate
PATIECITOS>
2 LUIS j r
bank is represented by the Churuguara Formation. South of Chu-
ruguara the Oligocene to Miocene strata thin rapidly. The Chu-
ruguara Formation gives way southward to basin margin
conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and coals of the Casupal For-
mation (Wheeler, 1963).
In the Siquisique area south of the Falcon Basin (Fig. 1),
Oligocene to Miocene strata lie in angular unconformity over the
Paleocene and Eocene Matatere Formation (Compania Shell de
Venezuela, 1965; Wheeler, 1963). The Matatere is a thick (3,000
WEST EAST m) sequence of turbiditic shales and intercalated graywacke sand-
z stones (Bellizzia and Rodriguez, 1967). It records deposition in a
20- u
o flysch basin that extended south and west to Barquisimeto and
- 2 Carora and probably to the north under the younger Falcon
Basin. Locally within the flysch, olistostrome (Renz and others,
25- PECAVA 1955) and melange zones are present. Near Siquisique a melange
z occurs with exotic blocks of basalt, spilite, gabbro, peridotite,
ooo
LU (MARINE SHAIE)

chert, limestone, shale, and phyllite (Bellizzia and others, 1972).

These exotic block terranes were generated during the Paleogene
-
EL PARAISO
o 0 10 20
30- I l_J I (DELTAIC SANOS) emplacement of nappes southward into the Matatereflyschbasin
KM
(Stephan, 1977). Paleomagnetic studies indicate that these blocks,
Figure 2. Stratigraphic relationships of the Oligocene and lower Miocene along with many similar allochthonous terranes in northern
formations in the Falcn Basin. Modified from Daz de Gamero (1977). Venezuela, were tectonically rotated prior to or during their ac-
Section locations as indicated on Figure 1. Although quite variable, the cretion and emplacement (Skerlec and Hargraves, 1980).
thickness of the illustrated stratigraphic column is approximately 4,000 By late Eocene both flysch deposition and allochthonous
m.
block emplacement had ceased. Theflyschwas deformed prior to
frequently cross-bedded, ripple-marked, or heavily bioturbated deposition of thefirstupper Eocene Falcon Basin sediments. The
with tracks, trails, and burrows. Bedding thicknesses are variable. younger Falcon Basin was a more restricted basin with a well
The lower boundary of the El Paraso Formation is not exposed defined central axis lying about 45 km north of Siquisique. Paleo-
in the study area, whereas the upper boundary with the Pecaya cene to Eocene events preceding development of the Falcon
Formation is gradational. The El Paraso Formation is an Basin were essentially synchronous with similar compressional
eastward-prograding deltaic complex (Diaz de Gamero, 1977). events to the east described by Bell (1971) and Beck (1978) for
Thus, to the east, sandstone units and coals thin and disappear, central Venezuelan areas south of Caracas.
whereas shales become more abundant.
The Pecaya Formation is composed of a monotonously BASIN STRUCTURE
thick (>2,500 m) section of dark gray, pyritic, calcareous shales.
Bioclastic limestone lenses and small reefal limestone bodies are The Falcon Basin is a nearly east-west-trending structural as
present in the shales. These appear to be fore-reef debris shed well as sedimentary feature (Fig. 1). Throughout its history the
from the partially synochronous San Luis Formation limestones basin averaged deposition rates of 350 m/m.y. and subsidence
to the north (Fig. 3). Studies of benthic foraminiferal assemblages rates of 400 m/m.y. By the end of early Miocene time, deposition
in the shales indicate water depths of 1,000 m or more (Diaz de ceased in the central basin but was continuing in the eastern and
Gamero, 1977). These depths argue against development of the northern parts (Wheeler, 1963). During late Miocene and Plio-
limestone in its present position. Locally anomalous clastic units cene times the basin was uplifted and deformed into an east-
(San Juan de la Vega Member) are also found within the Pecaya northeast-trending anticlinorium (Wheeler, 1963; Zambrano and
Formation. others, 1971). Structural features within the anticlinorium are of
To the north and west of the area shown on Figure 3, the the following types: (1) east-west,right-lateral,transcurrent faults,
upper Pecaya Formation is overlain by, and is in part equivalent (2) east-west normal faults, (3) northwest to north normal faults,
to, the Pedregoso calcareous turbidites and shales. This lower (4) folds with east-northeast axes and east-northeast reverse
Miocene formation was deposited around the southern margin of faults, (5) west-northwest to northwest transcurrent faults, and
the San Luis Formation carbonate reefs. North of the San Luis (6) north to north-northeast transcurrent faults.
reefs, back-reefal facies are represented by the Patiecitos and These six structural types (inset, Fig. 3) are deformational
Guarabal formations. features predicted by Wilcox and others, (1973) for a terrane
220 K. W. Muessig

Figure 3. Geologic map of the central Falcon igneous area, location shown on Figure 1. Igneous
intrusive and extrusive rocks are solid black. The inset is a summary of structural types and trends found
in the Falcon Basin as a whole from published geologic maps by Bellizzia and others, (1976), Bonini and
others (1977), and Case and Holcombe (1980).

undergoing right-lateral wrenching or simple shear. However, haps the most widely known faults in northwestern Venezuela
previous structural syntheses have selectively emphasized differ- and include the Oca, Cuiza, and San Sebastin faults (Fig. 4). The
ent combinations of these structural features in deciphering the Oca fault is the best known of these. Estimates on its right-lateral
evolutionary history of the Falcon Basin. Ferrell and others, displacement range from 15 to 20 km post-Eocene (Feo-
(1969; unpublished report of the Texas Petroleum Company) Codecido, 1972) to 195 km post-Cretaceous to pre-Pleistocene
ascribed Oligocene to Miocene subsidence and uplift to simul- (Vsquez and Dickey, 1972) to 65 km post-Mesozoic (Tschanz
taneous movement on normal and transcurrent faults, and they and others, 1974). The Cuiza fault on the Guajira Peninsula is a
attributed Pliocene through Holocene folding to a north-south similar structure. Alvarez (1967) has estimated 15 to 25 km of
compression. right-lateral movement on this fault.
Vsquez and Dickey (1972) related the Falcon folds and The San Sebastin fault (Fig. 4), located just offshore central
transcurrent faults to the deformation of the incompetent Oligo- Venezuela, is frequently cited as the continuation of both Oca and
cene and Miocene sediments by right-lateral movement along El Pilar fault trends (Rod, 1956; Alberding, 1957; Vsquez and
buried basement structures represented by the Oca and related Dickey, 1972; Silver and others, 1975). Evidence of its existence
faults. Their analysis postulates a rather continuous right-lateral comes from seismic activity, the coastal Venezuelan escarpment,
movement from post-Cretaceous through Pliocene times. and seismic reflection studies. Vierbuchen (1978) estimated less
As a basis for the tectonic model presented later, the struc- than 140 km of post-Miocene, right-lateral displacement for this
tural features listed above are discussed both on a regional scale structure.
and within the area of study. The displacements on other east-west faults are poorly con-
trolled. East-west faults near Coro have frequently been depicted
East-West Transcurrent Faults as transcurrent faults (Smith, 1962; Bellizzia, 1972), but support-
ing evidence of strike-slip displacement is lacking. A fault ex-
East-west trending, right-lateral, transcurrent faults are per- plains the rapid thickening of sediments toward the Gulf of Coro
 Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin 221

Figure 4. Structural map of northwestern Venezuela and adjacent areas. Shaded areas indicate zones of
relative subsidence during the Oligocene and Miocene. The Bonaire and Baja Guajira basins (unshaded)
were also areas of subsidence. Structures from Bellizzia and others (1976), Bonini and others (1977),
Ferrell and others (1969), Silver and others (1975), and Case and Holcombe (1980).

(unpublished report of the Texas Petroleum Company; Ferrell
and others, 1969), but the movement on the fault could well be
normal.
Evidence for east-west transcurrent faults in the central basin
area is rather slim. Compaa Shell de Venezuela geologists have
mapped systems of discontinuous transcurrent faults with this
orientation in western and west central Falcon (unpublished re-
port of Compaa Shell de Venezuela; Jaeckli and Erdmann,
1952).
East- West Normal Faults
Several east-west trending normal faults are recognized in
the Falcon region, and although the data do not require it, motion
on them may also include a strike-slip component. The longest is
the Ancon fault (Fig. 4) located south of and parallel to the
extension of the Oca fault. Downthrow on this fault is to the
north. A normal fault parallel to the southern coast of Paraguan
has a downthrown southern wall, whereas normal faults in north-
ern Paraguan have downthrown northern walls. Although sup-
ported by field evidence, (Martin-Bellizzia and Arozena, 1972;
MacDonald, 1968), these faults are primarily delineated by geo-
physical data (unpublished report of Corporacin Venezolana del
Petrleo-Institut Franais du Ptrole, 1967; Zambrano and
others, 1971). Vertical east-west faults (Fig. 5) also border the
Siquisique ophiolite blocks and cut unconformably overlying
Oligocene sediments (Compaa Shell de Venezuela, 1965).
Northwest to North Normal Faults
Northwest- to north-trending, normal faults of Oligocene to
Miocene age are found throughout the Falcon Basin and northern
offshore areas. In the central Falcon Basin (Fig. 3) normal fault
planes dip both east and west, but the former are more abundant.
Where well exposed in road-cuts, small-scale normal faults of
similar trend exhibit the characteristics of growth faults. Changes
in stratigraphie thickness indicate fault activity or growth during
sediment deposition. Changes in sandstone-unit thickness across
faults up to 1 m have been noted in Oligocene rocks. Similar
features are impossible to detect in the monotonous, Miocene
Pecaya shales. The isolated distribution of the San Juan de La
Vega Member clastics within the Pecaya Formation (Fig. 2) is
probably controlled by a northwest-trending, normal fault
bounded graben.
The Paraguan Peninsula is a horst bordered to the east and
west by north-trending normal faults (Fig. 4). East-west cross-
sections across the peninsula (unpublished report of Corporacin
Venezolana del Petrleo-Institut Franais du Ptrole, 1967; Zam-
brano and others, 1971) show these as normal faults active during
Oligocene and Miocene sedimentation. Stratigraphie units ra-
pidly increase in thickness across faults. In La Vela Bay east of
Paraguan, test wells penetrate thin red-bed units of probable
Oligocene age (Vsquez, 1975), which thicken eastward across
normal faults into the Bonaire basin (unpublished report of Cor-
poracin Venezolana del Petrleo-Institut Franais du Ptrole,
222 K. W. Muessig
Basin. Section location is indicated on Figure 6. Falcon igneous intrusions are solid black.
1967). Similar normal faults of northwest trend were active dur-
ing sedimentation in the Puerto Cumarebo area in northeastern
Falcon (Payne, 1951).
Structures between the islands of the Netherland and Vene-
zuelan Antilles are northwest-trending normal faults, but may
have some strike-slip components. These faults form the borders
of basins that accumulated about 2 km of Neogene sediments
(Silver and others, 1975; Case, 1974; Feo-Codecido, 1971). The
Bonaire Basin, which contains from 2 to 5 km of Tertiary sedi-
ments (Galavis and Louder, 1971; Case, 1974; Silver and others,
1975), also contains north- to northwest-trending normal faults,
as does La Orchila Basin (Los Roques Canyon of Peter, 1972).
The widespread evidence for normal faulting contempo-
raneous with sedimentation suggests the existence of an exten-
sional tectonic regime during Oligocene and Miocene time.
Although these north to northwest faults are rather prominent,
their significance has largely been ignored in tectonic models of
the Falcon Basin. This neglect is partly a result of recent over-
printing by transcurrent motion on the same faults. In this regard,
basement structures in the Urumaco Trough area indicate normal
faulting (Bellizzia and others, 1976), but surface exposures of
younger formations show evidence of transcurrent displacement.
Younger transcurrent faulting followed the zones of weakness of
earlier normal faults.
Folds and Reverse Faults
Folds are the most conspicuous structural feature of the
Falcon anticlinorium. Their axes trend N80E in the central and
eastern basin areas and N50E in the western part. Fold trends in
the offshore and Bonaire Basin areas to the east have easterly axes
(Silver and others, 1975). Asymmetric and overturned folds are
well developed south of Coro (Fig. 5) where Pliocene formations
are overturned to the north and folds are broken by southerly
dipping thrust faults. Reverse faults of similar trend are found
throughout the basin and within the study area. Anticlines in the
central basin area are slightly asymmetric with steeper northern
limbs, axial planes dipping steeply south, and limb dips of 65 to
45.
West-Northwest to Northwest Transcurrent Faults
Small transcurrent faults of west-northwest to northwest
trend are found throughout the basin (Fig. 4) and are particularly
abundant in the Puerto Cumarebo and Urumaco Trough areas.
As noted previously, transcurrent faulting along northwest trends
has overprinted older normal faults in the Urumaco Trough.
In the central basin area, transcurrent faults of northwest to
west-northwest trend offset and terminate folds, reverse faults,
and topographic ridges of resistant sandstone. Fault traces
through resistant sandstones are frequently followed by streams.
The majority of these faults exhibit right-lateral displacement. In
many cases a significant component of dip-slip as well as strike-
slip motion is required to produce observed map patterns.
North to North-Northeast Transcurrent Faults
Compared to other structural features in the basin, north to
north-northeast transcurrent faults are rare. Many have both
normal and strike-slip movement. Concentrations of these faults
are found south of Coro, and in the southwest part of the Falcon
Basin where fold trends are more northeasterly. These faults and
the west-northwest to northwest transcurrent faults make up a
conjugate pair and are hereafter called conjugate strike-slip faults.
In summary, the structural trends in the Falcon system sug-
gest that a primary direction of right-lateral shear was directed
slightly south of east (Fig. 3). Early deformation in the Falcon
area was confined to east-west transcurrent faults and northwest
normal faults. These structures were active during the initiation of
the basin. They controlled the rates and patterns of basin sedi-
mentation and subsidence.
Folds and reverse faults and the conjugate strike-slip faults
 Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin 223
69 50' 69 30'

69 50' 69 30'

Figure 6. Map of magnetic anomalies and Bouguer gravity anomalies in the central Falcon area.
Magnetic anomalies are contoured in 25-gamma intervals (dashed lines); the +25-gamma closures are
shaded. Bouguer gravity anomalies (solid lines) are contoured in 5-mgal increments supplemented by
1-mgal contours where data permits. Locations of major igneous exposures (*) are indicated.

are later deformational features imposed during late Miocene to nini, 1978) exhibits several noteworthy features. For most of the
Pliocene time. southern Caribbean borderland, the zero Bouguer anomaly con-
tour approximates the Caribbean shoreline. The Falcon Basin is
GRAVITY A N D M A G N E T I C A N O M A L I E S the largest regional inland deflection of the zero anomaly in
Venezuela, anomalies reaching +50 mgal (Fig. 1). The central
The regional gravity field of the Falcon and Bonaire basins basin area is characterized by positive Bouguer anomalies up to
and adjacent area (Bowin, 1976; Bonini and others, 1977; Bo- 30 mgal (Fig. 6).
224 K. W. Muessig
In the Bonaire Basin, where Oligocene and Miocene sedi- TABLE 1. REPRESENTATIVE WHOLE-ROCK ANALYSES

mentary thicknesses are similar to the Falcon Basin, Silver and

others (1975) used gravity to model a dense, thinned continental Alkali olivine Trachybasalt Subalkaline
crust with 6 km of sediments and a crust-mantle boundary ele- basalt basalt

vated to a depth of about 18 km. In the Falcon Basin a similar

model would satisfy the observed gravity. In both regions the
Si0 2 45.45 44.52 50.37

A1 ? 0,
positive Bouguer anomalies indicate a density excess in the basins
15.69 15.64 15.18

when compared to adjacent continental areas. Injection of dense 9.57 10.99 8.44

basaltic material into the basin crust and sediments occurred in MgO 5.17 5.33 9.20

the central Falcon Basin. Similar intrusive activity or general CaO 6.29 6.31 8.36

crustal thinning may account for the positive anomalies elsewhere Na 2 0 5.14 4.39 2.99

in the region. K2O 1.79 2.59 0.88

The regional magnetic field in the central Falcon Basin is Ti0 2 2.31 2.40 1.72

rather featureless. Locally, however, thefieldis influenced by the MnO 0.17 0.23 0.14

presence of igneous intrusions and by the basin structure. Anom- LOI 8.25 7.08 4.56

alies up to 225 gammas are directly associated with igneous TOTAL 99.83 99.48 101.84

intrusions. Larger regions of regional northwest-trending mag- Trace elements, ppm

netic anomalies up to 25 gammas (Fig. 6) are also loosely asso-
ciated with outcropping igneous rocks. These elongate trends Cr 100 40

suggest that the exposed shallow-level sills,flows,and plugs may

Ni 36 45
Cu 25 24
be fed by northwest-trending dikes at depth. Thus the present Zr 270 300

northeast trend of igneous outcrops is an artifact of the younger Y

Rb
30 30
33
fold trends. The northwest magnetic anomalies may also reflect
22.8
Ba 600 650
the normal faults of similar trend discussed previously. Sr
87 S r /86
1027
0.7036
1005
Sr

FALCON IGNEOUS ROCK PETROLOGY Note: Alkali olivine basalt from Cerro Atravesado, trachy-
basalt from La Guarabitas, and subalkaline basalt from Cerro

Within the central Falcon Basin, basaltic igneous bodies

Manaure. For analytical uncertainties see Muessig (1979).

crop out in a northeast-trending 50-km by 10-km belt (unpub-

lished report of Compania Shell de Venezuela; Brueren, 1949;
Coronel, 1970). Outcrop patterns, structural orientations, and the
occurrence of border-zones with chilled igneous margins, contact
metamorphism, local sedimentary rock inclusions, and breccias
were documented by Muessig (1979). These bodies intrude the
Oligocene sedimentary rocks as shallow-level sills and plugs or
occur as extrusive flows. Potassium-argon isotopic analyses of a
trachybasaltic sill yield an age of 22.9 0.9 m.y. (Muessig, 1978).
This age is 5 m.y. younger than reported paleontologic ages of
surrounding sedimentary rocks. A span of igneous activity from
28 to 23 m.y. can be inferred from stratigraphic constraints. The
Falcon igneous rocks are younger than and distinctive in mor-
phology, composition, and origin from both the Siquisique ophio-
lite blocks (35 km south) and the Paraguana igneous-metamor-
phic massif (100 km north).
The Falcon igneous rocks are similar in petrology to other
continental igneous rock suites associated with extensional tec-
tonic environments. Basaltic rocks compose about 98% of the
igneous suite, whereas felsic rocks are of only minor abundance.
Chemical and mineralogic analyses reveal two parental rock
types: (1) an alkaline type and (2) a less alkaline type transitional
to subalkaline (Muessig, 1979).
Rocks of thefirsttype are alkali olivine basalts and diabases,
hawaiites, trachybasaltic diabases, and trachytes. Phenocrysts of
olivine and titanaugite, together with sporadic plagioclase, mag-
netite, and kaersutite, are set in a groundmass of the above phases
with the addition of late stage biotite and analcite. These rocks
are nepheline normative, enriched in alkalis (Table 1) and plot in
the field of "within plate" basalts as defined by Pearce and Cann
(1973) on a Ti, Zr, and Y triangular diagram. Approximately
40% of the exposed igneous rocks have these alkaline affinities.
The transitional to subalkaline types are extensively altered
diabase intrusions with relict augite phenocrysts, plagioclase, il-
menite, and pseudomorphs of magnetite and olivine. Compared
to the alkaline basalts, these rocks are lower in iron, titanium, and
alkalis but higher in silica. Alteration has obscured their nature by
introducing silica and leaching alkalis.
Assorted xenoliths and amphibole megacrysts are abundant
in alkali basalt lavas near vents at Atravesado, La Azulita, El Sol,
and Paraguachoa (Fig. 3). Calc-silicate gneiss is the most com-
mon xenolith type (95%), followed by spinel peridotite (4%),
gabbro (1%), and rare schist and granite xenoliths. Most of the
xenoliths represent a sampling of the underlying crust and mantle
through which the basaltic magmas passed. The megacrysts and
some of the gabbros may be samples of deeper level magma
chambers that were the source of the basalts.
TECTONIC MODEL
The development of a diffuse pullapart basin between paral-
 Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin 225
(a) (b)

PRE-OLIGOCENE\
\ BONAIRE \
FALCON \ BASIN \

LOS M O N J E S
ARUBA
CUiZa
CURACAO
BONAIRE
LAS A V E S
LOS ROQUES
LA O R C H I L A
PARAGUANA

Figure 7. The evolution of the Falcon and Bonaire pullapart basins. Options (a) and (b) represent two
configurations of the area prior to extension in the late Eocene. To evolve to the present configuration
(c), option (a) requires a greater amount of Oligocene to Miocene extension and right-lateral transcur-
rent displacement. In option (b) a pre-Oligocene Bonaire basin has a thinner, more mafic crust and
requires less extension to evolve to (c).

lei but offset right-lateral transcurrent faults is postulated for the
Falcon region. This extensional tectonic model accounts for (1) a
complex Oligocene-Miocene stratigraphy and rapid basin subsi-
dence history, (2) synsedimentary east-west transcurrent and east-
west and northwest normal faulting, (3) positive gravity
anomalies indicative of a relatively thin or dense crust, and
(4) alkaline basaltic volcanism and intrusion along northwest
trends.
A pullapart basin is a zone of crustal extension and subsi-
dence that develops at a bend in a transcurrent fault system if the
motion at the bend is divergent (Crowell, 1974). Subsidence
occurs on normal faults that connect parallel sections of the trans-
current fault system. Significant subsidence may also occur along
the transcurrent faults. Due to the distribution of stresses within
this zone of divergence, the bordering normal and transcurrent
faults define a rhomb-shaped basin in map view. In cross-section
the structure of the basin is grabenlike. If the pullapart basin is
intruded extensively by mafic magma and develops a new simatic
crust, then it is a rhombochasm as defined by Carey (1958).
Within a large system of transcurrent faults, pullapart struc-
tures may be rather complicated. A classic example has been
documented along the San Andreas fault system by Elders and
others (1972), Wilcox and others (1973), and Crowell (1974). In
the Salton Trough, for example, 6 km of Pliocene to Holocene
sediments were deposited in a pullapart structure while adjacent
areas underwent rapid erosion. A rhomb-shaped trough subsided
at 600 m/m.y. due toright-lateralmovement along offset faults in
the San Andreas system. Basaltic and felsic igneous activity is
concentrated along the normal fault trends that connect the offset
transcurrent faults (Hill, 1977).
The development of pullapart structures in the Falcon Basin
reflects the Tertiary tectonic evolution of a larger crustal block
termed the Bonaire Block by Silver and others (1975). This block
was also subject to right-lateral shearing between the Caribbean
and South American plates (Fig. 7).
Falcon Basin Pullapart
In the Falcon pullapart system, extension was dispersed over
a wide zone resulting in zones of relative stability and subsidence
(Fig. 4). The Paraguana, Dabajuro, Guajira, and southern main-
land (Siquisique) areas remained as highs shedding sediments into
grabenlike, pullapart zones. The Falcon Basin, Urumaco Trough,
La Vela Bay, and Bonaire Basin were major zones of subsidence.
On a small scale, rhombic grabens are well defined in the
Falcon region. A rhombic pullapart basin with distinct structural
226 K. W. Muessig
boundaries and thick sediment accumulations is located north of
the Ancon fault (Fig. 4) in the western Falcon Basin. It devel-
oped where movement on the Oca fault was transferred
southward to the Ancon fault. The Urumaco Trough is also a
distinct pullapart structure connecting the Cuiza and Oca fault
trends.
The central Falcn Basin is a more diffuse zone of subsi-
dence. A northern boundary fault at the southern margin of the
San Luis limestone platform (Fig. 3) is postulated due to the
relative stability and the shallow depositional environment of the
limestone reefs, in contrast to the deep water, rapidly subsiding
environment of the synchronous Pecaya shales. The southern
border fault follows east-west scarps in the Siquisique area, which
actively shed coarse Miocene sediments northward.
The eastern Falcn Basin and La Vela Bay also exhibit
widespread subsidence, which increases in degree to the north
and east. The southern border is along fault trends south of the
Cerro Misin uplift (Fig. 4). The uplift represents a horst that
remained high during subsidence of the surrounding area since
early Oligocene time (Hunter, 1972). Northwesterly normal faults
with downthrown eastern blocks in the Gulf of Triste indicate
that the gulf developed as a pullapart basin to the north of the San
Sebastin transcurrent fault.
In addition to pullapart zones of divergence, irregular trans-
current fault systems inevitably develop zones of convergence
with associated compressional deformation (Wilcox and others,
1973; Crowell, 1974). The southern border of the Falcn pulla-
part developed zones of convergence particularly in the western
basin. Convergence caused distortion of fold axes in this area to
N20E orientations and development of north- to northeast-
trending transcurrent faults.
Bonaire Basin Pullapart
Stratigraphie and structural characteristics of the Falcn
Basin appear to extend into the Bonaire Basin (Silver and others,
1975). Northwest-trending normal and east-west-trending nor-
mal and transcurrent faults controlled sediment distribution and
subsidence in the Bonaire Basin. The San Sebastin transcurrent
fault borders the southern margin of the basin (Fig. 4). East-west
faults south of Aruba and Curaao and along the northern basin
margin were interpreted by Silver and others (1975) from seismic
data as normal faults, but transcurrent motion on these faults is
also possible. In conjunction the northwest and east-west fault
trends outline the rhombic shape of the Bonaire Basin pullapart
structure.
The structures adjacent to the Netherlands and Venezuelan
Antilles are also consistent with a pullapart origin. The sedimen-
tary basin between Aruba and Curaao, for example, exhibits the
typical rhombic form with surrounding normal faults (Fig. 4).
Bouguer gravity anomalies for most of the Bonaire Basin are
positive (Bonini, 1978; Bonini and others, 1977) despite sedimen-
tary thicknesses of 2 to 6 km. As discussed previously this indi-
cates a thin or relatively dense crust. Modeling of free-air
anomalies across the basin indicates at least 5 km of crustal
thinning (Silver and others, 1975). Lacking definitive information
on the nature of the basement underlying the Bonaire Basin, the
following hypotheses are feasible: (1) the basement and the over-
lying sediments of the basin have been injected with large
amounts of mafic material, or (2) the crust was originally thinner
or more mafic prior to basin development. In the second option a
preexisting Bonaire Basin (Fig. 7b) would be extended about 150
km during the Oligocene to Miocene pullapart event. The first
option requires about 300 km of east-west extension to produce
the Bonaire Basin and would imply a major east-west transcur-
rent fault between the basin and the island chain (Fig. 7a). The
transcurrent fault allows extension and subsidence in the basin to
exceed that along the island chain.
Additional evidence comes from the Eocene or older Soebi
Blanco conglomerates of Bonaire, which contain gneiss, schist,
and marble cobbles indicative of a mainland source (Pijpers,
1933; Beets and others, 1977). Silver and others (1975) inferred
that the Bonaire Basin formed later than deposition of this con-
glomerate. Removing the Oligocene to Miocene extension be-
tween the Netherlands Antilles and Paraguan, as proposed by
the pullapart model, would place Bonaire and/or Curaao adja-
cent to Paraguan (Fig. 7). Thus, Jurassic basement rocks on
Paraguan could be the source rocks for the conglomerates.
Contrary to the suggestion of Silver and others (1975), the
Bonaire Basin may already have existed as a basin (Fig. 7b)
during Eocene conglomerate deposition as long as the island
chain was continuous from Paraguan to Bonaire. Extension and
breakup of the island chain, however, must have been
post-Eocene.
Bonaire Block Pullapart
The Bonaire Block, bounded by the Curaao Ridge on the
north and the Oca-San Sebastin faults on the south, is a small
crustal block between the Caribbean and South American plates
(Fig. 8). Silver and others (1975) concluded that nonrigid defor-
mation of this block occurred during its clockwise rotation be-
tween the major crustal plates.
However, the nature of many of the Neogene basins within
this block suggests that a pullapart model may explain their ori-
gins. Case (1974) concluded that the northwest- and east-west-
trending Colombian basins (Baja Guajira, Chichibacoa; Fig. 4),
in addition to the Venezuelan basins between the offshore islands,
originated from north to northwest extension within the Bonaire
Block. The model presented here redefines the Bonaire Block as a
pullapart zone that experienced east to northeast extension be-
tween the transcurrent faults that border the Caribbean and South
American plates (Fig. 8). Extension occurred mainly during
Oligocene and Miocene times.
Geologic and seismic evidence suggest that the Oca, al-
though active, and Cuiza transcurrent faults are not presently
zones of major strike-slip displacement (Molnar and Sykes,
1969). Instead, Caribbean-South American plate motion from
 Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin 227
TABLE 2. EXTENSION ESTIMATES WITHIN THE NORTHERN
PART OF THE BONAIRE BLOCK

Basin Sediment Total East-west

thickness subsidence extension
BONAIRE (km) (km) (km)

PULLAPART Chichibacoa 4. 0 4.,2

\ 1.5 1.
.7
1. 1.
los Monjes-Aruba
BLOCK Aruba-Paraguan 5 .7
Curacao-Aruba 2. 0 3.,1
Bonaire-Curacao 2. 0 3.,5
1. 2.,7
0.
SAN SEBASTIAN FAULT Las Aves-Bonaire 0
5 2..5
0. 1.
Los Roques-Las Aves
8 ,8
1.
La Orchila-Los Roques
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE La Orchila Basin 2 5..1

Figure 8. The Bonaire Block pullapart structure and its relationship to TOTAL 26.,3 35.1

the Caribbean and South American plates. The block is identical to that Urumaco Trough 8. 3
0
8..5

outlined by Silver and others (1975). Baja Guajira 3. 3.,0

TOTAL (Minus Chichibacoa*) 33,.6 44.8

Note: Subsidence equals sediment thickness plus the depth of

water in the basin. A basin name with a hyphen (e.g., Curacoa-
late Miocene to Holocene was transferred from the El Pilar-San Aruba) indicates the basin between the two areas. Sediment

Sebastin, right-lateral fault systems to a broad zone of compres-

thickness data compiled from Edgar and others (1971), Zambrano
and others (1971), Silver and others (1975), Peter (1972),
sional deformation and transcurrent movement within the Bo- Case (1974), and corporacin Venezolana del Petrleo-Institut

naire Block, and along the Bocon fault and the Curaao Ridge
Francais du Ptrole (unpublished report, 1967).
Alternate estimate of extension not including the Chichibacoa

(Silver and others, 1975; Jordan, 1975; Pennington, 1981). These Basin is explained in the text.

events are responsible for the overprinting of earlier Oligocene

and Miocene northwest-trending normal faults in the Falcon area consider crustal stretching. (4) Estimates from basement depths
by transcurrent motion, folding, and thrusting.
Extension within the Bonaire Block
An estimate on the minimum amount of extension within
the Bonaire Block pullapart has been calculated assuming that
Eocene "basement" sediments (high velocity) attained their pres-
ent depths by subsidence along normal faults. A similar type of
analysis was presented by lilies (1970) to estimate extension in
the Rhine Graben. Planar normal faults with dips of 60 are
assumed and are consistent with seismic profiles (Silver and oth-
ers, 1975). The calculation is made for the northern part of the
pullapart along the Antillean chain primarily because depth to
"basement" is controlled by a variety of geophysical data. The
Falcon and Bonaire basins were avoided because of the asymmet-
ric, half-graben faulting and later erosional effects. The basins
included are the La Orchila Basin, the basins between all the
Antillean Islands, the basin between Aruba and Paraguana, and
the Chichibacoa Basin (Fig. 7). Estimated post-Eocene, east-west
extension from the Guajira Peninsula to the La Orchila Basin is
about 35 km (Table 2). The value is increased to 45 km by using
the Urumaco Trough instead of the Chichibacoa Basin and by
adding an extension estimate for the Baja Guajira Basin.
By this argument, at least 35 to 45 km of extension occurred
within the Bonaire Block during its Oligocene and Miocene de-
formation between the Caribbean and South American plates.
This is a minimum extension for the following reasons: (1) Major
faults along the northern border of the Bonaire Basin may allow
greater amounts of east-west extension to the south. (2) Extension
within stable blocks (Paraguana, Guajira) was not considered.
(3) Estimates are based on a brittle fracture model that does not
do not account for extension by magma injection. (5) Normal
faults may shallow at depth allowing greater extension. (6) Esti-
mates of sediment thickness are probably minimum estimates.
TECTONIC SUMMARY
Prior to initiation of the Falcon Basin, Paleocene to Eocene
rocks at the southern border of the basin recorded the culmina-
tion of a compressional orogen involving flysch deposition,
thrusting, ophiolite obduction, tectonic rotations, and olisto-
strome development (Skerlec and Hargraves, 1980; Beets and
others, 1984). The Antillean islands formed a contiguous unit
connected to the Paraguan Peninsula and the Faltn area (Fig. 7
and 9A).
A major change in the deformation style occurred during the
Eocene in northern Venezuela. The change is marked by the
cessation of southward thrusting and flysch deposition in both
western and central Venezuela by the end of middle Eocene time
(Bell, 1972; Maresch, 1974; Stephan, 1977; Beck, 1978). East-
west, right-lateral, transcurrent faulting began in northern South
America by late Eocene time. Andesitic volcanism and subduc-
tion in the Lesser Antilles also started during the Eocene (Bunce
and others, 1971; Arculus, 1976). This implies that the Caribbean
plate had begun to move eastward with respect to the South
American plate regardless of its pre-Eocene displacement (Bell,
1972; Beets and others, 1984).
The Falcon Basin originated by extension during late Eo-
cene to Oligocene time within a pullapart zone caused by trans-
current motion between the Caribbean and South American
plates (Fig. 9B). Indeed, the Faltn Basin preserves a record of
the sedimentation and deformation that occurred within this zone
228 K. W. Muessig
(g) EARLY EOCENE South American plates (Fig. 9B). Minimum extension within the
northern part of the block was at least 35 to 45 km in an east-
west direction. The extension within this nonrigid block must be
O* y M considered when estimating Caribbean-South American plate
NORTH Y <* SOUTH movements.
Pullapart structures also developed elsewhere along the Car-
OCEANIC CRUST TRANSITIONAL
CRUST CONTINENTAL ribean-South American plate boundary at this time. The La Or-
CRUST
chila Basin and the Cariaco Trench are excellent examples.
Similar structural basins formed along the northern margin of the
Caribbean plate; however, here the motion was in a left-lateral
sense with respect to the North American plate (Burke and oth-
(D LATE OLIGOCENE ers, 1980).
I BONAIRE BLOCK
:
, <F> In the Bonaire Block, folds, reverse faults, and conjugate sets
of secondary transcurrent faults formed later during the develop-
ment of the pullapart and were amplified by greater compres-
sional stresses during the late Miocene to Holocene tectonic
evolution (Fig. 9C). Shallow underthrusting of the block by the
Caribbean plate formed the Curaao Ridge accretionary prism
(Silver and others, 1975; Jordan, 1975; Ladd and Watkins,
1979). The Falcon anticlinorium was formed and uplifted by the
addition of compressional stress across this generally transform-
type plate boundary zone between the Caribbean and South
America.
EAST WEST TRANSCURRENT AND NORMAL FAULTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Princeton University
PRESENT FALCON Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences and the
ANTICLINORIUM Venezuela Ministerio de Energia y Minas. I am indebted to the
many geologists from these organizations who provided field as-
sistance, suggestions, criticism, and above allstimulating discus-
sions. Among these I am particularly grateful to A. Bellizzia, J.
Rios, R. Hargraves, W. Bonini, J. Suppe, R. Vierbuchen, and M.
Diaz de Gamero. I thank T. Harding and M. Schuepbach of
Exxon Production Research Company for discussing their ideas
on wrench faulting and pullapart basins. I also thank H. A. Jordi
of Shell Internationale Petroleum and the Venezuela Ministerio
de Energia y Minas for providing copies of unpublished geologic
0 50 100
studies of the Falcon region.
km
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