LESSON OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able:

1. To recap and explain the basic thermodynamics

concepts such as energy, heat, work and entropy.

2. To apply first and second law of thermodynamics

concepts.

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therme (heat) dynamics (power)

Now, thermodynamics is broadly interpreted

to include all aspects of energy and energy
transformations, including power generation,
refrigeration, and relationships among the
properties of matter.

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science

of energy.
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 Applications :

engineering systems: design and analysis of

automotive engines, rockets, jet engines, nuclear
power plants, solar collectors and etc.

aspect of life: household utensils and appliances;

heating and air conditioning systems, refrigerator,
humidifier, pressure cooker, water heater, shower,
iron, etc.

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 boundary
surrounding system

Closed system: Open system: Isolated system:

consists of a fixed amount of
mass and no mass can cross its
boundary . Energy in the form
of heat or work can cross the
boundary and the volume
does not have to be fixed.
(control volume) is a A system where no
system where mass mass, heat and
and energy can cross work can cross the
the boundary boundary.

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 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Property is any characteristic of a system e.g. pressure (P), temperature
(T), volume (V) and mass (m).

Properties can be divided into

Intensive properties: Independent of the size of a system.
E.g. temperature (T), pressure (P) and density ().
Extensive properties: Depend on the size of the system.
E.g. mass (m), volume (V) and total energy (E).
m
V
Extensive properties per unit mass are called T
specific properties. P

E.g. : specific volume ( = V/m)
specific total energy volume (e = E/m)
Extensive properties m m
V V
T T
Intensive
P P
properties
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 ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal,

mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, chemical and their
sum constitutes the total energy E of the system.

Thermodynamics provides no information about the

absolute value of the total energy.

It deals only with the change of the total energy, which

is what matters in engineering problems.

Energy is a point function : it does not depend on the

process path. It is only a function of initial and final
states.
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 The total energy of a system can divided into two
groups: macroscopic and microscopic.

Macroscopic
Forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame.
It is related to motion and the influence of some external
effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface
tension.
Microscopic
Forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular
activity and they are independent of outside reference
frames.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called as
internal energy of a system, U.
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 Total Energy

Macroscopic
kinetic energy potential energy
1 PE mgz
KE mV 2
2 Energy that a system
possesses as a result
Energy that a system
of its elevation in a
possesses as a result of
gravitational field.
its motion relative to
some reference frame.
Microscopic
internal energy
It related to the molecular
structure and the degree of molecular
activity and can be viewed as the sum
of the kinetic and potential energies
of the molecules.
kinetic energy of the molecules due
to the ceaseless motion (includes
energy of translation, rotation,
vibration)
potential energy due to the
attractive/repulsive inter- and
intramolecular interactions (electron-
electron, electron-nuclues)
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 Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in
two distinct forms: heat and work.

Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed

system in the form of heat and work.

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 HEAT
The form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving force for

heat transfer. The larger the temperature
difference, the higher is the rate of heat
transfer. 11
Historical Background on Heat

19th century
Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as tiny
balls that are in motion and thus possess
kinetic energy.
In the early nineteenth
Heat: The energy associated with the century, heat was thought
random motion of atoms and molecules. to be an invisible fluid
called the caloric that
Heat transfer mechanisms: flowed from warmer
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the bodies to the cooler ones.
more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.
Convection: The transfer of energy between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the
emission of electromagnetic waves
(or photons).
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 WORK
Energy interaction between a system and its surroundings.

Energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance. A

rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an spring changes are all associated
with work interactions.

An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a

temperature difference. Otherwise it is work.

Formal sign convention: Another way is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate direction.
Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive;
Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.

Qin (+ve), Qout (-ve)

Win (-ve), Wout (+ve)
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 Power is the
Work done work done
per unit mass per unit time
(kW or kJ/s)

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 Heat and work are path functions (i.e. their magnitudes
depend on the path followed).

Path functions have inexact differentials designated by

the symbol .

The differential amount of heat or work is represented

by Q or w, respectively, instead of dQ or dW.

Properties are point functions (i.e. they depend on

state only, and not on how a system reaches that state).

Point functions have exact differentials designated by

the symbol d.

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 A small change in volume is represented by dV, and the
total volume change during a process between states 1 and
2 is 2

dV V V V
1
2 1

The volume change during process 1- 2 is always the

volume at state 2 minus the volume at state 1, regardless
of the path followed.

The total work done during process 1-2 is

2

W W
1
12 (not W)

That is, the total work is obtained by following the process

path and adding the differential amounts of work (w)
done along the way.

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 Different Forms Of Work
Mechanical work
2
W F ds where F is the force acting through distance s
1

Moving boundary work

The expansion and compression work in a piston-cylinder device. Lets
analyze for a quasi-equilibrium process.
A process during which the system
remains nearly in equilibrium at all times.

W F ds PA ds P dV
b

Wb is positive for expansion 2

Wb is negative for compression Wb = P dV

1

Shaft work - work from a moving part e.g. rotating shaft

Flow work - work associated with flowing fluid into and out
of the system.
Wf Pout Vout PinVin

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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among
the various forms of energy and energy interactions.

The first law states that energy can be neither

created nor destroyed; it can only change forms.

When a rock falls, the

decrease in potential
energy is equals to the
increase in kinetic
energy.
The increase in the energy of a potato
in an oven is equal to the amount of
heat transferred to it.

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 Energy Balance
The net change in the total energy of the system is equal to
the difference between the total energy entering and leaving
the system.
Ein E out Esystem

Consider only the two forms of energy exchange i.e. heat (Q)
and work (W).
Q W Esystem
Esystem U PE KE
Hence
Q W U PE KE
where;
Internal, kinetic, and
potential energy changes
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 Most systems encountered in practice are stationary, they
do not involve any changes in their velocity or elevation
during a process.

Various forms of the first-law relation for closed systems

General: Q W = E
Stationary systems: Q W = U
Per unit mass: q w = e
Differential form: q w = de

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 For an open system,

Q W E
W Wf Ws
E U PE KE
Q Wf Ws U PE KE
Q Ws U PE KE Pout Vout Pin Vin
Q Ws Uout Uin Pout Vout Pin Vin PE KE
Entalphy, H U PV
Q Ws Hout Hin PE KE
Q Ws H PE KE

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THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle

which places constraints upon the direction of heat
transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat engines.

The first law reflects the observation that energy is

conserved, but it imposes no restriction on the process
direction.

The inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a

process can take place is remedied by introducing the
second law of thermodynamics.

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A cup of hot coffee left on a table eventually
cools off.
First law: amount of energy lost by the coffee
is equal to the amount gained by the
surrounding air.
BUT a cup of cool coffee in the same room
never gets hot by itself.
This process never takes place. Doing so
would not violate the first law as long as the
amount of energy lost by the air is equal to the
amount gained by the coffee.

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.

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 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
KelvinPlanck Statement
Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to extract an amount of heat,
QH from a hot reservoir and use it all to do work, W . Some amount of heat,
QC must be exhausted to a cold reservoir.

Extracting heat, QH and using it all to do No heat engine can have a

work, W would constitute a perfect heat thermal efficiency of 100%
engine, forbidden by the second law
Limitation
on thermal
efficiency

Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible for any device that operates on a

cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
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 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clausius Statement
Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is not possible for heat to flow from a
colder body to a warmer body without any work having been done to
accomplish this flow.

Energy will not flow spontaneously from a low temperature object to a higher
temperature object.

All real refrigerators require

work to get heat to flow from
a cold area to a warmer area

Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that

operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of
heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
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MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW
1. The second law may be used to identify the direction
of processes.
heat does not flow spontaneously from a cold to a hot
body
2. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in
determining the theoretical limits for the
performance of commonly used engineering systems,
such as heat engines and refrigerators,
heat cannot be transformed completely into
mechanical work
It is impossible to construct an operational perpetual
motion machine
3. The second law also asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity.
4. It introduced the concept of entropy.
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 ENTROPY
The first law of thermodynamics deals with the property energy
and the conservation of it.
The second law leads to the definition of a new property called
entropy.
Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder or molecular
randomness.
As a system becomes more disorder, the positions of the
molecules becomes less predictable and the entropy increases.
Entropy
kJ/kg. K

gas
The level of molecular
disorder (entropy) of a
substances increases as liquid
it melts or evaporates
solid
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 The definition of entropy is based on the Clausius inequality given by
Q
T 0 integration over a complete cycle
the cyclic integral of Q/Tisalwayslessthanorequaltozero.

Any quantity whose cyclic integral is zero depends on the state only
and not the process path is a property.

Clausius(1865) discovered a new thermodynamics property, name as

entropy, S Q
dS
T int rev
The entropy change between the initial and the final states
Q
2
S S2 S1
1
T int rev
Entropy is a property, it has fixed values at fixed state. Therefore, the
entropy change between two specified states is the same whether the
process is reversible or irreversible.
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 Entropy expressed in T ds relations

The differential form of the conservation of energy equation

for a closed stationary system containing a simple
compressible substance for an internally reversible process
Qint rev Wint rev,out dU Qint rev T dS
Wint rev, out P dV
Thus,
T dS dU P dV (kJ)
T ds du P dv (kJ/kg) Eq. 1

h u Pv dh du Pdv vdP
by using Eq. 1, T ds du P dv
T ds dh v dP Eq. 2
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SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is
maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant.

Specific heat is the energy

required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass Formal
of a substance by one degree definitions of
in a specified way. cv and cp.
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ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
By using Eq. 1, Liquids and solids can be
approximated as incompressible
substances since their specific
volumes remain nearly constant
Thus, for liquids and solids during a process.

Then, the entropy change during a process Cavg is the average specific
heat over given T interval

For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance

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THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
The entropy change of an ideal gas by employing the property
relations for ideal gases.

By using Eq. 1, By using Eq. 2,

dT dP
ds c p R
T P
Then, entropy change during a process

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ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy Change of a System, Ssystem

Entropy generated during a process

Sgen 0

Energy and entropy

balances for a system.
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THE STEADY-FLOW PROCESS
The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady, or transient.
A large number of engineering devices operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows
through a control volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for continuous operation such as
nozzles and diffusers, turbines and compressors, throttling valves,
mixture chambers, heat exchangers, pipe and duct flow.

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 Nozzles and Diffusers
Nozzles and diffusers are
shaped so that they cause
large changes in fluid
velocities and thus kinetic
energies.
Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in
jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, and even garden
hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of
a fluid at the expense of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure
of a fluid by slowing it down.
Energy balance for a nozzle or diffuser:
Q = 0 (usually very small, it can be neglected)
Ws = 0 (no shaft work involve)
PE = 0 (negligible)
KE 0 (involve high velocity)
Q Ws H PE KE
Q 0,Ws 0, PE 0
0 H KE
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 Turbines and compressors
Turbine is a device that drives the electric generator in steam, gas or
hydroelectric power plants.
As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the
blades, which are attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates,
and the turbine produces work. The work done in a turbine is
positive since it is done by the fluid.
Compressors are devices used to increase the pressure of the fluid.
Work is supplied to these devices from an external source through a
High P rotating shaft. Therefore, the work is negative since it is done on the
fluid.
Energy balance for a turbine and
compressor:
Q = 0 (usually negligible since well Q Ws H PE KE
Low P insulated)
Low P Q 0, KE 0, PE 0
Ws 0 (involve shaft work) Ws H
PE = 0 (negligible)
KE = 0 (velocity too low)

High P 36
Throttling Valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow restricting devices that
cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
They produce a pressure drop without involving any work.
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices
are commonly used in refrigeration and air conditioning.
Energy balance for a throttling valve:
Q = 0 (adiabatic)
Ws = 0 (no work involve)
PE = 0 (negligible)
KE = 0 (negligible)

Q Ws H PE KE
Q 0,Ws 0, KE 0, PE 0
0 H
H2 H1
Symbol of a valve
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 Mixing Chambers
The section where the mixing process takes place is
commonly referred to as a mixing chamber.
Energy balance for a mixing
chamber:
Q = 0 (well insulated)
Ws = 0 (no work involve)
PE = 0 (negligible)
KE = 0 (negligible)
The T-elbow of an ordinary
shower serves as the mixing
chamber for the hot- and
the cold-water streams. Q Ws H PE KE
Q 0,Ws 0, KE 0, PE 0
0 H
H H
in out

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Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid
streams exchange heat without mixing.
Heat exchangers are intended for heat transfer between
two fluids within the device, and the outer shell is usually
well insulated to prevent any heat loss to the surrounding
medium. Energy balance for a heat exchanger:
Q = 0 (If entire heat exchanger is selected as
the control volume).
Q 0 (If only one fluid is selected as control
volume)
Ws = 0 (no work involve)
PE = 0 (negligible)
KE = 0 (negligible)
Q Ws H PE KE
Ws 0, KE 0, PE 0
Q H 39
 Pipe and Duct Flow
The transport of liquids or gases in pipes
and ducts is of great importance in many
engineering applications. Flow through a
pipe or a duct usually satisfies the steady-
flow conditions.
Pipe or duct flow may involve more than
one form of work at the same time.
Amount of heat gained or lost by the fluid
may be very significant if the pipe or duct is
long (Q 0). Heat transfer is negligible if the
pipe or ducts are insulated.
If the control volume involves a heating
section (electric wires), a fan, or a pump
(shaft), the work interactions should be
considered.
The velocities in the pipe and duct flow are
relatively low (KE 0).
The potential energy is significant since the
fluid may undergo an elevation change
(PE 0).
Q Ws We H PE KE
KE 0, PE 0
Q Ws We H
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