Blasting Practices: FBL

Table of Contents
Introduction: Use Of Explosives ................................................................................................ 2
Blast Design ............................................................................................................................... 3
Controlled Blasting Techniques ............................................................................................. 12
Electrical Blasting .................................................................................................................... 17
Issues In Blasting ..................................................................................................................... 21
Handling Of Misfires In Mines ................................................................................................ 25
Sample Questions..................................................................................................................... 30

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Blasting Practices: FBL

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION: USE OF EXPLOSIVES

The use of explosives in Zimbabwe is prohibited except under licence. No person shall
prepare, press home or fire an explosive charge or conduct any blasting operation unless:
(i) he is the holder of; or
(ii) he is under the direct supervision of the holder of a blasting licence granted under the
regulations which permits the holder thereof to prepare, press home or fire the explosive
charge or conduct the blasting operation, as the case may be.
No person shall cause or permit any other person over whom he stands in a position of
authority to prepare, press home or fire an explosive charge or to conduct any blasting
operation unless that other person:
(i) is the holder of; or
(ii) is under the direct supervision of the holder of a blasting licence granted under the
regulations which permits the holder thereof to prepare, press home or fire the explosive
charge or conduct the blasting operation, as the case may be.

For the purposes of the Zimbabwean Explosive regulations a person shall be regarded as
being under the direct supervision of the holder of a blasting licence only if he is being
supervised by that holder and is at all times within the sight of and under the control of that
holder.

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UNIT 2: BLAST DESIGN

Any blast design must encompass the fundamental concepts of an ideal blast design, which
are then modified as per geologic conditions. The engineer must select the proper variable to
match the specific field conditions during the design of the blast. Uncontrolled or specific
field conditions are the one over which we have little control such the geology, rock
characteristics, and regulations or specifications (such as the distance to the nearest
structures).
The controllable variables are:
a. Hole diameter
b. Hole depth
c. Sub-drilling depth
d. Stemming distance
e. Stemming material
f. Burden and spacing
g. Number of holes in the blast
h. Direction of rock movement
i. Timing
j. Types of explosive and initiation system

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Bench Blast Pattern in Openpit

Delay initiation Sequence

Delay blasting can be used both in a single row round and in a multiple row round. It is also
used for tunnel blasting. In this, each charge is given sufficient time to break its quota of
burden from the rock mass before the next charge detonates. The basic purpose of it is to
create free face for a blast. If a free face is not available, an inner blasthole may crater
upward, resulting in poor fragmentation, little forward displacement, and an increase in the
possibility of flyrock and overbreak, while increasing ground vibration and air blast.

Use of proper delay sequence, the ground vibration, air blast, flyrock is minimized, and the
fragmentation is increased. The delay interval necessary for optimum fragmentation varies
with the type of rock and burden distances. It appears that delay intervals of between 10 and
60 milliseconds between adjacent blastholes in a row provide the best result.

Opencast blasting
In opencast multi row blasting, various delay initiation sequences are possible. They are : (i)
Instantaneous, (ii) Row Delay and (iii) V, V1, V2 pattern.

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Blastholes/initiation patterns for shot fired to an open face

Overburden Blast Side Casting

Overburden Blast Side Casting is the procedure of displacement of a portion of overburden
horizontally by blasting, to a desired distance in a required direction away from the working
area. Generally, the area to which the overburden is directed to throw is in de-coaled area.
Overburden Blast Side Casting is directional blasting. It is also called Blast Casting, Side
Casting or Throw Blast. The remaining of overburden is handled by mechanical means.

Therefore, this system of overburden side casting by blasting reduces considerable amount of
work on deployment of excavating equipment for removing overburden. Moreover, this

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technique allows much improved fragmentation thereby causing the excavating equipment to
work more efficiently and with much ease.

Another important point regarding control of Ground Vibration of Blast Casting is system of
Presplitting of Main block of blast. This system reduces the blast induced Ground Vibration
greatly; thereby the nuisances arising due to Vibration is effectively controlled. Therefore,
overall efficiency of working in Mines is improved considerably by adopting Blast Side
casting with Presplitting.

Advantages of Overburden Blast Casting: Conventionally, the blasted overburden is

removed by Draglines, Shovels or Loaders. Now, Overburden blast Casting has emerged as
cheaper alternative to the conventional method of removal of overburden. In the following
ways the overburden blast casting is advantageous and reduces the cost of removal of
overburden in comparison to the conventional method.
* Saving in operating and capital cost of excavating equipments for removal of overburden.
* Saving in maintenance cost of excavating equipments for removal of overburden.
* Time for removal of casting overburden by excavating machines is reduced and thereby
productivity is increased.
* The saving in operating, power, capital and maintenance cost of excavating machinery is
much more in comparison to the cost of additional explosives required for overburden blast
casting, therefore overall economy is achieved in removal of overburden.
* Because of reduction in requirement of spares for maintenance etc., other hidden cost
related to inventory management of spares of excavating machine also reduced.
* Smaller size of excavating equipment needed with lesser manpower, as they have to handle
comparatively lesser volume of overburden.
* In working mines, if there is under capacity of primary stripping unit (i.e., less number of
loading units to handle overburden), in other words, if there is mismatch of capacities of
excavating equipment for stripping and coal removal, overburden blast casting can tackle this
problem, thereby coal production can be improved.

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Because of the above economical advantages, more and more opencast projects are
experimenting with overburden blast casting in India. This technique has been experimented
extensively in open pits in many countries like USA, Russia, South Africa, Australia etc., and
found that cost can be reduced considerably in comparison with conventional method of
workings.

Tunnel blasting
Tunneling in rocks is currently performed mainly by blasting, as this method only is capable
of providing sufficiently high effectiveness and economics in the construction of tunnel in
tough rocks. Tunneling by tunnel borers is considered to be less effective especially as
regards the construction of tunnels of large cross sectional areas.

The prime objective in Tunnel blasting is to obtain maximum advance/pull per round of blast
and to keep cost within reasonable limit. Therefore, very cautiously the type of explosives,
drilling pattern (Wedge Cut or Parallel Holes with Dia. of empty holes), spacing & burden,
number of holes to be drilled per round, Delay sequence etc., are to be selected. Cycle time is
to be kept minimum as far as possible. Cycle of operation include Drilling, Charging,
Blasting, Ventilation, Scaling, Support work, Grouting, Loading and Transport, and Setting
out for the next blast. The factors on which a great deal of tunneling operations depends are:
a. Type of explosives used for tunneling blasting operations.
b. Blast design and selection of dia. & location of holes in compatible with the geology of
strata, designed area of opening, Environment, existing laws etc.
Unlike bench blasting, tunnel blasting has only one free face and holes are drilled normal to
the free face surface. In such a situation, the explosives charge will blow out a narrow funnel-

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shaped crater. But if the hole is drilled at a certain angle to the free face, the result will be
better, as the major part of the gasses will break out the rock in the direction of free face.

Alternatively, if large diameter dummy holes parallel to the blast holes are drilled, the
breakage performance is better as the large diameter dummy holes provide additional free
face.

The initial opening/cut created either by angled holes or by holes drilled parallel to large
diameter dummy holes are widen subsequently by the holes fired after cut holes using proper
delays. In other words, the main difference between tunnel blasting and bench blasting is that
tunnel blasting is done towards one free surface, while bench blasting is done towards two or
more free surfaces. The rock is thus more constricted in the case of tunneling, and a second
free face has to be created towards which the rock can break and be thrown away from the
surface. This second face is produced by a cut in the tunnel face, which can be a parallel hole
cut, a V-cut, or a fan-cut.

After the cut opening is made, the stopping towards the cut begins. The final shape of the
cross section is given by trimmers or contour holes with closer spacing and comparatively
smaller charge.

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Underground metal mining blasting

Method of Mining in Underground Metal mines mainly depend on type of Deposit, i.e.,
regular or irregular; Extent and depth of deposit,
i.e., massive / pocket etc.; Dip and Thickness of deposit; nature of Hanging wall and Foot
wall etc.

Sublevel stoping is one of the most important methods of choice for achieving high
production rate in Underground Metal mines. The pattern of long hole drilling can be classed
under two major categories, i.e., Parallel hole drilling and Ring hole drilling.

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UNIT 3: CONTROLLED BLASTING TECHNIQUES

Broadly, controlled blasting for control of overbreak (in opencast and tunnel), ground
vibration etc., can be catagorised into four types, i.e., Pre-splitting, Trim or cushion blasting,
Line drilling and Smooth blasting. Muffle blasting is done to restrict fly-rock.
a. Pre-splitting: This method is not a new blasting technique. It became a recognized
blasting technique for wall control when it was used in the mid-1950s on the Niagara power
project. The purpose of pre-splitting is to form a fracture plane across which the radial cracks
from the production blasting cannot travel. This method may cause a fracture plane which
may be cosmetically appealing and allow the use of steeper slope with less maintenance. Pre-
splitting uses lightly loaded, closely spaced drill holes, and is fired before the production
blast.

b. Trim (or Cushion) Blasting: Trim blasts are designed to produce a final wall similar to a
presplit blast, but they are fired after the production holes. The idea is to eliminate costly
small diameter blasthole and work along with the associated hole loading difficulties. The
spacing is normally larger than used in pre-splitting because there is relief toward which the
holes can break.
c. Line drilling: This system involves a single row of closely spaced uncharged holes along
the neat excavation line. This provides a plane of weakness to which the primary blast can
break. It also causes some of the shock waves generated by the blast to be reflected, which
reduces shattering and stressing in the finished wall of the host rock. Thus, preserving, to a
great extent, the original strength of the host rock is possible. This system is applied in very

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sensitive areas where even the light explosive associated with other controlled blasting
technique may cause damage beyond excavation line. This technique gives maximum
protection to the host rock to preserve its original strength.
d. Smooth blasting (or contour or perimeter blasting): A technique used (rarely in surface
and mostly in underground blasting) in which a row or closely spaced drill holes are loaded
with decoupled charges (charges with a smaller diameter than the drill hole) and fired
simultaneously to produce an excavation contour without fracturing or damaging the rock
behind or adjacent to the blasted face. In this technique, perimeter or contour holes are drilled
along specified final excavation limits and are lightly loaded than that of buffer holes and
production holes. The spacing is kept closer than buffer holes and production holes. Unlike
production drill hole blast where higher charge concentration is required, contour drill holes
require low charge concentration and explosives should be lightly distributed all along the
length of the bore hole.

Some time use of high grammage Detonating Fuse (about 40 gm/m core wt., to 60 gm/m core
wt.) for contour blasting can give effective result in tunneling. This results in an air cushion
effect, which prevents over-break and reduces in-situ rock damage for preservation of
strength of host rock.

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e. Muffle blast: In case of blasting in congested areas, Muffling or covering of blast holes
properly before blasting, is the common solution to prevent fly-rock from damaging human
habitants and structures.

Use of in-hole delays in decks

Charge weight per delay is the most important parameter for controlling blast induced ground
vibration and air-blast. More the charge weight per delay in a blast, more is the intensity of
blast induced ground vibration and air-blast for a given distance.

Combination of in-hole delays in multi-deck with pre-splitting of production blast can

mitigate the effect of low frequency vibration to a great extent. Recently, accurate Electronic
delay detonator system has been introduced for blasting in opencast mines, resulting better
blasting efficiency in terms of better fragmentation, improved over all costs, control of fly-
rock & air-blast and effective reduction in blast induced ground vibration with greater safety.

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Use of Accurate and Precise Timing Electronic Delay Detonators

By more accurately controlling timing delays, electronic detonator system can increase rock
fragmentation, lower vibration levels, reduce oversize; lessen the potential of fly-rock. This
translates into faster excavation times and improves downstream processing costs for the
mining operation by increasing throughput, reducing crusher wear, and lowering power
consumption and maintenance costs.

Apart, accurate delay timing programmable electronic detonators enable to adopt innovative

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Signature-hole blast analysis technique to simulate, predict and control blast induced
ground vibration, in order to obtain maximum operational efficiency, such as raising quantity
of explosives per delay (kg/delay) etc.

Research studies had indicated that blast vibration could be simulated by detonating a
Signature Hole with the vibration monitored at critical locations, and then using a computer
to superpose the waveforms with varying delays. By choosing delay times (t) that create
destructive interference at frequencies that are favored by the local geology, the ringing
vibration that excites structural elements in structures, houses and annoys neighbors could be
reduced.

Computer analysis determines the application of delay timing between holes and between the
rows.

Blasting Safety
Explosives are tools that, when used properly, benefit mankind. However, improper use can
be disastrous. Prevention of explosives accidents depends on careful planning and faithful
observance of proper blasting practices. The users must remember that they are dealing with
a powerful force and that various devices and methods have been developed to assist them in
directing this force. The slightest abuse or misdirection of explosives may cause serious
injury or kill yourself or others. It is impossible to include warnings or approved methods for
every conceivable situation. Explosive safety depends on a thorough knowledge of
explosives, safe blasting practices and common sense of the users.

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UNIT 4: ELECTRICAL BLASTING

There are three important electrical circuits that are used in electrical blasting thus, series
circuit, parallel circuit, and series in parallel circuit.
The diagrams below elaborate on the types of circuits.

SERIES

Advantages
1. Easy to connect
2. Does not require heavy duty cables.
3. Can be tested for continuity using a digital blasting ohmmeter or continuity tester.
4. Resistance easily tested against firing capacity of short exploder
5. Low current, high voltage required.
6. No arching of detonators due to low currents.
7. Can be fired from a short exploder.

Disadvantages
1. Can not be fired from the mains due to the alternating nature of the circuit.
2. No protection against stray currents and other extraneous electricity, hence can
prematurely detonate.
3. One faulty detonator can affect the whole circuit.
4. Current leakage problem because of high resistance of the circuit.
5. Limited number of holes that be fired at a time depending on the type of exploder used

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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9 Burn Cut (parallel circuit)

Advantages
1. Can be fired from the mains.
2. High current, low voltage.
3. Current leakage not a problem; low resistance of the circuit.
4. Protection against stray currents and other extraneous electricity.
5. No premature detonation because of high currents required.
6. One faulty detonator cannot affect the whole circuit.

Disadvantages
1. Requires high current.
2. Installation and maintenance cost are high, since it requires heavy duty cables and
transformers.
3. Cannot be tested for continuity.
4. Skilled persons required.

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SERIES IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Advantages
1. Can be fired from the mains.
2. Faulty detonator can not affect the whole round, but row series only.
3. Continuity can be tested in row series.
4. Arching of detonators is reduced.
5. Requires high currents low voltage.
6. can use factory assembled detonators with buswires to speed up the charging up
process.

Disadvantages
1. It takes long to connect.
2. Requires heavy-duty cables and transformers.
3. Balancing of detonators is required.
4. Needs skilled labour to connect

TESTING OF CIRCUITS
Testing of electrical circuits is done by the following ways:

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1. Visual Checking
This is walking down the line to ensure that all detonators have been connected to the
circuit.
2. Continuity Tester
This is a robust instrument that glows a red lamp to indicate electrical continuity of
blasting circuits. It indicates whether or not an open circuit has been detected.
Situation: Far ends of cable separated (open circuit test)
The lamp does not glow.
Situation: Far ends of cable joined (closed circuit test)
The lamp glows with a red light, thus indicating continual flow of current in the
circuit.

3. Digital Blasting Ohmmeter

It is used to check resistance, ac and dc voltage and circuit leakage.
Situation: Far ends of cable separated.
No current should flow and therefore the resistance should show infinite.
Situation: Far ends of cable joined
Current should flow and be indicated by resistance reading of ohmmeter.
Situation: loose connection
Shows flickering of digital display
Testing of electrical detonator
The detonator must first be placed inside a metal pipe filled with sand to guard against
accidental detonation.
Situation: no open circuit
Current should flow and shown by a resistance reading on the ohmmeter.
Situation: short circuit
A short can be detected by ohmmeter when resistance will be significantly less
than the calculated value.

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UNIT 5: ISSUES IN BLASTING:

Flyrock
Analysis indicates that lack of blast area security, flyrock, premature blasts, and misfires are
the four major causes of blasting-related injuries in surface mining operations. Flyrock and
lack of blast area security issues continue to pose problems for blasters.
Generally, flyrock is caused by a mismatch of the explosive energy with the geomechanical
strength of the rock mass surrounding the explosive charge. Factors responsible for this
mismatch include:
* Abrupt decrease in rock resistance due to joint systems, bedding layers, fracture planes,
geological faults, mud seams, voids, localized weakness of rock mass, etc.
* High explosive concentration leading to localized high energy density,
* Inadequate delay between the holes in the same row, or between the rows,
* Inappropriate blast design,
* Deviation of blast holes from its intended directions,
* Improper loading and firing practice, including secondary blasting of boulders and toe
holes.
a) BURDEN: Insufficient burden is a primary cause of flyrock from a highwall face. Blasters
need to visually examine or laser profile the highwall face and search for zones of weakness,
backbreak, concavity, unusual jointing and overhang.
b) BLAST HOLE LAYOUT AND LOADING: Any deviation in the direction of a blast
hole can reduce or increase the burden. While loading a hole, blasters must frequently check
the rise of the explosives column to prevent overloading due to the loss of powder in voids,
cracks, or other unknown reservoirs. Such overloading will generate excessive release of
energy.
c) GEOLOGY AND ROCK STRUCTURE: Sudden change in geology or rock structure
can cause a mismatch between the explosive energy and the resistance of the rock. It is
prudent to try to detect such changes in advance and adjust accordingly.
d) STEMMING: Stemming provides confinement and prevents the escape of high-pressure
gases from the borehole. The stemming should provide resistance to the escape of high-
pressure gases comparable for that of the burden. Improper or inadequate stemming can result
in stemming ejections. Insufficient stemming also causes violent fragmentation of the collar
zone resulting in flyrock and airblast.
e) DETONATOR FIRING DELAY: Critical elements of any blast design are firing delays
between adjacent holes in a row and also those between successive rows. The firing delay is a

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function of the burden, spacing, hole depth, rock type, and the quantity of charge fired per
delay. Proper firing delay helps to achieve good fragmentation of the blasted material. It also
reduces ground vibration, air blast, and flyrock.
f) LACK OF BLAST AREA SECURITY: An analysis of blasting injuries indicates that
several factors are involved in causing injuries due to lack of blast area security. These
factors are: (i) failure to evacuate the blast area by employees and visitors; (ii) failure to
understand the instructions of the blaster or supervisors; (iii) inadequate guarding of the
access roads leading to the blast area, or the secured area; (iv) taking shelter at an unsafe
location, or inside a weak structure. Blast area security issues could be addressed by
providing adequate training and refresher courses to the blaster and other involved
employees.

Problem of unintentional and premature detonator firing in Mines

Frequently accidents in mines are caused by the unintentional premature firing of explosives
caused by extraneous electricity stray current or voltage, static electricity or high-frequency
irradiation. Ideally, a detonator should be immune to any type of extraneous electricity but
unfortunately, this is not possible with conventional electric detonators.
Electronics safer than electrics: Now Electronic Detonator system has taken a huge step
forward to creating a safe environment with a solution that provides protection against all
kinds of extraneous electricity. Unlike conventional electric detonators, Electronic digital-
coded detonator system uses a built-in capacitor to fire the fuse head. Charging and firing are
controlled via an electronic system integrated into the microprocessor of each detonator. Only
when this chip receives a digital-coded signal can the capacitor be charged to the required
firing voltage. After charging the capacitor, an additional specific digital code must be
delivered to the detonator to release an electronic switch, allowing the capacitor to discharge
and initiate the fuse head.
Immune to inadvertent ignitions: Electronic detonator provides protection against accidents
caused by extraneous electricity:
* Safe against Radio Frequency (RF): unparalleled safety against high-frequency irradiation
* Safe against stray current and voltage: far superior to electric detonators
* Safe against static electricity: unaffected by electrostatic discharges, e.g. in the human body
* Safe against induced power caused by lightning: immune to stray current from a lightning
strike when the gun system is in the hole

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General guidelines of Charging and Blasting in Hot Strata condition:

* Select the number of holes properly so that the total blasting operation should not exceed 2
hour from charging of first hole.
* Measure the temperature of the holes almost constantly till the commencement of blasting
operation.
* Use water at least 12 hour before blasting to flush hot holes till the temperature comes
down below 80oC.
* Record the temperature of holes at a regular interval of time.
* Use a mixture of Bentonite, Sodium Silicate and Water in holes which do not retain water
to seal micro-fractures and cracks. Guar gum upto 5 percent may also be used for the
purpose.
* Only slurry or emulsion explosives, preferably bulk explosives to be used for hot-hole
blasting purpose.
* It is preferred that explosives charging may be started near the initiation point first, (i.e.,
load explosives in the sequence in which the blast will be fired first). This allows the pattern
to be quickly charged, tied up and fired in the event of a change in conditions.
* Where possible hottest holes to be loaded last.
* Detonating fuse as initiation system only should be used. Shock tube and detonators
should not be used down-the-hole.
* Adequate non-combustible stemming material should be available near the collar of each
hole prior to commencing of charging operation, for fast accomplishing charging operation.
* Punctured holes are to be plugged at bottom before charging. Air-bags may be used for the
purpose.
* Combination of Bulk-Loading Emulsion explosives, Detonating Fuse with Top-
Priming of Booster is preferred. These primers are applied shortly before blasting time, at
the top of the explosives charge, where the emulsion is relatively cooler.
* After primers are put, stemming and firing are done as quickly as possible, without wasting
any time.
Precaution:
Water gas Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, both highly
flammable, and is produced in a reaction between hot carbon and water (while putting water
on hot coal for quenching purpose). The chemical equation for this is:
C + H2O = CO + H2.

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It is highly explosive over a wide range of concentrations (4% to 74%).

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UNIT 6: HANDLING OF MISFIRES IN MINES

Dealing with it is potentially most dangerous activity.

1. INTRODUCTION Misfire means the complete or partial failure of a blasting charge to
explode as planned. The explosive or pyrotechnical products that remain in the ground or in
the muckpile might be triggered by any mechanical effect during the digging, milling or
crushing stages of the mining process, causing injuries or fatalities to blasters or operators.
The potential consequences of a misfire are such that every reasonably practicable means
available to site managers should be taken to avoid misfires. The emphasis should be made
on prevention rather than cure.
Dealing with a misfire is potentially the most dangerous activity that site managers and
Shotfirers will be involved in during blasting operations. In the event of a misfire, it is likely
that unexploded charges and detonators will be left in the face or in the muckpile. These
charges could be detonated if drilled into, if struck by an excavator bucket, wheels or tracks,
or if inadvertently fed through a crushing plant. Unexploded charges may also be loaded out
accidentally and taken either off site in road vehicles or to site tips. In any of these
circumstances there may be a risk of danger to the operator or to the public, particularly from
fly-rock in the event of a detonation.
Unexploded charges may need to be recovered by hand. All those likely to be involved must
realise that this is a potentially dangerous operation. Great care and attention to detail is
required to ensure that this is carried out safely.
2. RECOGNITION OF MISFIRES After firing, a proper examination must be carried out
to check the state of the face, that all the charges have fired and that there is no indication of a
misfire. However, explosives can still be discovered at the face, in the muckpile or at the
processing plant.

Any discovery of undetonated explosives or detonating cord must be reported since their
presence constitutes a misfire. Indications of a misfire can include noxious fumes, inadequate
ground movement, poor fragmentation, unusual blast sound or vibration trace, flyrock or
evidence of undetonated explosives

3. POST BLAST INSPECTION Post blast inspection is a hazardous task and in all
circumstances must be carried out in accordance with the site rules.

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Hazards exist not only from the existence of undetonated explosives but also from the post
blast environment.
There is the possibility of a misfire remaining undetected even after inspection. It is therefore
essential that adequately trained personnel regularly check the muckpile and face throughout
the loading operation.
All personnel but especially those operating loading equipment, hauling equipment and
crushers should be aware of this possibility and must be instructed to report abnormalities.
The extent and nature of the misfire must be determined as soon as possible after the misfire
has been detected.
An exclusion zone must be established and secured until such time as any readily retrievable
explosive has been collected and removed.

4. IN THE EVENT OF A MISFIRE If a misfire is discovered during the post blast

inspection then the all clear signal should not be given until a new exclusion zone has been
established and secured.
The exclusion zone must be established by the responsible person who could be either the site
manager or the blasting engineer or the shotfirer.
The immediate priority must be to ensure that arrangements to safeguard personnel in the
event of a misfire are adequate and complied with.
Only those personnel directly concerned with the misfire should be within the exclusion zone.

5. DEALING WITH MISFIRES The following procedures should be considered as

possible courses of action in dealing with misfires.
* Removing stemming and re-priming
There may be circumstances in which it is possible to remove stemming in order to gain
access and to reprime the charge. This is a potentially hazardous operation, which requires
great care. It should only be attempted after detailed consideration.
When a hole contains detonators and it is anticipated that excessive force will be required to
remove the stemming then the operation must not be attempted. This could result in
premature initiation of the charge, particularly if the detonator is close to the top of the main
charge and is immediately below the stemming.
If the hole contains an electric detonator the use of high velocity air to remove the stemming
should not be attempted. Static charges sufficient to initiate electric detonators can be created.

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Bulk explosive can be washed out of misfired shotholes but the utmost care must be taken in
removing cartridges, particularly where detonators are involved. Under no circumstances
must explosives or detonators be removed from a borehole by pulling on the detonator
leads. Suitable extraction tools are available to enable cartridges to be removed. These
usually take the form of a corkscrew or barb of nonferrous material which can be connected
to stemming rods.
The following factors must be considered:
The use of high pressure water is unlikely to overcome the mechanical lock of stemming
comprising chippings; The use of large quantities of water could desensitise any non
waterproof explosive and dissolve any explosive with a high concentration of water soluble
ingredients;
In situations where multiple decks of explosives are employed, all the above considerations
magnify the difficulty of gaining access to the lower decks of explosives. Irrespective of the
number of explosive decks, removal of the stemming in order to gain access to the charge as
to re-prime is a technique, which ranges from unattractive at best to extremely difficult.
Any tools used inside the borehole to remove stemming must be non-ferrous.
If all the stemming can be removed and access to the top of the charge is achieved, the charge
may be reprimed and refired. However it should be noted that in the event of a partial misfire
the burden on the misfired shothole can often be reduced or fractured and a careful
assessment of the situation must be made before any decision is reached.
* Drilling and firing relieving holes
The hazards in drilling relieving holes are:-
a) intersecting an explosives column, with a high risk of detonation
b) operating a drill in unstable rock conditions
The object of such holes when fired is:
To disturb and displace the adjacent explosive column so that any primers and
detonators remaining unfired are not located within an undisturbed explosive column
after this blasting;
To break up the rock mass in the region of the misfired hole in order to facilitate the
search for and retrieval of any unexploded charges, primers and detonators.
One or more relieving holes may be drilled behind the misfired hole. The separation distance
between the holes depends on the diameter, the inclination and the type of drilling equipment
and the sensitiveness of the explosives. Any relieving hole must be drilled parallel to the
misfired hole and to the same depth. To ensure that the holes are parallel it is essential that

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Blasting Practices: FBL

the information relating to the inclination and azimuth of the misfired hole is accurate. Care
must be taken to drill the relieving hole at the same angle. The precise location of the
relieving hole can only be established after careful assessment of the local conditions.
Consideration should also be given to operating the drill rig remotely. It may be necessary to
seek expert advice.
A further option is to drill small diameter relieving holes around the collar of the misfired
hole. These are systematically fired to work off the rock and expose the charge. There may be
adjacent charged holes, which must be considered and their location confirmed before any
action is taken.
* Discovery and retrieval of explosives
It may be necessary to move rock from the immediate vicinity of the misfire before access to
the charge can be gained. The remaining rock next to any misfired charge is likely to be solid
and any attempt to remove this can be fraught with danger. Remedial action can only be
decided after careful inspection and appraisal of the misfire site.
It may be possible to remove part of a misfired charge by hand from the socket of a hole but
this should only be attempted by experienced personnel after due consultation with, and the
approval of site management.
Removal of some charge from a hole will allow the introduction of a primer and detonators.
Some stemming may then be added to the hole to create additional confinement, before
firing.
If a misfired hole contains more than one deck of explosive, it may be necessary to deal with
each deck in turn as a separate misfire, with either full retrieval of charges from each deck or
re- priming. Sufficient confinement must be provided before refiring each deck.
Explosive which is recovered should be placed in containers for storage or disposal.
Detonators should be separated from the explosives and primers carefully and stored
separately from explosives. Explosives should be placed in plastic bags and placed in clearly
labelled boxes.
The process of searching for explosive material in the heap may involve the use of loading
equipment. Note that it is possible to utilise specially protective devices in order to protect the
operators during this process.
Material picked up by the bucket should be taken to a leve1 area, carefully deposited on the
floor and searched thoroughly. The minimum number of people should be exposed during
this process.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Before excavation commences precise instructions should be given to the machine operator
as to how to proceed.
This procedure should help minimise the risk of the impact of the bucket or falling rocks
detonating unexploded charges. This work must only be done under direct supervision.
From the location of misfired material and information from the blast design it may be
possible to determine the quantities and types of explosive involved. A search should
continue until, as far as possible, all explosive material has been accounted for. Be aware that
explosive material may be concealed below the floor where sub-drilling is used.
A more serious situation occurs when explosive material is found when loading out or
processing. It must be assumed that some has made its way into the product, stocking area or
tip. It may even have been taken off site. An assessment must be made of the dangers and
risks likely to be involved should the explosive be inadvertently detonated. Steps must be
taken to arrange for the search and inspection of any location where undetonated explosives
have found their way. All personnel must be instructed to report the finding of any explosive
material to the shotfirer, the face foreman or the manager as soon as possible.

6. MISFIRE INVESTIGATION After a misfire has occurred it is important that the

lessons learned are recorded in order to attempt to prevent a repetition of the event.
Reporting is an important part of this procedure and records must be maintained. This is
particularly important if it is suspected that all of the misfired material has not been
recovered.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

SAMPLE QUESTIONS: DRILLING AND BLASTING

Q1. How would you prepare and make off a face for drilling?

Ans 1. Do waiting place procedure by checking my men for absentees,

injuries, drunkenness and their safety equipment. Then tell the rest of the gang
instructions for the day.

2. With my competent person go to the storeroom and collect necessary tools

such as gas tester and detector tubes, approved blow pipe, pinch bar with
rubber gasket, water and air hoses, paint centerlines and grade line strings.

3. Put tools on the trolley and proceed to the cross cut, visual checking for bad
hangings along my traveling way ensuring my fan is running.

4. At the entrance to the cross cut, I will open the barricade, go in, open the
water blast and check the time and retreat to fresh air intake for 15 minutes
and close danger sign Barricade.

5. After 15 minutes, open danger sign Barricade, close water blast.

6. Then test for gas and visual check for bad hanging by sounding with a pinch
bar, working towards the face. Do this at interval of 2 metres until you come
to the face.

1. At the face test for gas, check for evidence of misfires and visual check for
bad hanging.

2. Then tell your competent person to connect your water hose on the water
column and turn on water fully and wash down at least 8 metres back form the
face and any place that needs washing down.

3. Then bar down towards the face and bar down the face.

4. Then pick down to solid the footwall, 2 metres back to expose the previous
rounds lifters sockets.

5. Then connect your water and air hose to the approved blow pipe and open
water fully with a little bit of air, start pumping out sockets starting with the
lifters. It is very important that you pump and plug not to miss out any holes.
Once the face is examined check your roof and sidewalls 2m back with your
approved blowpipe to expose previous round sockets.

6. Then examine your area where you want to drill service pin holes.

7. Attach your lines obtaining the center of your face to your front line and back
line pegs.

8. Attach your lines obtaining your grade lines to A grade pegs.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

9. In conjunction with your competent person who will sight through the lines,
mark off you center line and your grade lines on your face with yellow paint.

10. Scribe the size of your face.

11. Start marling your holes using red paint and ensuring the holes are marked not
less than 150mm from the outside of the socket and the paint marks not to be
bigger than the jumper head.

12. Mark off your direction lines with yellow paint.

13. Mark off your service pinholes with red paint.

14. Standing back 3 metres form the face with my machine crew present I will
then instruct then on how they went wrong in the drilling of yesterdays round.

15. Before leaving the end I would check that all my service requirements are the
correct distances form the face.

16. Checks at intervals of drilling time.

a. Use of starter jumper.

b. Use of cut director

c. Length and direction lines are followed

d. Do not collar dry

e. Trimming of face at intervals

f. Use of platform for shoulder holes.

g. Safety equipment worn all the times.

h. Pump dry all holes when drilling is completed.

Q2. How far back from a face to be drilled must be washed down?

Ans for at least 8 metres.

Q3. What is a socket?

Ans A socket is a hole or part of a hole remaining after being charged with explosives and
blasted and is not known to be a misfire or contain explosives.

Q4. What must you know about a socket?

Ans Its length, direction and cleanliness (L.D.C).

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Q5. Who may examine and plug sockets?

Ans Only a blasting licence holder who has examined that socket can plug it.

Q6. Who can remove a socket plug?

Ans Only the blasting licence holder may examine sockets and the one who has examined
the socket can plug it.

Q7. What is a socket plug?

Ans It is an approved wooden or concrete plug or any other suitable material approved by
the Inspector of Mines used for plugging sockets and misfired holes.

Q8. Why do you plug a socket?

Ans In order to show that it has been examined and found free of explosives.

Q9. With what do you mark off holes to be drilled?

Ans With paint or chalk to show the exact position and direction of the holes to be drilled.

Q10. How near a socket can you mark off a hole to be drilled?

Ans Not closer than 150mm from the outside perimeter of a socket and the paint mark
shall be so placed that when drilling takes place the drill steel shall not come closer
than 150mm to a socket and it shall be drilled parallel to the socket.

Q11. You have long sockets on the face what precaution would you take not to drill into
them?

Ans Put a charging stick, a blowpipe or any other suitable material into the socket and drill
parallel.

Q12. With what do you pump out sockets?

Ans With an approved blowpipe.

Q13. What is a blowpipe?

Ans It is of an approved design made of non-ferrous metal e.g. copper, brass or aluminum.
With two connections one for water and the other for air used for pumping out
sockets, misfired holes and drilled holes.

Q14. Why is it necessary to examine for sockets for the last 2 metres from each hole to be
drilled?

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Ans The reason is you are not allowed to drill not closer than 2 metres from a misfire, so
you must ensure that there are no misfires.

Q15. You are pumping sockets out at the face and you cannot find your cut what do you
do?

Ans I will treat the cut as frozen holes and as I am the one who marked off the face and
knowing where the cut was, I will by means of any approved blowpipe with lots of
water and little bit of air continue to examine the area until I locate the cut holes.

Q16. You have half drilled a round and it is knocking out time. What do you do the next
day?
9. The following day I will do complete re-entry.
10. Examine and pump and plug all sockets.
11. I will also pump other half newly drilled holes.
12. Then mark the other half not drilled.

Q17. When would you know that a machine operator is safe when drilling in a raise?

Ans Only when his safety lanyard is secured to the safety eye bolt to prevent him from
falling.

Q18. What is misfire?

Ans It is a hole, which have been charged with explosives and failed to explode either in
part or wholly.

Q19. How would you deal with a fuse misfire?

Ans 1. Remove the socket plug from the misfire hole.

2. Take an approved blowpipe connect the water and air holes.
3. Turn on water fully and a little bit of air, then begin pumping the misfire
gently and slowly under no circumstance must I hummer at the misfire.
4. After pumping out my misfire and feeling my blowpipe taping on solid at
one end of the hole and also see water coming out clean. I would then plug
the socket.
5. Collect the record explosives and lock them in old expl. and Dete boxes.

Q20. How do you do with an electric misfire?

Ans 1. Remove socket plug.

a. By means of an approved scraper made of wood, brass, copper or
aluminum scrape out the tamping exposing as much powder as possible.
3. I would then insert a new primer with a Dete already tested away outside the
magazine at a safe place in a 4-inch pipe on a concrete slab see that it directly
cones into contact with the old explosives.
4. Then retamp the hole and plug it, then blast at the end of shift with permission.

Q21. How far can you drill from a misfire hole in a stope?

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Ans You are not allowed to drill within 2 metres of a misfire and must be so drilled in such
a direction that the drill hole does not come closer than 2 metres from the misfire and
it must be drilled parallel.

Q22. How far can you drill from a misfired hole in a development end?

Ans Under no circumstances may you drill near a mis fire in a Dev. End unless the misfire
has been re-primed and blasted or pumped out.

Q23. How do you deal with a misfire in a quarry?

Ans Re-prime the hole and blast it.

Q24. Why cant you pump out an electric misfire?

Ans You are not allowed to pump an electric as an electric detonator is very sensitive and
can explode with the slightest tap when mishandled.

Q25. Can you undercut a Quarry face?

Ans No, it is very dangerous as the ground might fall on you.

Q26 When would you pump out an electric misfire?

Ans Only in sinking shaft and that is when we use an inert inverted wax primer.

Q27. How do you know that your misfire is finished in a hole in a sinking shaft?

Ans Because we bottom prime, so when the primer comes out I know my hole is clean,
because there is no cushion.

Q28. How other than pumping or scraping out a misfired hole can you deal it?

Ans Re-Prime and blast.

Q29. Why must a copper blowpipe or scraper be used?

Ans Because Iron and Steel give spark.

Q30. Why must you use water when collaring?

Ans In order to ally dust.

Q31. Before charging up an end to be blasted, what item of equipment must you check with
regard to suppressing dust and fumes?

Ans Water blast.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Q32. At the fix primary blasting time you are a blasting license holder tell me your blasting
procedure?

a. Check time with next-door miner.

b. Sign token book and see Section is clear.
c. Place guards at safe places.
d. Leave your competent person at blasting point as Guard see cable is
short circuited and then go and join your steel cable and copper cable
to the round.
e. Shout Cheesa, your Guards Shout Cheesa all times.
f. At blasting point put your copper cables in battery terminals.
g. Take the key out of your pocket and insert it in the key socket on the
battery and start to wind until you see a continuous yellow glow then
press the firing buttons.(Shout Cheesa)
h. Remove the key and put it in your pocket remove the cable and short
circuit.
i. Open water blast and check time and after 15 minutes close water blast
and then go and collect your Guards.
j. Give repot to the shift boss.

Q33. There is a raise deeping at 60o off a drive and the raise is 12m long, you want to go
and drill. What is the procedure of marking off the face?

Ans 1. Do a complete re-entry.

2. Having established my safety and drilling platform and completed the
examination of my face I will:
A. Open the shutters of my drilling platform.
B. Open the shutters of my safety platform.
C. Hang my 2 Grade chains from the Survey pegs.
D. Inconjuction with my competent persons who will be sighting through the Grade
chains washers I will establish and mark off my center line on the face also
marking off the grade line which will give me the deep of my raise using yellow
paint. Scribe the size of my raise.
2. Scribe the size of my raise.
3. Start marking your holes using red paint and ensuring the holes are marked not less than
150mm from the outside perimeter of the socket and the paint marks not to be bigger than
the jumper head.
4. Mark off your direction lines with yellow paint.
5. Mark off your 14 service pin holes with red paint which are:
i. 8 pin holes for tomorrows drilling platforms.
ii. 2 chain ladders pin holes.
iii. Water and air pin hole.
iv. Water blast pipe pin hole
v. Auxiliary pipe pin hole.
vi. Safety eye bolt pin hole.
6. I shall then call up my machine crew and when they come on to the platform they shall
secure there lanyards to the safety eye bolt provided
7. With the help of my machine crew and we shall together pull up the chain ladder and
place it in todays chain ladder pins.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

8. I shall then instruct them on how they went wrong in the drilling of yesterdays round.
9. I shall then instruct them to do the following drilling safety procedures:
i. Do not collar dry
ii. Use a starter jumper.
iii. Deal with bad hangings at intervals.
iv. Wear your safety equipment.
10. Before leaving I shall make sure that my drilling crew are securely
anchored to the safety eyebolt.
11. At the bottom of the raise I will make sure that my auxiliary air pipe is
open.

Q34. What is secondary blasting?

Ans Secondary Blasting is blasting which can be carried out during the shift more than
once such as mud blasting on the grizzley level, bad hanging box hang ups.

Q35. What is re-entry time for secondary blasting?

Ans 10 minutes or until dust and fumes have cleared.

Q36. You are working on a grizzley level you have a misfire how long will you wait?

Ans 1. Electric misfire not less than 10 minutes.

2. Fuse misfire -- not less than 30 minutes.

Q37. What is re-entry?

Ans Re-entry is the time laid down before persons may enter a working place after a blast.

Q38. Where do you get your re-entry time from ?

Ans You obtain it from the blasting schedules provided.

Q39. Where are blasting schedules kept?

Ans 1. They are kept in the Shift Bosses Office or any other
places where blasting operations are carried out conspicuous.

2. They are signed monthly by the miner in charge of the Section and an
Official.

Q40. What is the purpose of having a re-entry time after blasting?

Ans To prevent persons from being exposed from fumes and dust caused by a blast.

Q41. What is a blasting schedule?

Ans 1. Secondary Blasting:

A. Set blasting times and safety procedures.

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Blasting Practices: FBL

B. Laid down time for re-entry.

2. Primary Blasting:
A. Times when blasting may take place.
B. Laid down time for re-entry.

Q42. What is primary blasting?

Ans Primary Blasting is main blasting and is carried out since in 24 hours at the end of the
shift. Unless the Inspector in writing is satisfied that ventilation is good to remove
fumes and dust, he may allow blasting more than once in 24 hours.

Q43. What is re-entry time for primary blasting?

Ans Re-entry time must not be less than 4 hours. Laid down by the inspector of Mine and
passed to the Manager of the mine.

Q44. What is multi-blasting?

Ans It is when blasting is done more than once in 24 hours, such as in high speed haulage
development in shaft sinking.

Q45. What is meant by series blasting?

Ans Series blasting means that the Dets are so connected up that the electric current from
the positive terminal is passed to the first Det leading on from one to another all the
way to the negative terminal of the exploder.

Q46. What is meant by series parallel blasting?

Ans Series parallel blasting is where your Dets are connected up in series and one lead of
the Det to the positive and the other to the negative back to the exploder.

Q47. What is a Beethoven?

Ans It is an approved battery which detonates the explosions by means of an electric

current. It has two terminals for connecting blasting cables, a hole. Provided for a key
and button which is pressed to pass the electric current to the detonators.

Q48. Do the same Regulations apply to surface drilling as for underground drilling with
regard to plugging sockets?

Ans Yes. The same Regulations do apply only difference is that on surface drilling is done
dry.

Q49. You want to blast 50 large rocks in a quarry by pop-holes, charged with fuse. What is
your procedure?

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Blasting Practices: FBL

Ans The most important point about this is that during blasting you and one other person
must whilst standing in a safe place count all shorts. If one counts 49 out of 50 shorts
you must treat it as a misfire and wait for 30 minutes.

Q50. What do you know about storm warning in a quarry?

Ans On the approach of a storm all charging will cease. Remove all explosives to a safe
place barricade off the charge area. Remove all personnel within the area, sound the
siren and place guards. Charging may only commence when you have been
authorized by the person in charge.

Q51. What do you know about storm warning when working underground?

Ans A person specially authorized on storm watching on surface will send down the Mine
a written notification Storm warning which states all charging operations and
blasting to stop. This must be signed and acknowledged by every miner in charge and
returned to surface. When this notification has been received all charging will cease,
person removed, explosives not used to be removed to safe places and barricade the
area off. Charging and blasting may commence only when an all clear notification has
been sent down to all miners in charge and is signed.

52. If all your holes electrical charged in Dev. End is a complete misfire. What do you do
next day?

1. In a small working and if it was the only end, I would remove the key, short
circuit the cable, wait for ten minutes and rectified the fault and blast it the
same day.

2. In a large Mine I would remove the key, short circuit the cable and barricade
off. Go to surface and give report to the shift boss. To log for night lashers that
X/C No 4 is a misfire. Under no circumstances would they reprime and blast
that end as I have adhered to blasting schedules.

38