CHAPTER 4

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

4.1 Introduction

Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with architectures, instruments

and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within a desired range.
Process control systems make sure industrial processes are carried out efficiently,
consistently and with as little variation as possible. They're installed in industrial
settings to maintain the value of process variable eliminating external disturbances,
vary the value of process variables as a function of a measurement or time or
according to optimizing function, and satisfy various constraints such as prevent
flooding in an extraction column.

Systems measure, monitor and control manufacturing processes and activities. They
identify and correct any abnormalities or variations from specified values, either
manually or automatically. The objective is to make sure that the production is
consistent and that as little energy is wasted as possible.

Although process control technology has advanced rapidly since the mid-1980s, the
latest systems still follow the traditional hierarchical or pyramid-like structure. The
lowest level of the pyramid works to make sure a particular process doesn't vary by
more than an allowed amount. It monitors the operation of each part of the process,
identifies unwanted changes and initiates any necessary corrective actions. Lower
level controls can't handle complex situations like equipment faults. These have to be
dealt with either manually, by an operator, or by other controls at a higher level of the
hierarchy.

There are a few major reasons of the process control in the production process:

1. Energy savings
2. Improved safety
3. Consistent product quality
4. Lower manufacturing costs
5. Improve environmental performance

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4.2 Process Control System

At this time it is required to define some terms used in the field of process control
which are control variable, manipulated variable, set point and disturbance. The
control variable (CV) is the variable that must be maintain, or controlled at some
desired value. The set point (SP) is the desired value of controlled variable. Thus, the
job of a control system is to maintain the controlled variable at its set point. The
manipulated variable (MV) is the variable used to maintain the control variable at its
set point. Disturbance is defined as any variable that causes the controlled variable
to differ from the set point. There are three basic operations that must be present in
process control system and it must be followed in order to produce proper control
systems. These operations are:

1. Measurement (M) measuring the variable to be controlled is usually done by the

combination of sensor and transmitter

2. Decision (D) controller decide the action to be taken to maintain controlled

variable at set point.

3. Action (A) final control element such as the valve will perform whatever the
controller decision.

In process control, the loop for the system include the control process such as
pressure, flow and level. Any override limit or data from the set point will detect by the
sensor before transferring the data to the transmitter. The transmitter will convert
electrical signal into pneumatic signal and send the data to controller. Next, controller
will transfer the signal to final element, usually use control valve, to take any corrective
action.

4.3 Type of Controller

i) Feedback Control

Feedback control involved the method of control based on past result. In others word,
feedback control directly used the outcome of process (controlled variable) to rectify
the controlled parameter (manipulated variable) until required set point is achieved.

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 Table 4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of feedback controller

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simplest process control design as it 1. No corrective action taken until there
only used single transmitter. is deviation in the controlled variables.
2. Corrective action occurs as soon as 2. Not suitable for process with large
controlled variable deviates from the set time constants or/and long times delays.
point.
3. Easy to tune especially for flow,
pressure and level control.
4. Direct control of the desired process
variable.

Figure 4.1: Feedback Control Scheme

ii) Feedforward control

Feedforward control is a type of control system that anticipates load disturbances and
control them before they impact the process variables. In this system, user must has
good mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variable will affect the
process variable in order to prevent error at the earlier stage. Feedforward control is
preferable when the control variable has the potential of being a major load
disturbance on the process variable that being controlled.

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 Table 4.2: Advantages and disadvantages of feedforward controller

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Measure important disturbances 1. The disturbances variables must be
variables and corrective action being measured online only.
taken before they upset the process. 2. Quality of control system depends on
the accuracy of process model.

Figure 4.2: Feedforward Control Scheme

iii) Cascade Control

Cascade control involved a method of control of which the inner loop controller obtains
its setpoint from an outler loop controller. In others word, cascade control utilized the
output of primary controller to manipulate the set point of the secondary controller as
it were the final control element. Cascade control has two transmitters, two controllers
and one control valve.

Table 4.3: Advantages and disadvantages of cascade controller

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Fast recovery time compared with 1. Controllability will be worse than
SISO feedback. SISO if both controllers not properly
2. Allow faster secondary controller to tuned.
handle disturbances in the secondary
loop.
3. Allow secondary controller to handle
non-linear valve and other final control
element problems.

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 Figure 4.3: Cascade Control Scheme

4.4 Process Control Equipment

4.4.1 Sensor

Sensors provide a means for gathering information on manufacturing operations and

processes being performed. In many instances, sensors are used to transform a
physical stimulus into an electrical signal that may be analysed by the manufacturing
system and used for making decisions about the operations being conducted. The
purpose of sensors is to inspect work in progress, to monitor the work-in-progress
interface with the manufacturing equipment, and to allow self-monitoring of
manufacturing by the manufacturing system's own computer.

Process control sensors in manufacturing will play a significant role in improving

productivity, qualitatively and quantitatively, throughout the coming decades. The
main parameters to be measured and controlled in industrial plants are temperature,
displacement, force, pressure, fluid level, and flow. In addition, detectors for leakage
of explosives or combustible gases and oils are important for accident prevention.
Different sensor will be required for different process control. Table below shows the
type of sensor available for process control.

Table 4.4: Process Variable and Type of Sensor Used

Process Varables Type of Sensor

Flow i. Pitot tube
ii. Venturi tube
iii. Orifice plate
Level i. Conductivity probes
ii. Float sensor
iii. Capacitance sensor

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 Temperature i. Thermocouples
ii. Bimetallic
iii. Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
Pressure i. Bourdon
ii. Spiral
iii. Strain gauges

4.4.2 Transducers

A transducer plays an important role in the instrumentation system. An

electrical transducer is a device which is capable of converting the physical quantity
into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or electric current. Hence it
converts any quantity to be measured into usable electrical signal. This physical
quantity which is to be measured can be pressure, level, temperature, displacement
etc. The output which is obtained from the transducer is in the electrical form and is
equivalent to the measured quantity. For example, a temperature transducer will
convert temperature to an equivalent electrical potential. This output signal can be
used to control the physical quantity or display it. Note that any device which is able
convert one form of energy into another form is called as a transducer. For example,
even a speaker can be called as a transducer as it converts electrical signal to
pressure waves (sound). But an electrical transducer will convert a physical quantity
to an electrical one. Table below shows several types of different transducer that can
be classified based on several criteria:

Table 4.5: Process variable and types of transducer used

Process Variable Types of Transducer

Temperature transducer i. Thermocouple
ii. Thermistor
Pressure transducer i. Diaphragm
ii. Strain-gage based transducer
Displacement transducer i. Linear variable differential transformer
Flow transducer i. Series flow transducer

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4.4.3 Transmitters

A transmitter is a device that converts the signal produced by a sensor into a

standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-15 PSI air pressure, 4-20 mA DC
electric current, Fieldbus digital signal etc., which may then be conveyed to an
indicating device, a controlling device, or both. The indicating or controlling device is
often located in a centralized control room. The transmitter often combines a sensor
and the transmitter in a single piece. The sensor measures the process variable and
generate a proportional signal. The transmitter then amplifies and conditions the
sensor signal for onward transmission to the receiving or controlling devices. Types
of transmitter used in process instrumentation are listed below:

i. Electronic Transmitters
ii. Pneumatic Transmitters
iii. Analog Transmitters
iv. Digital Transmitters

4.4.4 Controllers

A controller is a device that receives information from the measurement instrument or

sensors and compares the data to a programmed set point (SP). If disturbance
appears on the process variables, the controller will signals a control element to take
corrective action. Some of the controller that widely used in industrial are field
controller, distributed control system (DCS) and supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA).

4.4.4.1 Field unit controller

Field control is a control system configuration whereby instruments such as

transmitters, transducer, recorders and indicators are placed at the process
site. All the instrument are separated part and can be grouped together at a
control panel. This type of controller is suitable for small scale industry.

4.4.4.2 Distributed Control System (DCS)

DCS is kind of development of the field controller where all separated

equipment are replaced with single computer. It is a computerised control

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 system for a process or plant, in which autonomous controllers are distributed
throughout the system, but there is central operator supervisory control. The
DCS concept increases reliability and reduces installation costs by localising
control functions near the process plant, but enables monitoring and
supervisory control of the process remotely.

4.4.4.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

SCADA is a control configuration system whereby a computer is used to

monitor the process variables (PV). It is also possible to change the controller
set point (SP) and control the process manually by opening or closing the
control valve (MV). However, the computer has no capability of controlling the
process. This type of controller is favourable in large scale industry.

4.4.5 Final control element

Final control element is the last device in the control loop. It takes a signal from the
process instruments and acts directly to control the process fluid. Some of the final
control element equipment are valve, metering pump and AC/DC drive. In fact, final
control elements are an essential part of process control systems, allowing an
operator to achieve a desired process variable output by manipulating a process
variable setpoint.

Among those equipment, control valve is the favourable equipment used due to its
quality and efficiency to reduce process costs (Final Control Element: Electric
Actuator). Control valves maintain process variables such as pressure, flow,
temperature, or level at the desired value, despite changes in process dynamics and
load (Lecturer 13: Final Control Element, 2010).

4.4.5.1 Selection criteria of control valve

The criteria of control valve is based on its safest position either in closed
position or opened position. When the safest position of the valve is in the
closed position, it requires energy to open and is also called air-to-open
(ATO) valve or specify as fail-closed (FC) valve. Whereas, when the safest

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 position of the valve is the opened position, it requires energy to close and is
also called air-to-close (ATC) or specify as fail-open (FO) valve.

ATC valve or FO valve is used to allow the flow of fluid during loss of
pneumatic air supply. This action may save overheating of temperature related
processes such as catalyst heating or heating of polymerization process.
Hence, this kind of valve is generally applied for process or stream that involve
high temperature.

While, ATO valve or FC valve is use to prevent flow when no pneumatic air
supply. This action may prevent hazardous chemical or flammable fluid from
endangering lives. This criteria is important for valve that operates in handling
any kind of hazardous fluid that passed through process stream.

4.4.6 Safety control, alarm and interlock (SCAI) system

SCAI are process safety safeguards implemented with instrumentation and controls,
used to achieve or maintain a safe state for a process, and required to provide risk
reduction with respect to a specific hazardous event. Typically, SCAI have sensors to
detect the process condition, a logic solver to determine what action to take based on
the process condition, and final elements to take action on the process.

The decision and action can be manual such as operator response to a safety alarm
or automatic, usually via continuous control, interlock, or safety instrumented system
[SIS]. SCAI also includes other interconnected equipment, such as human interfaces,
wiring, process connections, communications and utilities, which are necessary in
order to achieve the desired functionality and to operate and maintain the SCAI
(Angela, E. S., 2013) Some of the control element implemented in SCAI system are
temperature alarm low and high (TAL and TAH), pressure alarm low and high (PAH,
PAL), level alarm low and high (LAL, LAH), and flow alarm (FA).

4.5 Process Control System for Major Equipment

4.5.1 Plug Flow Reactor, R-101

A process control for a reactor is very important to ensure the reaction process at
optimum conditions and maintain the desired product quality. In this project, the plug
flow reactor is designed as shell and tube for a better heat transfer. The catalyst is
packed inside the tubes to improve the reaction when the reactants flow through the
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reactor. In the shell or jacket area, hot oil will flow as heating fluid to maintain the
reactor temperature. The main objectives of the process control equipment in the
reactor are:

1. To control the temperature and pressure of the reactor

2. To control the inlet and outlet flow rate of the reactor
3. To control the flow rate of heating oil in the jacket

The operating temperature and pressure of the reactor is to be maintained at 350C

and 1 bar, respectively. This reaction is an endothermic reaction where it will
continuously absorb heat during the reaction. Therefore, it needs to be control
because it will give effects to the process and cause the catalyst deactivation. In order
to maintain the temperature of the reactor, the flow rate of heating oil at the shell side
must be control. Other than that, the pressure of the reactor needs to be maintained
to ensure the safety and optimize the reaction process. The control system of the
reactor is summarized in Table 4.6.

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 Table 4.6: Process control system of plug flow reactor (R-101)

Control Objectives Manipulated Disturbance Actions Type of Set Point

variable controller

To maintain the Flow rate of heating Variation of feed If the temperature Feedback Temperature in
reactor temperature oil in jacket flow rate and is too low, increase
reactor = 350 C
at 350oC temperature of the flow rate of
endothermic heating oil bigger
reaction valve opening
If the temperature
is too high, reduce
the flow rate of
heating oil smaller
valve opening

To control the Feed stream flow Variation of feed If pressure is too Cascade Pressure in
reactor pressure at rate of the reactor flow rate and low, reduce reactor
reactor = 1 atm
1 bar pressure effluent flow rate
smaller valve Master
opening pressure control
Flowrate of fluid
If pressure is too transmitter
high, increase = 308.3263 mol/hr
Slave flow
reactor effluent
control
flow rate bigger
transmitter
valve opening

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 KEYWORD:
FC: Flow controller

FT: Flow transmitter

PC: Pressure controller

PT: Pressure transmitter

TC: Temperature controller

TT: Temperature transmitter

LC: Level controller

LT: Level transmitter

LAL: Level alarm low

LAH: Level alarm high

PAL: Pressure alarm low

PAH: Pressure alarm high

TITLE:

PLUG FLOW REACTOR,

(R-101)
DESIGNER:

MUHAMMAD SULAIEMAN BIN

ALWI

Figure 4.4: Control system for reactor, R-101

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A cascade control and a feedforward control are developed in this control system as
shown in Figure 4.4. The first cascade controller introduced to maintain column
pressure at 1 atm and control liquid feed flow rate at 308.3263 kmol/hr. The master
variable is the pressure inside the column and while the possible slave variable is the
fluid feed. Since the fluid flow rate will affect the pressure inside the reactor, as
increasing fluid flow rate can increase the pressure, both flow and pressure will control
the same variable which is vapour feed flow rate at valve 2 (V-2).

Hot oil feed flow rate is controlled by using feedforward controller by controlling the
feed at valve 3 (V-3). Feedforward controller is selected due to its minimal
requirement of knowledge about the process that to be controlled and therefore, a
mathematical model of the process is not required.

Four valve are introduced across this reactor. Valve 2 (V-2) and valve 3 (V-3) are
applying air-to-open (ATO) or fail-close (FC) valve while valve 4 (V-4) is applying air-
to-close (ATC) or fail-open (FO) valve to enhance the reactor safety and valve 1 (V-
1) are butterfly valve which control manually by operator when there are maintenance
at reactor. For ATO or FC valve, it explains that the safest condition of the valve is in
close condition. For ATC or FO valve, the safest condition of the valve is in open
condition. By considering the failure of power supply throughout the system and
failure of one outlet valve, the supply from feed stream must be avoided to prevent
pressure build inside the reactor since one of the outlet valve is failed to operate. For
outlet stream, they must flashing out the product inside the column for safety
precaution during the failure. Generally, when involving process control, pneumatic
control valve actuator is selected by converting energy which is air pressure into
mechanical motion which is the stem valve position.

In addition, to enhance the safety of the column, some of the alarm system can be
introduced. Alarm control element in SCAI such as pressure alarm low and high (PAL
and PAH), which to detect the over and below limit of pressure and temperature alarm
low and high (TAL and TAH), which to detect the temperature low or high in reactor,
will transmit the signal to control room for safety action by the operator on duty.

4.5.2 Heat Exchanger, E-102

The purpose of heat exchanger is to heat the process fluid from inlet temperature T i(t)
up to a certain desired outlet temperature T(t). The energy gained by the process fluid
is provided by the latent heat of condensation of the steam. There are many variables

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that can change in this process, causing the outlet temperature to differ from its
desired value.

4.5.2.1 Objectives
The objective is to maintain the outlet process temperature at desired value.
One way to accomplish this objective is by first measuring the outlet
temperature, comparing it to desired value, and on basis of this comparison,
deciding what to do to correct any deviation. That is, if the temperature is
above its desired value, the valve at inlet hot stream can be throttled back to
cut the hot flow (energy) to the heat exchanger. If the temperature is below its
desired value, the valve could be open more to increase the hot flow (energy)
to the heat exchanger.

4.5.2.2 Type of Controlling

Cascade control is applied through a cascade loops which consist of two

controllers in series, the output of the primary controller to control the set point
of the secondary controller as if it were the final control element. In heat
exchanger applications, the master detects the process temperature and the
slave detects a variable that may upset the process temperature. The
development in control quality is a function of relative speeds and time lags of
the two loops. A slow primary (master) variable and a quickly responding
secondary (slave) variable is a required combination for this type of control.
They will not be allowed to enter the process and, thus, will not upset the
primary (master) variable, if the slave can quickly correct the fast
disturbances.

In a cascade control, this problem can be overcome by measuring the

disturbance that change in flowrate in inlet hot stream due to upstream
pressure variation and a corrective action is taken to maintain constant
flowrate of hot stream. There is an additional controller which is flow controller
whose set point is decided by the temperature controller. There are two major
functions of cascade control which are to eliminate the effect of some
disturbances and to improve the dynamic performance of the control loop. The
schematic arrangement of cascade control is shown in Figure 4.5.

The first thing to do is measure the outlet temperature of the process stream.
This is done by sensor which is thermocouple. Usually this sensor is physically

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 connected to transmitter which takes the output from the sensor and converts
it to a signal strong enough to be transmitted to a controller. The controller
then receives the signal, which is related to the temperature, and compares it
to desired value. Depending on the results of this comparison, the controller
decides what to do to maintain the temperature at it desired value. On the
basis of this decision, the controller sends the signal to the final control
element, which in turn manipulates the inlet hot stream.

A low-pressure monitoring device is designed to annunciate an alarm if the

pressure in the system fails to exceed a minimum onset pressure within a
fixed time. The low-pressure alarm (PAL) is important because it can alert the
operator to major problems such as disconnections, leaks, and also failures
in the flow system. Pressure indicator (PI) instrument displays the hot flow
header pressure. Pressure measurement is also done using pressure
transmitter (PT). This alarm should be less than the hot flow head pressure
that required for heat exchanger to work accurately.

Valve positioner is used as modern heat exchange system design demands

higher efficiencies, so has the need for improving control valve performance.
The accurate modulation and control of valves that offer fast response and
accuracies within 2% of set point, add up to less waste steam or hot water
and condensate fall-out and removal. Some of the advantages of using valve
positioners include faster speed of response, control action change and
control higher or varying differential pressures across valve. In addition, the
valve configuration is air to open, fail-close (ATO-FO).

Table 4.7: Feedback control system in Heat Exchanger, E-102

Objective Maintain outlet process stream temperature at desired

value
Control Variable Temperature
Manipulated Variable Inlet hot stream
Disturbance Changes of outlet temperature
Type of Control System Feedback control system

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 KEYWORD:

FC: Flow controller

FT: Flow transmitter

TC: Temperature controller

TT: Temperature transmitter

PI: Pressure indicator

PAL: Pressure alarm low

TITLE:

HEAT EXCHANGER,

(E-101)

DESIGNER:

SITI SARAH BT FADZIL

Figure 4.5: Control system for heat exchanger, E-102

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4.5.3 Absorption Column (T-102)

The function of absorption column is to separate hydrogen from the mixture of IPA,
water, acetone and DMSO. The mixture stream 7 enter at 225.783 kmol/hr and
recycle water stream 16 enter the column at 164.085 kmol/hr. Recycle water will be
used as the absorbent to absorb acetone (A) for next process. After separation
completed, pure hydrogen gas will flow out at stream H2 and remaining mixture will
flow out at stream 8 for further process.

Stream H2

Stream 16

T-102

Stream 7

Stream 8

Figure 4.6: Basic block diagram for absorption column, T-102

The column operates at pressure 3 atm and temperature 50oC. Other parameter for
each stream have been summarized in Table below.

Table 4.8: Summary of stream table for T-102 (AspenPlus Result)

Stream 16 Stream 7 Stream H2 Stream 8

Flow rate, 164.085 225.783 224.89 164.979
kmol/hr
Temperature, oC 33.516 20 36.305 30.813

Pressure, atm 3 5 2 3

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Therefore, the main objectives to ensure the column operates at optimum condition
are:

1) Liquid and vapour inlet

2) Column pressure
3) Liquid level in column

The summary of control system for absorption column is tabulated in Table 4.9 below.

Table 4.9: Process control system of absorption column, T-102

Control Measured Control Disturbance Type of Set point

objective variable variable controller

Control flowrate Vapour Vapour Pressure of Cascade Vapour feed

of vapour feed feed feed the stream flowrate =
Master =
into column flowrate flowrate Column 225.783
pressure
kmol/hr
Slave =
Vapour
feed
flowrate

Control flowrate Liquid Liquid Pressure of Feedback Liquid feed

of liquid feed into feed feed the stream flowrate =
colum flowrate flowrate 164.085
kmol/hr
Maintain pressure Column Vapour Liquid feed Cascade Column
inside the column pressure feed flowrate Master = pressure = 3
Column
flowrate atm
pressure

Slave =
Vapour
feed
flowrate

Maintain level of Liquid Bottom Liquid feed Feedback Avoid

liquid inside the level in product flowrate flooding
column column stream

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 KEYWORD:

FC: Flow controller

FT: Flow transmitter

PC: Pressure controller

PT: Pressure transmitter

LC: Level controller

LT: Level transmitter

LAL: Level alarm low

LAH: Level alarm high

PAL: Pressure alarm low

PAH: Pressure alarm high

TITLE:

ABSORPTION COLUMN

(T-102)
DESIGNER:

MOHAMAD IKMAL B

MOHAMAD AZMIR

Figure 4.7: Control system for absorption column, T-102

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In this process control system, a cascade controller and two feedback controller were
developed. The cascade controller introduced to maintain column pressure at 3 atm
and control liquid feed flow rate at 168.045 kmol/hr. The master variable is the
pressure inside the column and while the possible slave variable is the liquid feed.
Since the vapour flow rate will affect the pressure inside the column, as increasing
vapour flow rate can increase the pressure, both flow and pressure will control the
same variable which is vapour feed flow rate at valve 2 (V-2).

Liquid feed flow rate is controlled by using feedback controller by controlling the feed
at valve 1 (V-1). Meanwhile, liquid level inside the column must be maintained to avoid
flooding. Thus, feedback controller is developed to control the bottom product stream
at valve 4 (V-4). Feedback controller is selected due to its minimal requirement of
knowledge about the process that to be controlled and therefore, a mathematical
model of the process is not required.

Four valve are introduced across this column. Valve 1 (V-1) and valve 2 (V-2) are
applying air-to-open (ATO) or fail-close (FC) valve while valve 3 (V-3) and valve 4 (V-
4) are applying air-to-close (ATC) or fail-open (FO) valve to enhance the column
safety. For ATO or FC valve, it explains that the safest condition of the valve is in
close condition. For ATC or FO valve, the safest condition of the valve is in open
condition. By considering the failure of power supply throughout the system and
failure of one outlet valve, the supply from feed stream must be avoided to prevent
flooding inside the column since one of the outlet valve is failed to operate. For outlet
stream, they must flashing out the product inside the column for safety precaution
during the failure. Generally, when involving process control, pneumatic control valve
actuator is selected by converting energy which is air pressure into mechanical motion
which is the stem valve position.

In addition, to enhance the safety of the column, some of the alarm system can be
introduced. Alarm control element in SCAI such as pressure alarm low and high (PAL
and PAH), which to detect the over and below limit of pressure and liquid alarm low
and high (LAL and LAH), which to detect the liquid level change inside the column,
will transmit the signal to control room for safety action by the operator on duty.
Furthermore, pressure relief valve (PRV), which is valve 5 (V-5) is designed at vapour
product stream that handling pressurize vapour product. PRV can control or limit the
pressure in a system or which can build up for a process upset, instrument or
equipment failure. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurized fluid to flow
from an auxiliary passage out of the system.

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4.5.4 Distillation Column, T-103

Distillation column 1 (T-103) played an important role in separating acetone from IPA-
water-acetone mixture. In achieving desired purity of acetone, a few parameters need
to be control properly in order to ensure T-101 operated at its optimum condition. The
philosophy of distillation control has three main objectives which are;

a) Product quality control

Maintain the overhead or bottom composition (as close as possible to desired

composition).
b) Material balance control
Ensure average sum of the distillate and bottom streams to be approximately
equal to the average feed rate.
c) For safe and satisfactory operation of column (observation on the constraints)
Avoid column flooding.
Ensure that pressure drop in column is high enough to maintain effective
column operation.
Temperature difference in reboiler must not exceed critical temperature
difference.

In achieving all three objectives stated above, the possible disturbances that may be
arise during process should be tackled;
Feed flow rate
Feed composition
Feed thermal condition
Steam supply pressure
Cooling water supply temperature

Control strategy for T-103 as being summarized below. Since feed entering T-103 in
vapour state, type of valve used for acetone separation process in T-103 is butterfly
valve as this kind of valve is often used for the control of gas or vapour flow. Butterfly
valve also expected to has the capability in giving smooth control over the full range
of vapour flow from fully open to closed.

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i) Controlling the Column Pressure

Pressure of the column in an important parameter to be controlled as it affect

temperature, condensation vapourisation, composition, volatilies and almost any
process that take place inside column. Set point for column pressure to ensure
smooth separation is 5 bar. If the column pressure deviates from the set point, flow
rate of cooling water entering condenser will be regulated in order to change the
effective heat transfer area. When the pressure inside column too low, the valve will
automatically closed to allow build up of liquid inside condenser. This will reduce the
heat transfer area, thus reducing the amount of vapor being condense, hence will
increase back the pressure inside column and vice versa. For safety and quality
purpose, high pressure alarm is located in the control system to notify operator if there
is excessive fluctuation of column pressure. Higher pressure will make separation
become more complicated and also correspondingly will increased temperature
inside column. The quality of distillate product may be affected as the temperature
increased because there will be more IPA (heavy component) will go to the overhead
product. Final control element at this section is ATC and the safety measure is failed
open. This kind of valve being implemented so that when the system failed, valve will
immediately open to remove liquid in the condenser. This is important in order to avoid
flooding in the condenser when system not able to operate and at the same reducing
pressure inside the column to avoid pressure built up.

Control variable Manipulated variable Disturbance Type of

controller
To control pressure Flow rate of cooling Flow rate of feed Feed back
of column at P = 5 water fed into entering column
bar condenser

ii) Controlling the feed flow rate

The state of the feed mixture entering distillation column give impact to the separation
operation. If the feed flow rate deviate from the set point during operation, the column
may not being able to handle the operation task since feed flow rate give effect to
the operating line and also number of stages required for separation process. Besides

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that, adverse flow feed condition can also cause foaming, entrainment, flooding and
weeping inside column. Flow controller at the feed stream function to compensate the
fluctuation of feed mass flow into the column in order to avoid all the problems mention
before from arising. Final control element at this section is ATO and the safety
measure is failed closed. This kind of valve being implemented so that when the
system failed, valve will immediately closed to prevent feed being introduced into
column. This is important in order to avoid flooding in the column when system not
able to operate and at the same reducing pressure inside the column to avoid
pressure built up.

Control variable Manipulated Disturbance Type of

variable controller
To control feed flow Feed flow Flow rate of reflux Feedfoward
rate at F=17 202 rate entering colum
kg/hr Flow rate of boil up vapor

iii) Controlling the distillate composition

The main objective of T-103 is to separate acetone from IPA-water-acetone mixture,

thus purity of the acetone obtained at the distillate stream is the major concern. In
achieving 98% acetone purity at distillate stream, reflux rate entering back into the
column will be adjusted. As the amount of reflux entering column is changed, so the
temperature inside the column will be changed. The reflux rate will be regulated until
appropriate column temperature is achieved for the optimum separation process in
order to obtain 98% purity of acetone. Temperature indicator being implemented at
the column for monitoring as the reflux rate being control. Final control element at this
section is ATO and the safety measure is failed closed. This kind of valve being
implemented so that when the system failed, valve will immediately closed to avoid
excessive liquid from entering the column. This is important in order to avoid flooding
in the column when system not able to operate.

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 Control variable Manipulated Disturbance Type of controller
variable
To control flow rate at distillate Reflux flow Cooling Cascade
stream so that desired purity rate water flow Master loop: temperature
of acetone (98%) will be rate of column
obtained Slave loop: reflux flow
rate

iv) Controlling the liquid level inside column

Column base level must be maintained at an acceptable level to ensure normal

operation of separation. Accumulation of liquid inside column should be avoided as it
will contribute to flooding and destabilize the tower. Level of liquid in column will be
maintained by controlling the output flow rate at the bottom stream. When the level
inside column deviated from set point, flow rate of bottom stream will be sense so
that appropriate action will be perform by the valve to ensure the liquid level inside
column at the acceptance level. For safety purpose high and low level alarm will be
implemented at the control system to notify if there is vigorous changes in the level of
liquid inside the column. Final control element at this section is ATC and the safety
measure is failed open. This kind of valve being implemented so that when the system
failed, valve will immediately open to remove liquid in the column. This is important in
order to avoid flooding in the column when system not able to operate.

Control variable Manipulated variable Disturbance Type of

controller
To control liquid level Flow rate of bottom Flow rate of steam Feed back
inside column stream entering boiler

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 KEYWORD:

TC: Temperature controller

TT: Temperature transmitter

FC: Flow controller

FT: Flow transmitter

PC: Pressure controller

PT: Pressure transmitter

LC: Level controller

LT: Level transmitter

LAL: Level alarm low

LAH: Level alarm high

PAH: Pressure alarm high

TITLE:

DISTILLATION COLUMN

(T-103)

DESIGNER:

NURUL HAFFIZA BINTI ABD

HALIM

Figure 4.8: Process control system on distillation column, T-103

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4.5.5 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)

The Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) is an activated sludge process where various
treatment events occur in a single vessel. The process events are separated by time
rather than space, making it easy for operators to add, lengthen, shorten, or alter the
sequence of the different events to achieve a desired process modification.

SBR is the main equipment used for wastewater treatment in this plant. Wastewater
from stream 21 will enter the SBR to be treated before releasing the effluent. There
is several equipment which is important in SBR process control.

Water level inside the SBR is the most important thing need to be controlled during
the operation. A controller is needed to make sure the water level of the tank does
not come close to the rim of the tank and cause overflow. The summary of process
control for SBR is stated in Table 4.10 below:

Table 4.10: Control system for SBR

Control Objective Measured Controlled Disturbance Type of

Variable Variable Controller
Level inside SBR Feed flow rate Level inside Volume Feedback
tank SBR tank inside SBR control
tank
Volume of treated Level inside Volume of Volume Feedback
wastewater SBR tank SBR tank inside SBR control
discharged through tank
decanter

The volume of wastewater entering SBR tank is controlled by using a feedback

controller by manupulating the feed flowrate at valve V-1. Feedback controller control
feed flowrate at the valve before entering the tank. Water level inside the SBR tank
must be controlled to avoid overflow that can affect the SBR process.

For the volume of treated wastewater discharged through decanter, a feedback

controller was used to control the process. Treated wastewater will enter the decanter
from the surface level before being discharged from the tank. Feedback controller
control the decanter position at the surface level by determining volume of wastewater
inside the tank. As the volume of treated wastewater being discharged through the

4-26
decanter increase, the volume of wastewater inside the tank decrease. The decanter
will move depending on the level of water until it reach at a specified level.

Diaphragm pump was chosen to discharge the settled sludge at the bottom of the
tank because of the characteristic of the sludge which is highly viscous. If normal
pump such as centrifugal pump is used to discharge the sludge, the impeller inside
the pump will break the flocculation of the settled sludge and later will reduce the
efficiency of the sludge treatment.

Three valve is used for the SBR operation. All the valve used is air-to-open (ATO)
valve to enhance the safety of the SBR operation. For ATO valve, the safest condition
of the valve is at close condition. If there is a failure of power supply during the
operation, the wastewater feed supply must be stopped to avoid overflow inside the
SBR tank.

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 KEYWORD:

LC: Level controller

LT: Level transmitter

ATO: Air-to-open, FC valve

TITLE:

SEQUENCING BATCH
REACTOR (SBR)

DESIGNER:

MOHAMMAD TAUFIK BIN

YUSUB

Figure 4.9: Process control system for SBR

4-28
The volume of wastewater entering SBR tank is controlled by using a feedback
controller by controlling the feed flowrate at valve V-1. Feedback controller control
feed flowrate at the valve before entering the tank. Water level inside the SBR tank
must be controlled to avoid overflow that can affect the SBR process.

For the volume of treated wastewater discharged through decanter, a feedback

controller was used to control the process. Treated wastewater will enter the decanter
from the surface level before being discharged from the tank. Feedback controller
control the decanter position at the surface level by determining volume of wastewater
inside the tank. As the volume of treated wastewater being discharged through the
decanter increase, the volume of wastewater inside the tank decrease. The decanter
will move depending on the level of water until it reach at a specified level.

Diaphragm pump was chosen to discharge the settled sludge at the bottom of the
tank because of the characteristic of the sludge which is highly viscous. If normal
pump is used to discharge the sludge, the impeller inside the pump will break the
flocculation of the settled sludge and later will reduce the efficiency of the sludge
treatment.

Three valve is used for the SBR operation. All the valve used is air-to-open (ATO)
valve to enhance the safety of the SBR operation. For ATO valve, the safest condition
of the valve is at close condition. If there is a failure of power supply during the
operation, the wastewater feed supply must be stopped to avoid overflow inside the
SBR tank.

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4.6 Process Control of Wastewater Treatment Plant

In the wastewater treatment plant, there are several unit that need to be controlled
during the operation. The units that involved in the wastewater treatment plant are
the influent tank, pH adjustment tank, sequencing batch reactor (SBR), sludge
thickener tank, filter press, and dryer. The type of equipment needed for process
control in the wastewater treatment plant are temperature transmitter, pH transmitter,
level controller, and level transmitter.

4.6.1 Influent Tank

Influent tank is a huge tank that act as a storage tank of production waste. Incoming
wastewater from production will be transferred and stored here before continue to
next process. In the tank also, the high temperature of wastewater effluent which is
at 81oC from the production need to be reduced to 30oC before the wastewater can
be transferred to another unit. The equipment needed for process control in this tank
are temperature transmitter, level transmitter, and level controller. The level
transmitter was needed to monitor the temperature inside the tank while level
transmitter and level controller needed to control the volume of wastewater inside the
tank to avoid overflow.

4.6.2 pH Adjustment Tank

The most common application for pH adjustment systems is to adjust the pH of

wastewater to a neutral value so that the wastewater will be within limits set by a
publicly owned treatment works or a discharge permit. The pH is maintained within 6-
9 in the pH adjustment tank. Caustic soda or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used to
neutralize the wastewater before proceed to next process. Process control equipment
involved in this unit are pH transmitter and pH controller to monitor and control the pH
while level transmitter and level controller are needed to control the volume of
wastewater inside the tank.

4.6.3 Sequencing Batch Reactor

SBR is the main equipment used for wastewater treatment in this plant. Wastewater
will enter the SBR to be treated before releasing the effluent. There is several
equipment which is important in SBR process control.

Water level inside the SBR is the most important thing need to be controlled during
the operation. A controller is needed to make sure the water level of the tank does
not come close to the rim of the tank and cause overflow. The volume of wastewater

4-30
entering SBR tank is controlled by using a feedback controller by controlling the feed
flowrate at the valve. Feedback controller control feed flowrate at the valve before
entering the tank. Water level inside the SBR tank must be controlled to avoid
overflow that can affect the SBR process.

4.6.4 Sludge Thickener Tank

Volume reduction is achieved by the separation of parts of the sludge liquor at

different points within the sludge treatment process chain. The main application for
thickening systems is volume reduction of primary and excess sludge prior to
stabilisation. The important process control equipment needed in this tank are level
transmitter and level controller which are needed to control the volume of sludge
inside the tank to avoid overflow.

4.6.5 Filter Press

A slurry is pumped into the filter press and dewatered under pressure. The end
products from the filter press will obtain the solid residues/sludge which are slightly
moist. The solid residues must be fully dry and do not contain any moisture before
sent for scheduled waste disposal. The process control equipment that can be used
for filter press is Automatic Feed Pump Control System (AFPCS). AFPCS is used in
conjunction with air-operated diaphragm (AOD) feed pumps to automatically increase
the feed pump pressure during the filtration cycle. High initial feed pump pressures
can build a very tightly packed, impermeable layer of solids on the filter cloth,
restricting the flow of slurry and ultimately the density of the cake. Reduced initial feed
pressure allows a soft layer of slurry particles to be deposited on the filter cloth. This
layer becomes the filtering media, enhancing the filterability of the incoming slurry.

4.6.6 Dryer

Dryer is device used to dry or remove water/moisture content in any sludge. In

wastewater treatment, solid residues/sludge obtained from filter press will be
transferred to dryer in order to remove the moisture content in the solid residues.
Finally, the waste will be disposed as scheduled waste. The important process control
equipment for dryer is the temperature transmitter and temperature controller. The
heat input of the dryer is manipulated to achieve drying of the product before being
disposed.

4-31
4.6.7 Summary of Process Control Equipment for Wastewater Treatment Plant

Table 4.11: Summary of process control equipment used in wastewater treatment

plant

Control Measured Controlled Disturbance Type of

Objective Variable Variable Controller
Level inside Feed flowrate Level inside Volume inside Feedback
tank the tank the tank control

Volume of Volume inside Volume of Volume inside Feedback

treated the tank SBR tank the tank control
wastewater
discharged

To maintain pH inside the pH inside the pH inside the Feedback

the pH tank tank tank control
desired system

4-32
 B-201 T-201 T-202 T-203 F-201 T-204 F-202 I-201 I-202 P-201 P-202 P-203
Bar Rack EQ Tank pH Adjustment SBR Tank Filter Membrane Sludge Holding Tank Filter Press NaOH Injection H2SO4 Injection Pump 1 Pump 2 Pump 3

LC LT LC LT
1 1 2 2
I-201 I-202
PH
1

V-1 V-2
ATO ATO F-201 V-3
T-202 T-203
B-201 ATO
T-201

P-203
Recycle Filtrate
P-201 Treated Effluent
LC LT
3 3 Sludge
Influent Wastewater
F-202

KEYWORD: P-202

LT = Level Transmitter T-204

LC = Level Controller
PH = pH Indicator
ATO Air-to-open (FC) Valve
Sludge Cake

Figure 4.10: Process and Instrumentation Diagram for Wastewater Treatment Plant

4-33
REFERENCES

[1] Paul, S. F. & Donald, P. M. Distillation Column Control Design using Steady State
Models: Usefulness and Limitations. (1993). Retrieved May 05, 2017, from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001905789390038X

[2] Final Control Element: Electric Actuators. Retrieved May 03, 2017, from
http://www.haroldbeck.com/final-control-element/

[3] Lecturer 13: Final Control Element. (2013). Retrieved May 03, 2017, from http://a-
lab.ee/edu/system/files/kristina.vassiljeva/courses/ISS0065/2013_Autumn/mater
ials/AV13_L13.pdf

[4] Angela, E. S., Safety Controls, Alarms and Interlocks as IPLs. (2010). SIS-TECH
Solution.

[5] Paul, S. F. & Donald, P. M. Distillation Column Control Design using Steady State
Models: Usefulness and Limitations. (1993). Retrieved May 05, 2017, from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001905789390038X.

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