Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822

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Food Research International

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f o o d r e s

A review of the chemistry and pharmacology of the date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera L.)
Manjeshwar Shrinath Baliga a,, Bantwal Raghavendra Vittaldas Baliga b, Shaun Mathew Kandathil c,
Harshith P. Bhat d, Praveen Kumar Vayalil e
a
Department of Research and Development, Father Muller Hospital Road, Mangalore, Karnataka, 575003, India
b
Department of Pharmacology, Father Muller Hospital Road, Mangalore, Karnataka, 575003, India
c
Department of Biotechnology, MS Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore 560054, Karnataka, India
d
Research Centre, Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Women's College, Malleswaram 18th Cross, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
e
Department of Pathology, BMRII 336, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, 35294, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Phoenix dactylifera L., commonly known as the date palm is a primeval plant and has been cultivated for its
Received 2 April 2010 edible fruit in the desert oasis of the Arab world for centuries. The fruits are a rich source of carbohydrates,
Accepted 6 July 2010 dietary bers, certain essential vitamins and minerals. The date pits are also an excellent source of dietary
ber and contain considerable amounts of minerals, lipids and protein. In addition to its dietary use the dates
Keywords:
are of medicinal use and are used to treat a variety of ailments in the various traditional systems of medicine.
Phoenix dactylifera
Dates
Phytochemical investigations have revealed that the fruits contain anthocyanins, phenolics, sterols,
Phytochemistry carotenoids, procyanidins and avonoids, compounds known to possess multiple benecial effects.
Pharmacology Preclinical studies have shown that the date fruits possess free radical scavenging, antioxidant,
Traditional uses antimutagenic, antimicrobial, anti-inammatory, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective,
anticancer and immunostimulant activities. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the
phytochemistry and validated pharmacological properties of date fruits and the seeds.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Phoenix dactylifera L. (synonyms Palma major Garsault and Phoenix
cycadifolia Hort. Attens ex Regel) commonly known as the date palm
(Picture 1) is an important plant in the scorched regions of Southwest
Asia and North Africa (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008; Dowson, 1982; Zaid,
1999). The fruits which are the most commonly used part are an
important source of nutrition, especially in the arid regions where due
to the extreme conditions, very few plants can grow. In conversational
languages dates are known as Sugar Palm (English), Nakhal (Arabic),
Khajur (Hindi and Urdu), Karchuram (Tamil, Malayalam) and Karjura
(Kannada) (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003; Zaid, 1999). Date fruits
are a good source of low cost food and are an integral part of Arabian
diet. For Muslims all over the world dates are of religious importance
and are mentioned in many places in the Quran. They are
customarily used to break the day long fast during the holy month
of Ramadan (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008; Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003;
Dowson, 1982).
Date palms are monocotyledon, dioecious and can grow up to an
altitude of 1500 m in well-drained soils. Currently they are cultivated
in the Middle East, North Africa, parts of Central and South America,
Corresponding author. Father Muller Medical College, Father Muller Hospital Road,
Kankanady, Mangalore, Karnataka, 575003, India. Tel.: + 91 824 2238331 (ofce);
fax: + 91 824 2437402, + 91 824 2436352.
E-mail address: msbaliga@gmail.com (M.S. Baliga).
Southern Europe, India and Pakistan (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003;
Chandra et al., 1992; Dowson, 1982; Zaid, 1999). In the late 1800s
some of the best varieties of dates (Medjool, Khalas, Deglet Noor)
were introduced in the warm regions of southern California, Arizona
and Texas from Arabia and with time the plants have naturalized to
these parts of the world (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008; Dowson, 1982). As
per recent information, USA today earns the highest export price for
dates in the world (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008). Information also suggest
that the world production of dates has increased from about
4.60 million tons in 1994 to 6.9 million tons in 2004 and expectations
are that their cultivation will continue to increase (Al Farsi and Lee,
2008).
2. Dietary use of dates
Date fruit consist of 70% carbohydrates, most of which is in the
form of sugars. Because of this the fruits are a high source of energy
and it is approximated that 100 g of the esh can provide 314 kcal of
energy (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008). Drying of date decreases the water
activity and this increases the sugar concentration. Because of this the
shelf life of dry dates are high and are available for extended periods of
time (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003). The fruits are also used as a
sweetener in the preparation of beer (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003).
The date pits which are a waste product have been used for
centuries in the Arab world to make caffeine-free drink. Recently, date
pit powders are also marketed and are a source of choice to people

0963-9969/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.07.004
 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822 1813

Picture 1. Photograph of a date palm.

preferring a non-caffeinated coffee with coffee-related avor. Date

pits are also ground and added to the feed of domesticated animals
and observations suggest they are devoid of any harmful effects. Date
pits are rich in protein (5.1 g/100 g), fat (9.0 g/100 g), dietary ber
(73.1 g/100 g), phenolics (3942 mg/100 g), and antioxidants
(80,400 mol/100 g) (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008), and may be of use in
enhancing the nutritional value of incorporated food products (Habib
and Ibrahim, 2009).

3. Varieties of dates

Estimates are that based on the shape and organoleptic properties

of the fruits, there are more than 600 varieties of dates (Ahmed et al.,
1995; Zaid, 1999). Some of the important date varieties grown around
the world are Aabel, Ajwah, Al-Barakah, Amir Hajj, Abid Rahim, Barhe,
Baht, Bekreri, Bomaan, Bouhattam, Barakawi, Bireir, Deglet Noor,
Dabbas, Dayri, Empress, Fard, Ftimi, Garn ghzal, Halawi, Haleema,
Hayany, Iteema, Jabri, Kenta, Khadrawy, Khlas, Kenta, Kodary, Picture 2. Photograph of a date fruits one single bunch (2a) and on the palm (2b).
Korkobbi, Khusatawi, Lulu, Maktoomi, Maghool, Manakbir, Mermilla,
Medjool, Mejraf, Mishriq, Nabtat-seyf, Naptit Saif, Nefzaoui, Raziz,
productive palm can support up to ten bunches and yield about
Rotab, Rotbi, Sagai, Smiti, Shikat alkahlas, Sagay, Shishi, Shikat
100 kg of fruit (Zaid, 1999) (Picture 2b).
alkahlas, Sokkery, Saidi, Sayir, Sekkeri, Shabebe, Sellaj, Sultana, Tagyat,
The sweetness and texture of date fruit is closely related to the
Tamej, Thoory, Umeljwary, Umelkhashab, Zahidi and Bericcha Paz-
maturity and ripeness stage (Zaid, 1999). During the growth and
ham (Al Noimi and Al-Amir, 1980; Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003;
development of the date fruit, several external and internal changes
Chaira et al., 2009; Chandra et al., 1992; Habib and Ibrahim, 2009).
are observed with color and chemical composition. Based on the
Dates are inuenced by environmental conditions and this has at
Arabic practice dates are classied in to ve stages viz. Hababouk,
times led to cultivars with similar morphological characters being
Kimri, Khalal, Rutab and Tamar and the same terms have been
given the same varietal name e.g. Khalas Oman and Khalas Bahraini
internationally accepted (Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003; Fadel et al.,
(Al Noimi and Al-Amir, 1980; Fadel et al., 2006).
2006; Zaid, 1999).

4. Date fruiting and the stages

The date palm fruits once in a year and post pollination pass
through ve stages of development to reach full maturity. The whole
process is lengthy and takes approximately seven months. When ripe
the fruit may be yellow to reddish brown in color (Picture 2a). Dates
are found in clusters and each bunch may weigh about 10 kg. A fully
4.1. The Hababouk stage
Is the rst stage and post fertilization lasts for four to ve weeks.
The fruits are immature and completely covered by the calyx leaving
only one sharp end of the ovary visible. The fruit in this stage is pea
sized and weighs about a gram (Ahmed et al., 1995; Al Noimi and Al-
1814 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822

Amir, 1980; Zaid, 1999; Al-Shahib and Marshall, 2003; Fadel et al., Table 1
2006) (Picture 3). Composition of the various essential nutrients and phytochemicals in dates (Al Farsi
and Lee, 2008).

4.2. The Khimri stage (Also called green stage) Composition Lowest reported Highest reported

Moisture (g/100 g) 7.2 50.4

The date development in this stage is the longest and lasts for a Fat (g/100 g) 0.1 1.4
Ash (g/100 g) 1.0 1.9
total of nine to fourteen weeks. There is a visible transition from a
Protein (g/100 g) 1.1 2.6
small berry to the characteristic oblong shape. The fruit is green in
color, quite hard, with a dry weight composition of 80% moisture and Amino acids (mg/100 g)
50% sugar (glucose and fructose). It is usually bitter and unsuitable for Alanine 30 133
eating (Ahmed et al., 1995; Al Noimi and Al-Amir, 1980; Al-Shahib Arginine 34 148
Aspartic acid 59 309
and Marshall, 2003; Fadel et al., 2006; Zaid, 1999) (Picture 3). Cysteine 13 67
Glutamic acid 100 382
4.3. Khalal stage (also called as color stage) Glycine 42 268
Histidine 0.1 46
Isoleucine 4 55
In this stage, depending on the variety, the color changes from Leucine 41 242
green to greenish yellow, yellow, pink, scarlet or red. This stage Lysine 42 154
extends for six weeks and the fruit is physiologically mature, hard and Methionine 4 62
ripe. The fruit attains maximum weight and size at the end of this Phenylalanine 25 67
Proline 36 148
stage. A rapid increase in the sugar concentration results following Serine 29 128
decrease in the water content (around 5085% moisture content) Threonine 23 95
(Ahmed et al., 1995; Al Noimi and Al-Amir, 1980; Fadel et al., 2006; Tryptophan 7 92
Zaid, 1999) (Picture 3). Tyrosine 15 156
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) 52.6 88.6
Fructose 13.6 36.8
4.4. Rutab stage (Also called soft ripe stage) Glucose 17.6 41.4
Sucrose 0.5 33.9
This stage lasts between two to four weeks. The apex starts
Fiber (g/100 g)
ripening and the texture of the fruit becomes soft. The astringency Soluble 0.4 1.3
from the previous stage is gradually lost and the fruit starts acquiring Insoluble 3.03 7.4
brown or black color. Due to the consistent loss of moisture content Total 3.57 10.9
the weight further decreases. There is a gain in total sugars and solids
Minerals (mg/100 g)
with concomitant increase in the rate of conversion of sucrose to
Mg 31.0 150
simpler sugars (Ahmed et al., 1995; Al Noimi and Al-Amir, 1980; Fadel Na 1.00 261
et al., 2006; Zaid, 1999) (Picture 3). Ca 5.00 206
P 35.0 74
K 345.0 1287
4.5. Tamar stage (full ripe stage or nal stage in the ripening) Mn 0.01 0.4
Fe 0.10 1.5
This is the last stage of ripening and the date appears dehydrated. Zn 0.02 0.6
The semi-dry and dry dates will have nearly 50% each of sucrose and Cu 0.01 0.8
Se 0.24 0.4
reducing sugars. On a bunch, the fruits ripen over a month and not
simultaneously. In most varieties, the skin adheres to the soft esh Vitamin (g/100 g)
and wrinkles as the inner esh shrinks. The color of the skin and of the A (Retinol) 3.0 44.7
underlying esh darkens with time (Ahmed et al., 1995; Al Noimi and B1 (Thiamin) 50 120
Al-Amir, 1980; Fadel et al., 2006; Zaid, 1999) (Picture 3). B2 (Riboavin) 60 160
B3 (Niacin) 1274 1610
B6 (Pyridoxal) 165 249
5. Proximate composition of date fruits and seeds B9 (Folate) 39 65
C (Ascorbic acid) 400 16,000
-Carotenoids (g/100 g) 3.0 3.0
Date pulps contain easily digestible sugars (70%), mainly glucose,
-Carotenoids (g/100 g) 2.5 146
sucrose and fructose; dietary bers and contain less proteins and fats Zeaxanthin (g/100 g) 33.0 33.0
(Al Farsi and Lee, 2008). They also contain vitamins like riboavin, -Zeaxanthin (g/100 g) 9.0 9.0
thiamine, biotin, folic and ascorbic acid that are essential for the body Lutein (g/100 g) 28.0 541
(Table 1) (Al Farsi and Lee, 2008). The pulps are rich in iron, calcium, Neoxanthin (g/100 g) 184 381
Phenolics (mg/100 g) 3.91 661
cobalt, copper, uorine, magnesium, manganese, potassium, phos- Anthocyanins (mg/100 g) 0.2 1.5
phorus, sodium, copper, sulfur, boron, selenium and zinc (Table 1) (Al
Farsi and Lee, 2008; Ali Mohamed and Khamis, 2004). Consumption of
hundred grams of dates can provide over 15% of the recommended
daily allowance for selenium, copper, potassium and magnesium (Al (Al Farsi et al., 2005a; Al Farsi and Lee, 2008; Ali Mohamed and
Farsi and Lee, 2008). In many varieties, potassium can be found at a Khamis, 2004).
concentration as high as 0.9% in the esh while it is as high as 0.5% in When compared to the pulp, date pits contain higher quantity of
some seeds. Other minerals and salts that are found in various protein and fat and are also high in dietary ber (Al Farsi and Lee,
proportions include boron, calcium, cobalt, copper, uorine, iron, 2008). Recently, Habib and Ibrahim (2009) have studied the
magnesium, manganese, potassium, phosphorus, sodium and zinc nutritional quality (dietary ber, proximate analysis and micronu-
(Table 1). Additionally, the seeds also contain aluminum, cadmium, trients) of eighteen leading varieties of date pits of the Khalas, Barhe,
chloride, lead and sulfur in various proportions. Dates contain Lulu, Shikat alkahlas, Sokkery, Bomaan, Sagay, Shishi, Maghool,
elemental uorine that is useful in protecting teeth against decay Sultana, Fard, Maktoomi, Naptit Saif, Jabri, Kodary, Dabbas, Raziz
 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822 1815

Picture 3. Different stages of date ripening.

and Shabebe cultivated in the United Arab Emirates. The authors

observed that depending on the variety, signicant but variable
amounts of macronutrients and micronutrients were observed among
the different varieties and also that these pits are excellent sources of
dietary ber (Habib and Ibrahim, 2009).

6. Phytochemistry of date fruits and seeds

The date fruit pulp is rich in phytochemicals like phenolics, sterols,

carotenoids, anthocyanins, procyanidins, and avonoids (Table 1).
The ratio and concentrations of these constituents depend on the type
of the fruit, stage of fruit picking, location and soil conditions. These
phytochemicals also contribute to the nutritional and organoleptic
properties of the fruits (Abdelhak et al., 2005; Abdul and Allaith, 2008;
Al Farsi et al., 2005b; Ahmed et al., 1995; Fayadh and Al-Showiman,
1990; Hulme, 1970). In the following section each of these are
addressed.

6.1. Phenolic acids

Phenolic acids constitute one of the main classes of secondary

metabolites and in recent years have been a subject of intense study. It
contains a hydroxylated benzene ring with one or more carboxyl
groups attached directly or indirectly to it (Fig. 1). Mansouri et al.
(2005) analyzed the phenolic prole of seven Algerian varieties of
date and observed that they contain p-coumaric, ferulic and sinapic
acids, some cinnamic acid derivatives and three different isomers of
5-o-caffeoyl shikimic acid (Fig. 1). Studies with three varieties of
Omani dates have shown the presence of both free (protocatechuic
acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, and ferulic acid) and bound phenolic
acids (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic
acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and
o-coumaric acid) (Al Farsi et al. (2005b)) (Fig. 1). Comparative studies
with fresh and dried Fard dates have shown that a signicant increase
in phenolic content ensues on drying, possibly due to the degradation
of tannins and maturation of degradative enzymes at higher
temperatures (Al Farsi et al., 2005b). Recently, Chaira et al. (2009)
have also observed that among the common date cultivars of Tunisian,
the Mermella variety had the lowest (5.73 mg/100 g fresh weight),
while the Korkobbi variety had the highest phenolic content
(54.66 mg/100 g fresh weight).

6.2. Sterols

Sterols, or steroid alcohols are a subgroup of steroids with a

hydroxyl group at the 3-position of the A-ring and are amphipathic
lipids. Sterols of plants are called phytosterols and possess myriad
health benets (Liolios et al., 2008). Kikuchi and Miki (1978) analyzed
the sterols of date fruit and observed that they contain cholesterol,
campesterol, stigmasterol, -sitosterol and isofucosterol (Fig. 2). Fig. 1. Structures of phenolic acids present in dates.
1816 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822
Fig. 2. Structures of sterols present in dates.
6.3. Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a class of natural fat-soluble pigments, and impart
bright coloration to the plants. They are an important source of
vitamin A and protect the cell from the deleterious effects of free
radicals by acting as antioxidants (Di Mascio et al., 1991). Studies have
also shown that dates contain the carotenoids; lutein, -carotene and
neoxanthin (Boudries et al., 2007) (Fig. 3). In the Algerian fresh date
varieties of Deglet Noor, Tantebouchte and Hamraya, the -carotene
content is reported to be 6.4, 3.3 and 2.5 g/100 g, while that of the
lutein was 156, 28 and 33.6 g/100 g respectively (Boudries et al.,
2007; Al Farsi and Lee, 2008). A signicant decline in the carotenoid
levels occurs during the transition from the khalal through tamar
Fig. 3. Structures of carotenoids present in dates.
stage and that during the ripening process, the levels of provitamin A
increases slightly in the Deglet-Noor variety while in Tantebougte and
Hamraya its levels decreased (Boudries et al., 2007). Analysis of the
total carotenoid contents in both fresh and dried varieties of Fard,
Khasab and Khalas suggest that loss of carotenoids occurs during sun-
drying (Al Farsi et al., 2005b).
6.4. Procyanidins
Procyanidins are condensed tannins and the main precursors of
blue-violet and red pigments in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, owers,
and barks (Fine, 2000). Using acetonewateracetic acid solvent
extraction method, Hong et al. (2006) extracted procyanidins from
Deglet Noor variety of dates in the Khalal stage of maturity. Chemical
analysis suggests that the procyanidin existed as higher molecular
weight polymers, undecamers through heptadecamers, and decamers
(Hong et al., 2006) (Fig. 4).
6.5. Flavonoids
Flavonoids present in plants possess diverse health benets, which
includes antioxidant and radical scavenging activities, reduction of
certain chronic diseases, prevention of some cardiovascular disorders
and certain kinds of cancerous processes (Tapas et al., 2008). Hong et
al. (2006) assessed the avonoid content in the Deglet Noor variety
during the Khalal stage of maturity and identied thirteen avonoid
glycosides of luteolin, quercetin, and apigenin (Fig. 5). It was also
observed that both methylated and sulfated forms of luteolin and
quercetin are present as mono-, di-, and triglycosylated conjugates
while apigenin is present only as the diglycoside. Quercetin and
luteolin formed primarily O-glycosidic linkages whereas apigenin was
present as the C-glycoside. As of today, dates also have the unique
distinction of being the only food to contain avonoid sulfates (Hong
et al., 2006). Chaira et al. (2009) recently reported that among the
famous Tunisian dates the highest content of avonoids was present
in the Korkobbi variety (54.46 quercetin equivalents/100 g fresh
weight).
Fig. 4. Structures of procyanidins present in dates.
 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822
Fig. 5. Structures of avanoids present in dates.
6.6. Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins (Fig. 6) are water-soluble vacuolar pigments and
may appear in red, purple, or blue. They are widely distributed in
many fruits, vegetables, cereal grains and owers and are of potential
health benets (Wang et al., 1997). Studies by Al Farsi et al. (2005b)
have shown that among the analyzed fresh date varieties, the highest
amount of anthocyanins were detected in the Khasab (1.5 mg/100 g),
followed by the Fard (0.9 mg/100 g) and Khalas (0.87 mg/100 g)
varieties and that a direct correlation existed between the levels of
anthocyanin and the fruit color. Anthocyanins were detected only in
fresh dates, indicating that they may be destroyed upon sun-drying
(Al Farsi et al., 2005b).
7. Biological and pharmacological activities of dates
7.1. Traditional medicinal applications
Since antiquity, both fruits and pits of dates have been of use in the
various traditional and folk systems of medicines where date palms
are found to be growing (Duke, 1992; Khare, 2007). An ethnomedic-
inal survey conducted by Tahraoui et al. (2007) in the south-eastern
Morocco has shown that dates are traditionally used to treat
hypertension and diabetes (Tahraoui et al., 2007). In ancient Egypt
date was used as an important ingredient in various aphrodiasiac and
tonic confections. The regular consumption of date palm pollen and
the male owers was believed to be an aphrodisiac and to enhance
Fig. 6. Structures of anthocyanin present in dates.
1817
fertility (Khare, 2007; Zaid, 1999). Dried dates are also of use in
Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine. The fruit pulp is
regarded to be antitussive, expectorant, demulcent, laxative, diuretic
and restorative (Khare, 2007).
Consumption of dates is believed to be strengthening for the body,
to prevent premature graying of hair, wrinkle formation and to give
the skin a lustrous healthy look. The date kernels have also been
reported to exhibit anti-aging properties and to reduce wrinkling of
skin in women (Bauza, 2002).The date pulp is boiled in milk until soft
and used as a tonic especially for pregnant and lactating mothers (Puri
et al., 2000). Dried fruit are pounded and mixed with almonds, quince
seed, pistachio nuts, spices and sugar and the mixture, which is highly
nutritious, is given to pregnant women and new mothers (Chandra et
al., 1992; Puri et al., 2000). Dates are also given to infants with
teething problems as are believed to harden the gums (Zaid, 1999).
The consumption of date boiled with black pepper and cardamom
is supposed to alleviate headaches, dry coughs, lethargy, mild fever
and loss of appetite (Zaid, 1999). Chewing of dry dates every morning
is supposed to increase immunity against common cold and to relieve
asthma (Zaid, 1999). Regular consumption of date is benecial in
ameliorating cough, rheumatism, burning sensation, nephropathy,
gastropathy, bronchitis and sexual debility (Selvam, 2008). It is
demulcent, expectorant, nutrient, emetic, laxative, aphrodisiac, and is
good for the heart. It is prescribed for gastroenteritis, coughs,
respiratory diseases, asthma, chest complaints, fevers, high blood
pressure and fatigue (Khare, 2007; Selvam, 2008).
7.2. Experimentally validated uses
Scientic research on the date palm was scanty until 1969.
However, by the early 1970s, due to the interest of Food and
Agricultural Organization and keenness of policy makers of Arabian
Countries, scientic endeavors were initiated on botanical, horticul-
tural and pharmacological aspects of date palm (Anwar, 2006). In the
following sections the reported pharmacological studies are
addressed under the sub titles of in vitro studies, animal studies and
clinical studies, accordingly as well as in Table 2.
7.2.1. In vitro studies
7.2.1.1. Antioxidant activity. In vitro studies by Vayalil (2002) for the
rst time have shown that the aqueous extract of date fruit was a
potent scavenger of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals and to inhibit
iron-induced lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in the rat brain
homogenate in a concentration-dependent manner (Vayalil, 2002).
Subsequently, other investigators have conrmed these observations
with different varieties of date (Abdul and Allaith, 2008; Al Farsi et al.,
2005b; Mansouri et al., 2005). Recently, Chaira et al. (2009) evaluated
the antioxidant activity of Tunisian date. The study showed that the
Korkobbi variety possessed the best lipoperoxyl radical scavenging
activity, while the Rotbi variety was very effective in scavenging the
hydroxyl radicals. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity value
observed to be Korkobbi N Bouhattam N Baht = Smiti N Bekreri = Garn
ghzal N Mermilla = Kenta N Nefzaoui = Rotbi. The authors suppose that
the highest level of avonoids in the Korkobbi variety was responsible
for the highest antiradical effects (Chaira et al., 2009).
Animal studies have also shown that oral feeding of p-coumaric
acid present in date increases the expression of antioxidant enzyme
genes in rat cardiac tissue (Yeh et al., 2008). The observed antioxidant
activity of dates has, been attributed to phenolic compounds,
anthocyanins, avonoid glycosides and procyanidins present in it
and that sun-drying and ripening decrease the antioxidant activity
(Abdul and Allaith, 2008; Al Farsi et al., 2005b). Selenium present in
dates is also reported to contribute to the antioxidant effects. Multiple
studies have shown that this essential trace element exerts its
antioxidant function mainly in the form of selenocysteine residues
1818 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822

Fig. 7. Pharmacological activities of date fruit (arrow up increase and arrow up decrease).

that are an integral constituent of ROS-detoxifying selenoenzymes that the presence of diverse phenolic compounds and selenium may
(GPx, thioredoxin reductases and possibly selenoprotein P (Stein- have been responsible for the observed free radical scavenging and
brenner and Sies, 2009) When considered in total it is very evident antioxidant effects (Ferguson et al., 2004).

Table 2 7.2.1.2. Antimutagenic activity. Studies by Vayalil (2002) have shown

Effect of date fruits in exerting the various pharmacological properties in experimental
that the date fruit extract possessed antimutagenic properties in the
systems of study.
Ames mutagenicity assay. The extract caused a dose-dependent
Pharmacological Observation and references inhibition of benzo (a) pyrene-induced mutagenecity on Salmonella
property
tester strains TA-98 and TA-100 with metabolic activation. A low
In vitro studies concentration of 3.6 mg/plate and 4.3 mg/plate was found to cause
1. Antioxidant activity Scavenges free radical, inhibit iron-induced lipid 50% inhibition of His + revertants formation in TA-98 and TA-100,
peroxidation and protein oxidation (Vayalil, 2002; Al
respectively (Vayalil, 2002). The date components proanthocyanidins
Farsi et al., 2005b; Mansouri et al., 2005; Abdul and
Allaith, 2008; Chaira et al., 2009). (Dauer et al., 1998), anthocyanins (Gasiorowski et al., 1997), -
2. Antimutagenic Inhibits benzo (a) pyrene-induced mutagenecity in the carotene (Brockman et al., 1992) and phenolic acids (Birosov et al.,
activity Ames test (Vayalil, 2002). 2005) are all reported to possess antimutagenic effects. Dates are rich
3. Antiheamolytic Inhibits haemolytic activity of streptolysin O (Abuharfeil
in selenium and studies have also shown that at low concentration
activity et al., 1999).
4. Antiviral activity Prevent lytic activity of Pseudomonas phage ATCC selenium possess antimutagenic effects against diverse mutagens and
14209-B1 on Pseudomonas aeroginosa (Jassim and Naji, carcinogens (Hocman, 1988; Lin et al., 1984; Martin et al., 1981).
2008). Cumulatively the presence of all these components in the date fruit
5. Antifungal activity Antifungal activity against Candida albicans and C. krusei may have been responsible for the observed antimutagenic effects in
(Shraideh et al., 1998).
Ames test and needs validation in the animal systems of studies.
Animal studies
1. Anti-inammatory Increase plasma antioxidant (Vitamin C, E, A, - 7.2.1.3. Effect on hemolytic activity of Streptococcus pyogenes. In vitro
activity carotene) levels and decrease lipid peroxides. Reduce studies have shown that date extract effectively slowed the growth of
swelling, ESR and plasma brinogen (Doha and Al-Okbi,
S. pyogenes. Incubation of the bacteria for 24 h with date fruit extract
2004).
2. Action on Increase gastrointestinal transit time, reduces ethanol- at 5, 10 and 20% dilution caused a 30.8%, 64.7% and 88.5% decrease in
gastrointestinal induced gastric ulceration (Al Qarawi et al., 2003, 2005). the microbial number when compared with the concurrent (date
tract extract free medium) cohorts. Further at low concentrations the date
3. Antihyperlipidemic Reduce plasma triglycerides, total and LDL cholesterol extract neutralized the hemolytic activity of the streptococcal
activity (Salah and Al-Maiman, 2005; El-Mougy et al., 1991).
exotoxin, streptolysin O, probably due to erythrocyte membrane
4. Hepatoprotective Prevent dimethoate-induced hepatotoxicitydecrease
activity hepatic markers (ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase, GGT stabilization and inhibition of streptolysin O enzyme. Fractionated
and LDH), decrease vacuolization, necrosis, congestion, studies showed that the inhibitory substance was steroidal in nature
inammation and enlargement of sinusoids. Has and not proteinaceous as deproteinization of the extract did not
protective effect against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity
decrease its inhibitory effect (Abuharfeil et al., 1999). Independent
(Saa et al., 2010; Al Qarawi et al., 2004).
5. Nephroprotective Prevents gentamicin-induced renal damage and reduce
investigations have shown that the anthocyanins, carotenoids,
activity levels of creatinine and urea (Al Qarawi et al., 2008). procyanidins and avonoids present in dates are known to possess
6. Anticancer activity Regression of Sarcoma-180 tumour in mice (Ishurda and membrane protective effects (Hocman, 1988; Tapas et al., 2008) and
John, 2005). it is quite possible that these compounds may have protected the
7. Immunostimulant Enhance both cell mediated and humoral immunity
erythrocyte membrane from damage.
activity (Puri et al., 2000).
8. Gonadotropic Increase FSH, LH, testosterone, oestrogenincrease
activity spermatogenesis, sperm count, growth (El-Mougy et al., 7.2.1.4. Antiviral activity. The crude acetone extract of the pit of date
1991; Elgasim et al., 1995; Ali et al., 1999). fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.) was evaluated for its antiviral activity
 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822
against lytic Pseudomonas phage ATCC 14209-B1, using Pseudomonas
aeruginosa ATCC 25668 as the host cell (Jassim and Naji, 2008). The
date pit extract inhibited the infectivity of Pseudomonas phage ATCC
14209-B1 and completely prevented bacterial lysis. The antiviral
activity of date pits was found to be mediated by binding to the phage,
with minimum inhibitory concentration of b10 mg/ml (Jassim and
Naji, 2008). In milieu of these observations antiviral studies should be
extended to other viruses important to humans.
7.2.1.5. Antifungal activity. Shraideh et al. (1998) reported that
treatment of Candida albicans with the extract of Barhi date caused
distortion, weakening and partial collapse of the cell wall. At high
concentrations drastic damage in the form of cell lysis, leakage of
cytoplasmic material and eventual cell death was observed. In total
these results suggest that the date extract phytochemicals may have
multiple effects on Candida and with further studies may be of
therapeutic uses. In vitro studies have shown that avonoids possess
antifungal activities against C. albicans and C. krusei, and that their
presence in the extract may have been responsible for the observed
antifungal effects (Orhan et al., 2009; Ozelik et al., 2006).
7.2.2. Animal studies
7.2.2.1. Anti-inammatory properties. Excess generation of free radicals
generated from activated inammatory leukocytes, especially under
conditions of chronic inammation is highly deleterious and
aggravates arthritis, diabetes, etc. Therefore, for better health and
vitality their control is extremely important. Studies have shown that
both methanolic and aqueous extract of date fruit pulp and the
methanolic extract of date seeds possess anti-inammatory activity in
the rat adjuvant arthritis model in rats. The extracts increased the
plasma antioxidant state (vitamin C, E, A and -carotene) levels and
decreased the levels of lipid peroxides. Of all the extracts the
methanolic extract of the pulp was most effective in reducing the
foot swelling, ESR and plasma brinogen. The extracts increased the
body weight gain and food efciency ratio suggesting its benet.
Acute toxicity studies with mice showed that the methanolic extract
and aqueous extract of the pulp were safe up to 6 g/kg, while the LD50
for the methanolic extract of the seed was 6.75 g/kg (Doha and Al-
Okbi, 2004). Innumerable studies have shown that the date
constituents proanthocyanidin (Subarnas and Wagner, 2000), avo-
noids (Robak and Gryglewski, 1996), polyphenols (Gescher, 2004), -
carotene (Uteshev et al., 2000), and the mineral selenium (Roberts,
1963) possess anti-inammatory effects in different models of study
and may have contributed for the benecial effects.
7.2.2.2. Gastrointestinal protective activity. Dates are anecdotally
reputed to be useful against peptic ulcers, and the fact that Muslims
customarily consume more of dates during the fasting month of
Ramadan, could be possibly to protect the gastric mucosa from the
damaging effects of the gastric acid (Al Qarawi et al., 2005). Feeding
rats with aqueous and ethanolic undialyzed extracts of dates and date
pits have been observed to cause a concentration-dependent increase
in gastrointestinal transit time. These observations lend credence to
the ethnomedicinal claim that dates may be useful to humans with
gastric ulcers and also as a natural laxative (Al Qarawi et al., 2003).
The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of date fruits were observed to
be effective in ameliorating the ethanol-induced gastric ulceration in
rats. The gastroprotective activity is postulated to be multi-factorial
and may include antioxidant action (Al Qarawi et al., 2005). The Date
constituents proanthocyanidin (Iwasaki et al., 2004), avonoids
(Mota et al., 2009), cyanidin 3-glucoside (Li et al., 2008), -carotene
(Garamszegi et al., 1989), -sitosterol (Xiao et al., 1992) and selenium
(Parmar et al., 1988) possess gastroprotective effects against different
ulcerogens and this may have contributed to the observed effects.
1819
7.2.2.3. Antihyperlipidemic activity. Coronary heart disease is strongly
related to decrease in the concentrations of high density lipoprotein
cholesterol and increase in the low density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Salah and Al-Maiman (2005) have reported that feeding the defatted
date seed our containing diet at 1.5%, 2.5% and 5.2% to rats reduced
the plasma triglycerides, total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein
(Salah and Al-Maiman, 2005). Similar observations have also been
observed when date seed bers (2.5%) were fed to rats (El-Mougy et
al., 1991). Preclinical studies have shown that the phytochemicals
caffeic acid (Lafay et al., 2005), -sitosterol (Wong, 2001), proantho-
cyanidin (Bagchi et al., 2003), catechin (Auger et al., 2005), quercetin
(Auger et al., 2005; Kamada et al., 2005), anthocyanins (Finn Nielsen
et al., 2005) and selenium present possess cardioprotective and
antihyperlipidemic effects in various animal models of study and
contributed to the observed effects (Dhingra and Bansal, 2005, 2006;
Kaur and Bansal, 2009).
7.2.2.4. Hepatoprotective activity. Liver diseases remain one of the
serious health problems and no satisfactory protective drugs are
available. Recently, Saa et al. (2010) have also reported that date
fruit extract protected rats against dimethoate-induced hepatotoxic-
ity. When compared to the dimethoate alone treated controls,
treatment of rats with date extract decreased the levels of the hepatic
markers enzymes (transaminases, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-
glutamyl transferase and lactate dehydrogenase), hepatic levels of
malondialdehyde and concomitantly increased the levels of antiox-
idant enzymes (Saa et al., 2010). The histopathological observations
were in congruence to the biochemical observations and a decrease in
the level of vacuolization, necrosis, congestion, inammation and
enlargement of sinusoids were observed (Saa et al., 2010).
Studies have shown that feeding rats with the aqueous extract of
date esh or pits signicantly reduced CCl4-induced elevation in
plasma enzyme and bilirubin concentration. The histopathological
studies conrmed the biochemical observations that date extract
possess hepatoprotective effects. (Al Qarawi et al., 2004). Studies have
conrmed that selenium (Hafeman and Hoekstra, 1977); anthocyanin
(Obi et al., 1998), ferulic acid (Srinivasan et al., 2005), caffeic acid
(An et al., 1992; Janbaz et al., 2005) and quercetin (Janbaz et al.,
2005), chlorogenic acids (An et al., 1992), -carotene (Seifert et al.,
1995), proanthocyanidins (Ipatova et al., 2003), apigenin (Zheng et
al., 2005) and luteolin (Domitrovi et al., 2008), the date constituents
have all been reported to possess hepatoprotective effects against the
CCl4-induced hepatic damage in rodents. It is logical to assume that
the presence of these compounds may have contributed for the
hepatoprotective effects of the date extract.
7.2.2.5. Nephroprotective activity. Nephrotoxicity is a common side
effect of pharmacological agents (like analgesics, antibiotics, cyto-
statics and other drugs) and its prevention or amelioration is
important. Al Qarawi et al. (2008) investigated the renoprotective
effect of date fruit extract on gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in
rats. Gentamicin treatment signicantly increased the plasma con-
centrations of creatinine and urea and induced a marked necrosis of
the renal proximal tubules. Feeding of date esh and pit extract
reduced the levels of plasma creatinine and urea concentrations and
ameliorated gentamicin-induced damage to the proximal tubular
regions of the rat kidneys (Al Qarawi et al., 2008). Previous studies
have shown that selenium (Ademuyiwa et al., 1990) and quercetin
(Abdel-Raheem et al., 2009) possess protective effects against the
gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats and that they may have
been responsible for the benecial effects.
7.2.2.6. Anticancer activity. Studies by Ishurda and John (2005) for the
rst time have shown that the glucans prepared from the date fruits
possess antineoplastic effects in experimental system of study. The
authors observed a dose dependant anticancer activity with an
1820 M.S. Baliga et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 18121822
optimum activity at a dose of 1 mg/kg in mice bearing Sarcoma-180
solid tumors. The authors hypothesize that the observed antitumor
activity could be correlated to their (1 3)--d-glucan linkages
(Ishurda and John, 2005). To corroborate these observations studies
by Fullerton et al. (2000) have shown that the -glucan, isolated from
the Maitake mushroom also exerted antineoplastic effects on the
cultured metastatic prostatic cancer cells (PC-3) in vitro. Treatment
with the -glucan containing media caused a dose-dependent
increase in apoptosis, which concomitantly decreased the cell viability
of the PC-3 cells in vitro (Fullerton et al., 2000). A similar mechanism
of action may have very well initiated for the observed tumor
regression of the Sarcoma-180 when administered with the glucans
isolated from the dates.
7.2.2.7. Immunostimulatory activity. Immune activation is an effective as
well as protective approach against infectious diseases. Immunostimu-
lants enhance the overall immunity of the host, and present a non-
specic immune response against the microbial pathogens. They also
work to heighten humoral and cellular mediated immune responses, by
either enhancing cytokine secretion, or by directly stimulating B- or T-
lymphocytes (Puri et al., 2000). Ingestion of phytochemicals to support
the immune system or to combat infections has been a long standing
traditional practice. Feeding of ethanol extract of dry dates to parturated
mice enhanced both cell mediated and humoral immunity (Puri et al.,
2000). Experimental studies have shown that selenium (Sheffy and
Schultz, 1979), carotenoids (Chew, 1993), quercetin (Akbay et al.,
2003), kaempherol (Akbay et al., 2003) and isorhamnetin (Akbay et al.,
2003) possess immunostimulatory effects and may be responsible for
the observed effects.
7.2.2.8. Gonadotropic activity. Dates have been used as an important
ingredient in various aphrodisiacs and tonic confections in the various
traditional medicines and scientic studies have validated this. Date
extracts have been shown to increase sperm count in guinea pigs and
to enhance spermatogenesis and increase the concentration of
testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone
in rats (El-Mougy et al., 1991). Incorporation of date pits in the animal
feed is also observed to enhance growth and this was ascribed to an
increase in the plasma level of estrogens (Elgasim et al., 1995) or
testosterone (Ali et al., 1999). The date phytochemicals genistein
(Eustache et al., 2009; Roberts et al., 2000), vitamin A (Bartlett et al.,
1989) and selenium (Jana et al., 2008) have all been reported to
protected testicular functions against various stress and possess
gonadotropic activity, and their presence compounds may have
contributed to the observed effects.
7.2.3. Clinical Studies
Recently, Rock et al. (2009) studied the effect of two varieties of
dates (Medjool and Hallawi) on serum oxidative status, glucose and
lipid levels in healthy human subjects. The volunteers were advised to
consume 100 g/day of either variety of dates for a period of 4 weeks,
after which they were tested for variations in the mentioned serum
parameters. A signicant decrease in the levels of triacylglycerol was
observed, possibly due to the high dietary ber content in dates.
Although an increase in the serum glucose level concentrations on
postprandial samples was observed, the fasting serum glucose levels
remained unaltered. The decreased serum triacylglycerol levels and
oxidative stress during the month of date consumption was suggested
to be the reason for the signicantly unaffected serum cholesterol levels.
The presence of a variety of phenolic compounds especially the
ferulic acid and coumaric acid derivatives may have been responsible
for the observed free radical scavenging effects. The Hallawi date
consumption showed a decrease in basal serum oxidative stress and
the susceptibility of serum to AAPH [2, 2-azobis (2-amidinopropane)
hydrochloride]-induced lipid peroxidation. The presence of higher
phenolic concentration, catechins (antioxidants) as well as the
different absorption, metabolism and bioactivity of the various
phenolic compounds in Hallavi dates, attributes to the increased
antioxidant property, higher FRAP as well as serum high density
lipoprotein-associated PON1 activity as compared to the Medjool
variety. These results justies the various in vitro studies; showing
that dates in general and the Hallawi variety in particular are
benecial and can be included in our regular diet, without having to
worry on its adverse affects (Rock et al., 2009).
8. Conclusion
The information accrued in the past four decades suggest that
dates possess diverse medicinal uses including antihyperlipidemic,
anticancer, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective and nephroprotective
activities (Fig. 7) and thereby serving as an important healthy food in
the human diet. The observed pharmacological properties may be
attributed to the presence of a high concentration of minerals and
various other phytochemicals of diverse chemical structure.
The presence of compounds such as phenolics with a potential to
scavenge free radicals, increase antimutagenic effects and to stimulate
the immune system may contribute towards the various pharmaco-
logical effects. Dates also contain vitamins (A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B9 and C)
which are essential for carbohydrates, fat, protein metabolism,
synthesis of DNA and as an antioxidant to protect tissues from
oxidative stress. The presences of insoluble bers like cellulose,
hemicelluloses, pectin, and lignin which are present in the date esh
are important for the health of the digestive tract especially in
reducing the risk of bowel cancer, and diverticular disease as well as in
improving the cardiac vitality.
Dates are rich sources of selenium, copper, potassium, and
magnesium and moderate of manganese, iron, phosphorus and
calcium; and their regular consumption are reported to provide the
required RDA/AI at least in part. The high potassium and low sodium
contents in dates are desirable for people suffering from hypertension.
On an average dates contain 0.8 g Se, which is nearly 5.6 fold more
than the RDA/AI. Selenium is an oligoelement with essential biological
functions and its presence may have partly been responsible for the
myriad benecial effects.
While all pharmacological studies have been with rodents and
validated dates clinical applicability; in vitro studies with relevant
assays will help in understanding the mode of action responsible for
the various pharmacological properties. The required information
when available will enhance our knowledge and appreciation for the
use of dates in our daily diet. Due to its abundance and low cost, dates
remain a species with tremendous potential and countless possibil-
ities for further investigation. Considering the fact that dates are
relatively cheap, nutritious and is devoid of toxic effects it is safe to
suggest that their consumption should be recommended on a daily
basis for better health, vitality and vigor.
Acknowledgments
The authors MSB, BRVB are grateful to Rev. Fr. Patrick Rodrigus
(Director), Rev. Fr. Denis D'Sa (Administrator) and Dr. Sanjeev Rai
(Chief of Medical Services) and Dr. Jai Prakash Alva (Dean), of Father
Muller Charitable Institutions for their unstinted support. MSB and
HPB are also grateful to Prof. TL Shantha, director and Prof MB
Nagaveni, Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Women's College, for their help
and support.
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