Sampling Notes

■ Discuss the concept of sampling and list reasons for sampling.

Sampling can be thought of as taking a portion of the whole and studying that
portion to make estimates about the whole. We use the fundamentals of sampling in
many of our everyday activities (e.g., selecting a TV program to watch, test-driving a
car before deciding whether to purchase it, determining if our food is too hot or if it
needs some additional seasoning). The term target population is used to identify the
complete group of elements (e.g., people or objects) that are specifically identified
for investigation and determined by the specific objectives of the research project.
The researcher is able to select sampling units from the target population and use
the results obtained from the sample to make conclusions about the target
population. It is essential that the sample be representative of the target population
if it is to provide accurate estimates of population parameters. Sampling is frequently
used in marketing research projects as opposed to conducting a census because
sampling can significantly reduce the amount of time and money required in data
collection activities. In instances where the process of measurement in a study
destroys or contaminates the elements being studied, sampling may be the only
alternative.

■ Identify and explain the different roles that sampling plays in the
overall information research process.
Sampling plays an important role when there are short time frames for
gathering the needed information. These time frames are more likely to fit into the
decision time frames of the users of the new information. Sampling plays a
significant role in the process of identifying, developing, and understanding new
marketing/business constructs, as well as in developing the scale measurements
used to actually collect raw primary data about people or objects. Decisions
concerning the use of samples indirectly affect the process of designing
questionnaires. Finally, sampling plays a significant role in decisions concerning the
type of data analysis procedures that
can be employed to statistically investigate the sample data statistics.

■ Identify the fundamental differences between probability and

nonprobability sampling methods, and point out their strengths and
weaknesses.
We discussed probability and nonprobability sampling methods. Probability
sampling methods require that each element in the target population be identified
and have a known, nonzero probability of being selected for the sample, so that
statistical methods can be used to project sample results to the target population
within a specified margin of error. Probability sampling methods produce unbiased
estimates of the defined target population characteristic of interest and ensure the
representativeness of the sample. However, probability sampling designs can be
time-consuming and expensive compared to nonprobability sampling methods.
Nonprobability sampling does not allow for the use of statistical methods to
determine the degree of representativeness to the defined target population. Rather,
sampling units are selected on the basis of the subjective judgment or intuitive
knowledge of the researcher. The success of the research project will depend on the
decisions made by the researcher because it is all but impossible to accurately
generalize the sample data derived from a nonprobability-based method to all the
elements making up the target population. Types of probability sampling designs
include simple random sampling (SRS), systematic random sampling (SYMRS),
stratified random sampling (STRS), and cluster sampling. Four types of
nonprobability sampling designs are convenience (or accidental) sampling, judgment
(or purposive) sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.

■ Discuss and calculate sampling distributions, standard errors, and

confidence intervals and how they are used in assessing the accuracy
of a sample.
Asampling distribution is the frequency distribution of a specific sample
statistic (e.g., sample mean [x–] or sample proportion [p–]) that would result if we
took repeated random samples of the same size. The central limit theorem from
statistics tells us that there is a high probability that the mean of any random sample
taken from a target population will closely approximate the actual population mean
as the sample size increases. Formulas are used to compute the estimated standard
error of a sample mean (x–) and the estimated standard error of a sample
percentage ( p–). The estimated standard error Sx– or Sp– gives us an indication of
how far the sample data results lie from their respective actual population
parameters. Confidence intervals are based on the researcher’s desired level of
confidence and within a calculated degree of sampling error for which estimates of
the true value of the population parameter could be expected to fall.

■ Identify the criteria involved in determining the appropriate sample

design for a given research project.
The sampling design for a given research project is chosen after considering
several factors: (1) the research objectives, (2) degree of accuracy required, (3)
availability of resources, (4) time frames, (5) advanced knowledge of the target
population; (6) geographic scope of the project (e.g., local or national), and (7)
perceived data analysis needs.

■ Discuss the factors that must be considered when determining

sample size.
The researcher must consider several factors when determining the
appropriate sample size to use for a given study. The amount of time and money
available often affect this decision. In general, the larger the sample, the greater the
amount of resources required to collect raw data. Three factors that are of primary
importance in the determination of sample size are (1) the variability of the
population characteristic under consideration (σμ or σp), (2) the level of confidence
desired in the estimate (CL), and (3) the degree of precision desired in estimating
the population characteristic (e). The greater the variability of the characteristic
under investigation, the higher the level of confidence required; and the more
precise the required sample results, the larger the necessary sample size.

■ Discuss the methods of calculating appropriate sample sizes.

Statistical formulas are used to determine the required sample size in
probability sampling. Sample sizes for nonprobability sampling designs are
determined using subjective methods such as industry standards, past studies, or
the intuitive judgments on the part of the researcher. The size of the defined target
population does not affect the size of the required sample unless the population is
small relative to the sample size. Sample sizes are not the same as usable
observations for data analysis. Having fewer observations than desired will affect the
accuracy of the data. Researchers must therefore consider reachable rates, overall
incidence rates, and expected completions rates on the number of prospective
respondent contacts necessary to ensure sample accuracy.
■ Identify and explain the steps involved in developing a sampling plan,
and design a variety of different sampling plans.
The seven steps that should be included in the development of a sampling
plan are: (1) define the target population, (2) select the data collection method, (3)
identify the sampling frames needed, (4) select the appropriate sampling method,
(5) determine the necessary sample sizes and overall contact rates, (6) create an
operating plan for selecting sampling units, and (7) execute the operational plan.