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Domestic

Water
Heating
Design
Published by

American
Society of
Plumbing
Manual
Engineers Second Edition
ii Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition, is designed to provide accurate
and authoritative information for the design and specification of domestic water heating
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding
the data and information contained in this publication. All data and information are provided
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting,
engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.

American Society of Plumbing Engineers


2980 S. River Rd
Des Plaines, IL 600018
(847) 296-0002
E-mail: aspehq@aol.com Internet: www.aspe.org

Copyright 2003 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

First Edition published in 1998 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any infor-
mation storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN 978-1-891255-18-2
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1
Contents xiii

ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1 Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption . . . . . 20
Figure 2.2 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.3 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 2.4 Consumption curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.5 Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.6 Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.7 Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2.8 Peak Demand Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at
Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at Top of System. . 242
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water
Heater Piping Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters. 246
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control
Cartridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve. . 248
Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with
Memory Stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable
for Hot Water Temperature Maintenance. . . . . . . 268
Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature
Maintenance System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components
of a Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System. . . . . . 273
Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of
Hospitals, Correctional Facilities, and Hotels. . . . 276
xiv Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 15.5 Typical Layout for 2 to 4-Story


Hospitals, Research Labs, Correctional Facilities,
and Dormitories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 17.1 Indirect Water Heater Designs. . . . . . . . 292
Figure 17.2 Purdue Bulletin 74 Chart, Showing
the Relationship Between Lime Deposits and
Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Figure 18.1 A Typical Electric Water Heater. . . . . . . . 299
Figure 18.2 Electric Water Heater Element Types. . . 301
Figure 18.3 Electric Water Heater Element
Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 18.4 Location of ControlsResidential and
Light-Duty, Commercial Electric Water Heaters . . 304
Figure 18.5 Location of ControlsCommercial
Electric Water Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Figure 18.6 Location of ControlsBooster Type,
Commercial Electric Water Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figure 20.1 Location and Types of Flue. . . . . . . . . . . 316
Figure 20.2 Sacrificial Anode Installation in a
Residential Gas Water Heater Tank. . . . . . . . . . . 318
Figure 20.3 Example of Water Heater Fittings. . . . . . 318
Figure 20.4 The Principle of Operation of the
Dip Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Figure 20.5 Types of Gas Burner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Figure 20.6 Commonly Used Draft Hoods. . . . . . . . . 322
Figure 20.7 Downdraft Conditions in a Vertical
Draft Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure 20.8 Vent Connection to a Chimney . . . . . . . . 324
Figure 22.1 Recirculation System Piping and
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Figure 23.1 A Closed Hot Water System Showing
the Effects as Water and Pressure Increase
from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Figure 23.2 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a
Closed System as Pressure and Temperature
Increase from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2. . . . . . 345
Figure 23.3 Sizing the Expansion Tank. . . . . . . . . . . 353
Contents xv

TABLES
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Table 1.1(M) Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures
for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 1.2(M) Typical Delivered Hot Water
Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Table 1.3 Time/Water Temperature Combinations


Producing Skin Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 2.1 Occupant Demographic Characteristics . . . . 24
Table 2.2 Low, Medium, and High Guidelines:
Hot Water Demands and Use for Multifamily
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 4.1 School Grade Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 4.2 Potential Areas of Hot Water Usage . . . . . . . 46
Table 4.3 Hot Water Demand per Fixture for Schools . 49
Table 4.4 General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements of Kitchen Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 4.5 Rinse Water (180195F)
Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines . . . . . 50
Table 4.5(M) Rinse Water (8291C)
Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines . . . . . 51
Table 6.1 General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 6.2 Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . . . . 88
Table 8.1 General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . . . 151
Table 8.2 Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . . . 152
Table 10.1 Tank Size Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Table 10.1(M) Tank Size Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10.2 Hot Water Requirements after
Initial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10.2(M) Hot Water Requirements after
Initial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 11.1 Fixture/Equipment Table . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube
or Piping per Linear Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube
or Piping per Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Table 14.2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance
Water Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
xvi Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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Table 14.3 Approximate Time Required to Get


Hot Water to a Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 14.3(M) Approximate Time Required to Get
Hot Water to a Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness . . . . 250
Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness . . 250
Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat
Loss and Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Table 14.5(M) Approximate Insulated Piping Heat
Loss and Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Table 14.6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . 252
Table 14.6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . 252
Table 15.1 Time for Hot Water to Reach Fixture . . . . 270
Table 15.1(M) Time for Hot Water
to Reach Fixture (sec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 15.2 Water Wasted While Waiting for
Hot Water to Reach Fixture (oz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 15.2(M) Water Wasted While Waiting for
Hot Water to Reach Fixture (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 15.3 Nominal Maintenance
Temperatures, F (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Table 18.1 Resistance of Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Table 23.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water
at a Saturated Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Table 23.2 Nominal Volume of Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Contents xxi

ACRONYMS

ACEEE American Council for Energy Efficient Economy


ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
AGA American Gas Association
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASPE American Society of Plumbing Engineers
CCU Critical care unit
DHW Domestic hot water
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer
ER Emergency room
HBV Hepatitis B virus
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HVAC Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
ICU Intensive care unit
LMH Low, medium, and high
LPG Liquid petroleum gas
NEC National Electric Code
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NR Nitrile rubber
NSF National Sanitation Foundation
OB Obstetrics
OHRD Ontario Hydro Research Division
PSIG Pounds per square inch gauge
SMACNA Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
National Association
TEMA Tubular Exchange Manufacturers Association
UL Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Contents iii

CONTENTS

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

SECTION I SYSTEM SIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF DOMESTIC WATER


HEATING
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Basic Relationships and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Heat RecoveryElectric Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Mixed Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Delivered Hot Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Scalding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires Disease) . . . 14
Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Storage and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
System Alternative Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
Introduction ......................... . . . . . . . 19
Background ......................... . . . . . . . 19
Weekday Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . 19
Seasonal Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
iv Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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Demand Flow Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21


Identification of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Demand Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Application of LMH Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Peak Demand Vs. Average Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Potential of Generating Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Time of Day of Peak Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Peak Demand and Average Demand . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Retrofit to Existing Systems (Customized Sizing) . . . . . 28
Research on Generation Rate and Storage
Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Example 2.1 Traditional Multifamily Building . . . . 31
Example 2.2 Special Use Housing Facility . . . . . . . 35
Possible Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3. DORMITORIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Student Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Example 3.1 Student Dormitory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Institutional Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Types of School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Information Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Kitchen and Food Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
School Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Calculating the Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
General Purpose Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Kitchen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Shower Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Example 4.1 Elementary School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Example 4.2 High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5. HOTELS AND MOTELS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Contents v

Hotel and Motel Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59


Convention Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Business Travelers Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Resort Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
General Occupancy Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Guest Room Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Questions and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Example 5.1 Guest Room Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Food Service Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Questions and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Guide to Estimating Hourly Demand . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Example 5.2 Food Service Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Laundry Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Questions and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Example 5.3 Laundry Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
General Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Design Criteria Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6. HOSPITALS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Worksheet 6.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1 . . . . . . 84
Table 6.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . 87
Table 6.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . 88
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Patient Areas and Nurses Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Hydrotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Dietary and Food Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Surgical Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Laundry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Central Sterile Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Obstetrics/Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,
Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue) . . . . . . . . . 93
vi Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

7. SPAS, POOLS, HEALTH CLUBS, AND


ATHLETIC CENTERS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Information Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Hot Water Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Therapies/Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Shower Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Other Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Calculating the Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

8. NURSING/INTERMEDIATE CARE AND


RETIREMENT HOMES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Worksheet 8.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Worksheet 8.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Worksheet 8.AUser GroupExample . . . . . . . . 147
Table 8.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . 151
Table 8.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . 152
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Example: 48-Bed Nursing/Intermediate Care and
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Description of User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
User Group Worksheets, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . . . 165
User Group Totals Worksheet, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . . . 176

9. JAIL AND PRISON HOUSING UNITS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Contents vii

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Jail Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Calculations for Jail Housing Units . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Auxiliary Equipment Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Prison Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Design Criteria and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Calculations for Inmate Housing Units . . . . . . . . 186
Storage Tank Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Kitchen Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Laundry Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

10. INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Examples of Industrials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
General Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Areas within Industrial Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Washrooms and Toilets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Wash Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Selection of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Facility-Specific Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Meat and Food Processing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . 194
Manufacturing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Pharmaceutical Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Food Product Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chemical Processing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Facilities that Process Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . 196
Printing and Publishing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Central Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fluid Treatment Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Miscellaneous Uses of Hot Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Photo Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Ready-Mix Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
viii Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

11. SPORTS ARENAS AND STADIUMS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Gathering Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Water Heating System Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Design Traps to Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Types of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Special Considerations: Commercial Laundries . . 208
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
System Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Sizing Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Example 11.1 Football Stadium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Example 11.2 Baseball Stadium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

12. LAUNDRIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
System Design Questions .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Example 12.1 . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

13. MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES


Religious Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Kitchen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Baptistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Grocery and Convenience Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Retail Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Fast Food Restaurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Office Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

SECTION II EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

14. RECIRCULATING DOMESTIC HOT WATER


SYSTEMS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Length and Time Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Contents ix

Results of Delays in Delivering Hot Water


to Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Methods of Delivering Reasonably Prompt Hot
Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial,
and Large Residential Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Self-Regulating Heat Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Point-of-Use Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Potential Problems in Circulated Hot Water
Maintenance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems . . . 244
Balancing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems . . . . . . . 244
Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems . . 245
Providing Check Valves at the Ends of
Hot Water Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at
Dead-End Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Flow Balancing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fixed Orifices and Venturis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves . . . 247
Flow Regulating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Balancing Valves with Memory Stops . . . . . . . . . . 248
Sizing Hot Water Return Piping Systems and
Recirculating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Example 14.1Calculation to Determine Required
Circulation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses . . . . . . 255
Establishing the Head Capacity of the Hot Water
Circulating Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Hot Water Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Control for Hot Water Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . . . 258
Air Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

15. SELF-REGULATING HEAT TRACE SYSTEMS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Identifying the Piping Requiring Heat Tracing . . . . . . 270
x Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272


Multiple Temperature Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Remodels and Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Coordinating Design Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Determining the Temperature to Maintain . . . . . . . . . 274
Choosing the Right Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Heat Tracing Hot Water Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Combining Horizontal Mains with Supply Risers . . . . 276
Hot Water Heat Tracing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

16. HEAT EXCHANGERS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Plumbing Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association . . 280
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Heating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Countercurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Temperature Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Types of Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Shell and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Plate Type Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Selecting Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

17. INDIRECT FIRED WATER HEATERS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Storage Tank Type Indirect Water Heaters . . . . . . 291
Instantaneous Indirect Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . 293
Water Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

18. ELECTRIC WATER HEATERSSTORAGE


AND BOOSTER
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Principal Types of Electric Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . 297
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
The Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Tank Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Dip Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Contents xi

Controls for Residential and Light-Duty,


Commercial Electric Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Controls for Medium-Duty, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Surface-Mounted Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Immersion Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Controls for Heavy-Duty, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Immersion Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Immersion High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Wiring Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Controls for Booster Type, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Immersion Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Immersion High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Wiring Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

19. GAS WATER HEATERSINSTANTANEOUS


WITH SEPARATE TANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

20. GAS WATER HEATERSSTORAGE


Types of Gas Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Flues and Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Tank Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Dip Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Venting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Draft Hoods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Vent Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

21. HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Types of Heat Pump Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Integral Heat Pump Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Remote Heat Pump Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Benefits of the Heat Pump Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . 328
xii Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Drawbacks of the Heat Pump Water Heater . . . . . . . . 328


Heat Recovery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Criteria for Selecting Heat Pump
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Special Requirements for Heat Pump
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Incoming Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Safety Controls and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

22. STEAM WATER HEATERS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Instantaneous Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Storage Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Feedback Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Feed-Forward Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Recirculation System Piping and Operation . . . . . . . . 338
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Example 22.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

23. EXPANSION TANKS


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Expansion of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Example 23.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Expansion of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Example 23.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Boyles Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Example 23.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Section
I
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and re-
viewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and design-
ers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.

Two important water heating system components, safety equip-


ment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a gen-
eral synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 3

1
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND UNITS


The equations used throughout the Manual are based on the
principle of energy conservation. The fundamental formula for
this expresses a steady-state heat balance for the heat input and
output of the system:

(1.1) q = rwcT
where
q = time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gph (L/h)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T1 = change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incom-
i n g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation repre-
sents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
4 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

For the purposes of this manual, the specific heat of water


shall be considered a constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/F (c =
4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water shall be constant at
8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m3). (The specific heat and the weight of
water will actually vary with temperature and altitude.)

(1.2) q = gph [( )(
1 Btu
lb/F gal )]
8.33 lb (T)

{ q=
h[(
m3 4.188 kJ
kg/K )( 999.6 kg
m3 ) ]}
( T)

Example 1.1 Calculate the heat output rate required to heat


600 gph from 50 to 140F (2.27 m3/h from
283.15 to 333.15K).
Solution
From Equation 1.2,
q = (600 gph)(8.33 Btu/gal/F)(140 50F)
= 449,820 Btu/h
[q = (2.27 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 283.15K)
= 475 374 kJ/h]
Note: The designer should be aware that water heaters in-
stalled in high elevations must be derated based on the elevation.
The water heaters manufacturers data should be consulted for
information on required modifications.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or out-
put, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated sur-
faces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
q
(1.3) Et = 100%
q+B
where
B = heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 5

Refer to Equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine q. Many water


heaters and boilers provide input and output energy informa-
tion.

Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.

Solution From Example 1.1, q = 449,820 Btu/h


(475 374 kJ/h). Heat input =
q 449,820 Btu/h
= = 562,275 Btu/h
Et 0.80

( q
Et
=
475 374 kJ/h
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h )
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:

(1.4) 410 gal


= gal of water per kWh at T
T

(
1552.02 L
T
= L of water per kWh at T
)
(1.5) gph T
= kWh required
410 gal

(L/h T
1552.02 L
= kWh required )
(1.6) gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T

( L/h
L of water per kWh at T
= kW required
)
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required

Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based


on the required temperature rise.
6 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Temperature Rise, T, F (C) Gal (L) of Water per kWh

110 (43) 3.73 (14.12)


100 (38) 4.10 (15.52)
90 (32) 4.55 (17.22)
80 (27) 5.13 (19.42)
70 (21) 5.86 (22.18)
60 (16) 6.83 (25.85)
50 (10) 8.20 (31.04)
40 (4) 10.25 (38.8)

This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.

Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a


continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot wa-
ter at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).

Solution Using Equation 1.6 and the above table, we find


the following:

40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)

[ 151.42 L/h
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
= 9.8 kW required ]
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE
Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.

(1.7) (Tm Tc)


P =
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 7

P is a hot water multiplier and can be used to determine the


percentage of supply hot water that will blend the hot and cold
water to produce a desired mixed water temperature. Values of P
for a range of hot and cold water temperatures are given in Table
1.1.

Example 1.4

A group of showers requires 25 gpm (1.58 L/sec) of 105F (41C)


mixed water temperature. Determine how much 140F (60C) hot
water must be supplied to the showers when the cold water tem-
perature is 50F (10C).

Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.

Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th =110F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77


50 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
55 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
60 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
65 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 120F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 120 115 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67


50 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
55 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
60 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
65 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

(Continued)
8 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(Table 1.1 continued)

Th = 130F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59


50 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
55 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
60 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
65 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Th = 140F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
50 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
55 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

Th = 150F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100

45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 9

(Table 1.1 continued)

Th = 160F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110

45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Th = 180F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130

45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
10 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 1.1 (M) Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th = 43C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77


10 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
13 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
16 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
18 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 49C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67


10 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
13 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
16 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
18 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Th = 54C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59


10 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
13 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
16 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
18 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 11

[Table 1.1 (M) continued]

Th = 60C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

Th = 66C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38

7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Th = 71C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 71 68 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43

7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

(Continued)
12 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

[Table 1.1 (M) continued]

Th = 82C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 82 79 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 58 54
7 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
10 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
13 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
16 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
18 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
43 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
49 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
54 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
60 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
66 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
71 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25

DELIVERED HOT WATER TEMPERATURE


The generally accepted delivered hot water temperatures for various
plumbing fixtures and equipment are given in Table 1.2. Both
temperature and pressure should be verified with the client and
checked against local codes and the manuals of equipment used.

Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures


for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use Temp. (F)
Lavatory 105
Showers and tubs 110
Commercial and institutional laundry 140180
Residential dishwashing and laundry 140
Commercial spray type dishwashing (as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple tank hood or rack type: Wash 150
Final rinse 180195
Single tank conveyor type: Wash 160
Final rinse 180195
Single tank rack or door type:
Single temperature wash and rinse 165
Chemical sanitizing glassware: Wash 140
Rinse 75

Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manu-


facturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 13

Table 1.2 (M) Typical Delivered Hot Water


Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use Temp. (C)
Lavatory 41
Showers and tubs 43
Commercial and institutional laundry 6082
Residential dishwashing and laundry 60
Commercial spray type dishwashing (as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple tank hood or rack type: Wash 66
Final rinse 8291
Single tank conveyor type: Wash 71
Final rinse 8291
Single tank rack or door type:
Single temperature wash and rinse 74
Chemical sanitizing glassware: Wash 60
Rinse 24

Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manu-


facturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.

SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS

Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water tem-
perature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately ex-
perience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over

2For more information regarding Scalding, refer to ASPE Research Foundation.


1989. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. Journal of Environmental
Health. (June): 3848.
3Moritz, A. R., and Henriques, F. C., Jr. 1947. The relative importance of time and
surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns. American Journal of
Pathology. 23: 695720.
14 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)

Table 1.3 Time/Water Temperature Combinations


Producing Skin Damage
Water Temperature
F C Time (sec)
Over 140 Over 60 Less than 1
140 60 2.6
135 58 5.5
130 54 15
125 52 50
120 49 290

Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin dam-
age in adult males.

Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires Disease)


Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal respiratory illness. The
disease gained notoriety when a number of American Legion-
naires contracted it during a convention. That outbreak was
attributed to the water vapor from the buildings cooling tower(s).
The bacteria that cause Legionnaires disease are widespread in
natural sources of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and multiply to
high concentrations. Drinking water containing the Legionella
bacteria has no known effects. However, inhalation of the bacte-
ria into the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Legionnaires
disease. Much has been published about this problem, and yet
there is still controversy over the exact temperatures that foster
the growth of the bacteria. Further research is required, for there
is still much to be learned. It is incumbent upon designers to
familiarize themselves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their systems. De-
signers also must be familiar with and abide by the rules of all
regulating agencies with jurisdiction.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 15

RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive tem-
peratures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Ameri-
can Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The de-
signer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those stan-
dards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.

THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for in-
formation on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.

CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater con-
trols should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.

STORAGE AND RECOVERY


The design of a domestic water heating system begins with esti-
mating the facilitys load profile and identifying the peak demand
times. To accomplish these steps, the designer must conduct
discussions with the users of the space, determine the building
type, and learn of any owner requirements. The information thus
gathered will establish the required capacity of the water heating
equipment and the general type of system to be used. With fuel
16 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

fired equipment, to avoid condensation, the equipment and the


operating temperature should be selected to ensure that the
heaters operating temperature is not lower than the dewpoint
temperature of the flue gas.

Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratifi-
cation, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respec-
tively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced signifi-
cantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratifica-
tion since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.

CODES AND STANDARDS


The need to conform to various codes and standards determines
many aspects of the design of a domestic hot water system as
well as the selection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and standards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers (ASHRAE)/IES 90.1.
3. ASME code for fired and unfired pressure vessels.
4. ASME and AGA codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing for electrical compo-
nents.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas burning components.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 17

8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards.


9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agencies with juris-
diction over public schools and public housing, and many other
agencies have specific requirements that must be observed when
designing projects and selecting equipment for them.

SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE CONSIDERATIONS


The design and selection of water heating systems are part of a
process that involves assumptions, decisions, and trade-offs.
The general organization of this manual separates application
considerations and load determinations (Section I) from the selec-
tion of equipment (Section II). While this is possible for most
conventional water heating systems, it does not yield the optimum
solution for many advanced, high-efficiency water heating systems.
These systems include refrigerant-based systems like heat pump
water heaters; refrigeration heat reclaim systems; and multifunc-
tion, full-condensing equipment. These and other systems like solar
water heaters have a higher cost per unit of heating capacity than
most conventional systems. Often the most cost-effective configura-
tion for these systems tends to use higher storage volumes and
lower heating rates than those recommended in the following chap-
ters. These systems are frequently configured as hybrid systems,
combining both an advanced high-efficiency system as the primary,
base-loaded water heater and a conventional water heater for peak-
ing or supplemental water heating.
Advanced, high-efficiency systems may offer significant ben-
efits; however, their design and selection is necessarily more
detailed. The seasonal and instantaneous efficiency and output
of these systems vary greatly with operating conditions. Because
they are not selected to meet the peak water heating load, load
calculations must address not simply the peak but the water
heating load shape. Their higher cost per unit of heating capacity
as compared to most conventional systems places a higher pre-
mium on accurate load determination since oversizing has a more
marked effect on system cost. Other considerations such as a
buildings cooling load or waste heat availability may also come
into play. The capacities of these systems and any related supple-
mental water heating equipment should be selected to achieve
high average daily run time and the lowest combination of oper-
ating and equipment cost.
Section
I
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and re-
viewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and design-
ers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.

Two important water heating system components, safety equip-


ment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a gen-
eral synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 3

1
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND UNITS


The equations used throughout the Manual are based on the
principle of energy conservation. The fundamental formula for
this expresses a steady-state heat balance for the heat input and
output of the system:

(1.1) q = rwcT
where
q = time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gph (L/h)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T1 = change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incom-
i n g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation repre-
sents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
4 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

For the purposes of this manual, the specific heat of water


shall be considered a constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/F (c =
4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water shall be constant at
8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m3). (The specific heat and the weight of
water will actually vary with temperature and altitude.)

(1.2) q = gph [( )(
1 Btu
lb/F gal )]
8.33 lb (T)

{ q=
h[(
m3 4.188 kJ
kg/K )( 999.6 kg
m3 ) ]}
( T)

Example 1.1 Calculate the heat output rate required to heat


600 gph from 50 to 140F (2.27 m3/h from
283.15 to 333.15K).
Solution
From Equation 1.2,
q = (600 gph)(8.33 Btu/gal/F)(140 50F)
= 449,820 Btu/h
[q = (2.27 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 283.15K)
= 475 374 kJ/h]
Note: The designer should be aware that water heaters in-
stalled in high elevations must be derated based on the elevation.
The water heaters manufacturers data should be consulted for
information on required modifications.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or out-
put, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated sur-
faces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
q
(1.3) Et = 100%
q+B
where
B = heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 5

Refer to Equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine q. Many water


heaters and boilers provide input and output energy informa-
tion.

Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.

Solution From Example 1.1, q = 449,820 Btu/h


(475 374 kJ/h). Heat input =
q 449,820 Btu/h
= = 562,275 Btu/h
Et 0.80

( q
Et
=
475 374 kJ/h
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h )
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:

(1.4) 410 gal


= gal of water per kWh at T
T

(
1552.02 L
T
= L of water per kWh at T
)
(1.5) gph T
= kWh required
410 gal

(L/h T
1552.02 L
= kWh required )
(1.6) gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T

( L/h
L of water per kWh at T
= kW required
)
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required

Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based


on the required temperature rise.
6 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Temperature Rise, T, F (C) Gal (L) of Water per kWh

110 (43) 3.73 (14.12)


100 (38) 4.10 (15.52)
90 (32) 4.55 (17.22)
80 (27) 5.13 (19.42)
70 (21) 5.86 (22.18)
60 (16) 6.83 (25.85)
50 (10) 8.20 (31.04)
40 (4) 10.25 (38.8)

This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.

Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a


continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot wa-
ter at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).

Solution Using Equation 1.6 and the above table, we find


the following:

40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)

[ 151.42 L/h
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
= 9.8 kW required ]
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE
Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.

(1.7) (Tm Tc)


P =
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 7

P is a hot water multiplier and can be used to determine the


percentage of supply hot water that will blend the hot and cold
water to produce a desired mixed water temperature. Values of P
for a range of hot and cold water temperatures are given in Table
1.1.

Example 1.4

A group of showers requires 25 gpm (1.58 L/sec) of 105F (41C)


mixed water temperature. Determine how much 140F (60C) hot
water must be supplied to the showers when the cold water tem-
perature is 50F (10C).

Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.

Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th =110F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77


50 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
55 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
60 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
65 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 120F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 120 115 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67


50 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
55 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
60 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
65 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

(Continued)
8 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(Table 1.1 continued)

Th = 130F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95

45 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59


50 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
55 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
60 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
65 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Th = 140F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
50 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
55 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

Th = 150F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100

45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 9

(Table 1.1 continued)

Th = 160F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110

45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Th = 180F Hot Water System Temperature


T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (F) 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130

45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
10 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 1.1 (M) Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th = 43C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77


10 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
13 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
16 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
18 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Th = 49C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67


10 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
13 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
16 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
18 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Th = 54C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59


10 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
13 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
16 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
18 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 11

[Table 1.1 (M) continued]

Th = 60C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35

7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40

Th = 66C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38

7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Th = 71C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 71 68 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43

7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

(Continued)
12 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

[Table 1.1 (M) continued]

Th = 82C Hot Water System Temperature


Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C) 82 79 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 58 54
7 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
10 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
13 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
16 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
18 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
43 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
49 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
54 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
60 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
66 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
71 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25

DELIVERED HOT WATER TEMPERATURE


The generally accepted delivered hot water temperatures for various
plumbing fixtures and equipment are given in Table 1.2. Both
temperature and pressure should be verified with the client and
checked against local codes and the manuals of equipment used.

Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures


for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use Temp. (F)
Lavatory 105
Showers and tubs 110
Commercial and institutional laundry 140180
Residential dishwashing and laundry 140
Commercial spray type dishwashing (as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple tank hood or rack type: Wash 150
Final rinse 180195
Single tank conveyor type: Wash 160
Final rinse 180195
Single tank rack or door type:
Single temperature wash and rinse 165
Chemical sanitizing glassware: Wash 140
Rinse 75

Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manu-


facturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 13

Table 1.2 (M) Typical Delivered Hot Water


Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use Temp. (C)
Lavatory 41
Showers and tubs 43
Commercial and institutional laundry 6082
Residential dishwashing and laundry 60
Commercial spray type dishwashing (as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple tank hood or rack type: Wash 66
Final rinse 8291
Single tank conveyor type: Wash 71
Final rinse 8291
Single tank rack or door type:
Single temperature wash and rinse 74
Chemical sanitizing glassware: Wash 60
Rinse 24

Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manu-


facturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.

SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS

Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water tem-
perature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately ex-
perience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over

2For more information regarding Scalding, refer to ASPE Research Foundation.


1989. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. Journal of Environmental
Health. (June): 3848.
3Moritz, A. R., and Henriques, F. C., Jr. 1947. The relative importance of time and
surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns. American Journal of
Pathology. 23: 695720.
14 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)

Table 1.3 Time/Water Temperature Combinations


Producing Skin Damage
Water Temperature
F C Time (sec)
Over 140 Over 60 Less than 1
140 60 2.6
135 58 5.5
130 54 15
125 52 50
120 49 290

Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin dam-
age in adult males.

Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires Disease)


Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal respiratory illness. The
disease gained notoriety when a number of American Legion-
naires contracted it during a convention. That outbreak was
attributed to the water vapor from the buildings cooling tower(s).
The bacteria that cause Legionnaires disease are widespread in
natural sources of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and multiply to
high concentrations. Drinking water containing the Legionella
bacteria has no known effects. However, inhalation of the bacte-
ria into the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Legionnaires
disease. Much has been published about this problem, and yet
there is still controversy over the exact temperatures that foster
the growth of the bacteria. Further research is required, for there
is still much to be learned. It is incumbent upon designers to
familiarize themselves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their systems. De-
signers also must be familiar with and abide by the rules of all
regulating agencies with jurisdiction.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 15

RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive tem-
peratures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Ameri-
can Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The de-
signer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those stan-
dards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.

THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for in-
formation on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.

CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater con-
trols should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.

STORAGE AND RECOVERY


The design of a domestic water heating system begins with esti-
mating the facilitys load profile and identifying the peak demand
times. To accomplish these steps, the designer must conduct
discussions with the users of the space, determine the building
type, and learn of any owner requirements. The information thus
gathered will establish the required capacity of the water heating
equipment and the general type of system to be used. With fuel
16 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

fired equipment, to avoid condensation, the equipment and the


operating temperature should be selected to ensure that the
heaters operating temperature is not lower than the dewpoint
temperature of the flue gas.

Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratifi-
cation, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respec-
tively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced signifi-
cantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratifica-
tion since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.

CODES AND STANDARDS


The need to conform to various codes and standards determines
many aspects of the design of a domestic hot water system as
well as the selection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and standards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers (ASHRAE)/IES 90.1.
3. ASME code for fired and unfired pressure vessels.
4. ASME and AGA codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing for electrical compo-
nents.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas burning components.
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 17

8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards.


9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agencies with juris-
diction over public schools and public housing, and many other
agencies have specific requirements that must be observed when
designing projects and selecting equipment for them.

SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE CONSIDERATIONS


The design and selection of water heating systems are part of a
process that involves assumptions, decisions, and trade-offs.
The general organization of this manual separates application
considerations and load determinations (Section I) from the selec-
tion of equipment (Section II). While this is possible for most
conventional water heating systems, it does not yield the optimum
solution for many advanced, high-efficiency water heating systems.
These systems include refrigerant-based systems like heat pump
water heaters; refrigeration heat reclaim systems; and multifunc-
tion, full-condensing equipment. These and other systems like solar
water heaters have a higher cost per unit of heating capacity than
most conventional systems. Often the most cost-effective configura-
tion for these systems tends to use higher storage volumes and
lower heating rates than those recommended in the following chap-
ters. These systems are frequently configured as hybrid systems,
combining both an advanced high-efficiency system as the primary,
base-loaded water heater and a conventional water heater for peak-
ing or supplemental water heating.
Advanced, high-efficiency systems may offer significant ben-
efits; however, their design and selection is necessarily more
detailed. The seasonal and instantaneous efficiency and output
of these systems vary greatly with operating conditions. Because
they are not selected to meet the peak water heating load, load
calculations must address not simply the peak but the water
heating load shape. Their higher cost per unit of heating capacity
as compared to most conventional systems places a higher pre-
mium on accurate load determination since oversizing has a more
marked effect on system cost. Other considerations such as a
buildings cooling load or waste heat availability may also come
into play. The capacities of these systems and any related supple-
mental water heating equipment should be selected to achieve
high average daily run time and the lowest combination of oper-
ating and equipment cost.
Multifamily Buildings 19

2 MULTIFAMILY
BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION
When selecting and sizing domestic water heaters for multifam-
ily buildings, the designer must take into consideration the
variables affecting hot water demand that are unique to each
particular project. (Note: Certain government agencies have their
own design criteria, which must be strictly followed.)
Demand is a function of the anticipated hot water usage of
the occupants of a particular building during the period being
considered. It is affected by the population of a project as well as
the behavioral patterns of those occupants and the amenities
offered them.
Note that the design guidelines in this chapter are based on a
large amount of monitored data from occupied buildings, which
was collected during recent research efforts.

BACKGROUND
In order to design a domestic hot water (DHW) system for multi-
family buildings properly it is useful to understand the
consumption and demand patterns of this type of occupancy.

Weekday Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns


The weekday vs. weekend comparison of DHW, in gallons (liters),
consumed in buildings reveals that there are generally a slightly
higher total consumption and a greater peak demand on week-

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
20 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

ends (Saturday and Sunday) than on weekdays (Monday through


Friday). This phenomenon is true in all seasons. The average
weekend day consumption is 7.5% greater than the average week-
day level. (Refer to Figure 2.1.) Peak demand times are also found
to vary from weekdays to weekends. This is a function of the
standard nine-to-five workday. Therefore, the weekend will be
used as the highest demand period.

Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Composite

Figure 2.1
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 46.

Seasonal Demand Patterns


Multifamily buildings have distinct seasonal variations in DHW
demand levels. Since demand must be calculated using a worst-
case scenario, and weekend consumption is known to be greater
for multifamily buildings than weekday consumption, the effect
of the seasonal influence is best seen in terms of weekend con-
sumption. Figure 2.2 indicates that DHW demand is greater in
winter than in any other season, the obvious explanations being
that people take warmer showers in the winter and cooler ones
Multifamily Buildings 21

Seasonal Variations, Weekend Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita

Figure 2.2
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.107.

in the summer and that (particularly in colder climates) the cold


water to be mixed down is considerably cooler in winter and re-
quires greater volumes of DHW. The variance can account for as
much as a 45% reduction in demand from winter to summer.
Using summer as the base consumption, daily average con-
sumption rises by 10% in the fall then goes up 13% more
(compounded) during the winter period. Consumption then falls
by 1% (compounded) in the spring and falls another 19% (com-
pounded) during the summer period (e.g., 100 gal 1.10 1.13
0.99 0.81 = 99.7 gal). (The spring consumption is compara-
bly higher than fall consumption, due in large part to considerably
colder inlet water temperatures in spring.)

Demand Flow Patterns


There is a distinct difference between weekday and weekend DHW
demand patterns. Weekdays have minimal overnight usage, then
a morning peak, followed by lower afternoon demand and then
22 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

an evening or nighttime peak. Weekend days have just one major


peak, which begins later in the morning and continues until
around 1:00 to 2:00 P.M. Usage then tapers off for the rest of the
day. Examination of the composite weekday and weekend graphs
illustrates that the weekend day peak is greater than any of the
weekday peaks.
In the composite weekday curve (Figure 2.1), two morning
peaks can be observed, the first between 6:00 and 8:00 A.M. and
the second between 9:30 A.M. and noon. It is possible to ob-
serve, by studying individual buildings, that particular sites fall
into one or the other of these two peaks. Some general knowl-
edge of the tenant populations may serve to explain this difference.
Buildings occupied by large numbers of working tenants and
middle-income populations appear to have the early morning peak;
buildings with large percentages of children fall into the later
morning peak (especially so during the summer period). Figures
2.2 and 2.3 clearly illustrate the seasonal variation in both the

Seasonal Variations, Weekend Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita

Figure 2.3
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.
Multifamily Buildings 23

usage patterns and consumption levels for summer, fall, winter,


and spring. Note that the highest-peaking level occurs during
winter weekends.

IDENTIFICATION OF DEMAND
The first step the designer must take in calculating demand is to
determine the demographic profile of the project and building
occupants. Different types of building occupants have been found
to have fairly predictable patterns of hot water consumption. Us-
ers can be divided into three categorieslow, medium, and
high-volume water consumers (LMH)as a function of the build-
ing and occupant demographics. Table 2.1 shows a variety of
occupant characteristics. One or some combination of these
should closely describe any particular multifamily building. For
example, a luxury condominium in an area inhabited predomi-
nantly by young couples will tend to fall into the all occupants
work category of low anticipated water consumption. By con-
trast, a low-income housing project will generally fall somewhere
between the low-income and no occupants work categories of
high-volume water consumption. Keep in mind that the presence
of an abundance of hot water consuming appliances, such as
washing machines or dishwashers, tends to increase hot water
consumption. Therefore, if the condominium in the above ex-
ample intended or allowed for the future installation of a washing
machine in each unit, its demographic category should be raised
from low to medium. It is up to the designer to ask the necessary
questions of the developer, architect, or building manager in or-
der to determine this category. Remember, in the face of
uncertainty, be conservative.
It is important to note that Table 2.1 represents a graduated
scale of residents use of DHW. Quite often a building is occupied
by people from more than one of the demographic categories given
in this table. In such a case, the designer should weight the
demographic breakdown to select a low, medium, or high factor.
After some experience with this methodology, the designer may
decide that some buildings fall between groupings and select a me-
dium-high or low-medium category. In such instances, the
designer can extrapolate from the values in Table 2.2.
The characteristic high population density in Table 2.1 is
sometimes overlookedand it shouldnt be. This characteristic
is important in the selection of the LMH factor and, thus, in sys-
tem sizing. Even though a buildings other demographic factors
24 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

might place it in a higher LMH factor category, the existence of a


high population density means a relatively lower factor (see Table
2.1). This factor must be weighted along with the other building
characteristics when choosing the sites other LMH factor. High
population density is a low factor because the number of end use
appliances (e.g., showers and faucets) are unaffected by the num-
ber of occupants in an apartment. A higher population density
will also result in a diversity effect.

Table 2.1 Occupant Demographic Characteristics


Demographic Characteristics LMH Factor
No occupants work (stay at home)
Public assistance and low income (mix)
Family and single-parent households (mix) High
High percentage of children
Low income

Families
Public assistance Medium
Singles
Single-parent households

Couples
High population density
Middle income
Seniors Low
One person works, 1 stays home
All occupants work

Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project.

DEMAND DETERMINATION
Once the LMH factor has been determined, values for hot water
demand and consumption can be selected from Table 2.2. Thus,
anticipated consumption values can be determined using the
known building population for intervals of 5 min, 15 min, 30
min, 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h. These values will be used later in selecting
and sizing domestic hot water equipment.
Multifamily Buildings 25

Table 2.2 Low, Medium, and High Guidelines:


Hot Water Demands and Use for
Multifamily Buildings
Peak 5 Min, Peak 15 Min, Peak 30 Min, Maximum H,
gal (L)/person gal (L)/person gal (L)/person gal (L)/person

Low 0.4 (1.5 ) 1.0 (4.0) 1.7 (6.5) 2.8 (10.5)


Medium 0.7 (2.6) 1.7 (6.4) 2.9 (11.0) 4.8 (18.0)
High 1.2 (4.5) 3.0 (11.5) 5.1(19.5) 8.5 (32.5)

Maximum 2 H, Maximum 3 H, Maximum Day, Average Day,


gal (L)/person gal (L)/person gal (L)/person gal (L)/person

Low 4.5 (17.0) 6.1 (23.0) 20.0 (76.0) 14.0 (54.0)


Medium 8.0 (31.0) 11.0 (41.0) 49.0 (185.0) 30.0 (113.6)
High 14.5 (55.0) 19.0 (72.0) 90.0 (340.0) 54.0 (205.0)
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.
Note: These volumes are for DHW delivered to the tap at 120F (49C).

Both research and practical experience in different areas of


North America indicate that there are geographical variances in
DHW use. There is, however, no distinct pattern that can be iden-
tified with the available data.
Note that the figures presented (in Table 2.2) are for central
systems. Individual apartment water heater systems are likely to
have lower levels of consumption. This is because individual apart-
ment units generally are set up as pay-as-you-go systems (with
the occupant paying directly for the energy used by the heater).
While there are no hard data on DHW systems on this issue,
there are numerous well-documented studies of other energy uses
that demonstrate that, once an apartment occupant has to pay
for what he or she uses, consumption decreases. In fact, studies
of conversions from electrical master metering to submetering in
multifamily buildings have shown that consumption decreases
between 20 and 30% when people must pay for what they use.1
The practice of defensive oversizing applied to the guidelines
given in Table 2.2 will only exaggerate the capital and energy
inefficiencies experienced in the past. It is therefore important
for the designer to recognize the inherent safety nets in the LMH
approach. First, and most important, we are using a buildings

1Hirschfeld, H.E., et al. 1996. Facilitating submetering implementation. Report


No. 96-7. Prepared for New York State Energy Research and Development Au-
thority.
26 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

maximum probable occupancy, which may never actually occur.


Second, we are designing a system with the capabilities to satisfy
the higher volume, short duration (near instantaneous) peaks
(as delineated in Table 2.2), which in reality only occur a limited
number of times during the year. Even if the system were not
able to satisfy those loads, the result would be occupants experi-
encing slightly lower-temperature hot water at their taps for some
short duration of time.

APPLICATION OF LMH VALUES


Once a portion of the range has been selected, the figures should
be converted into per apartment or per building gallonage (liter
usage) by multiplying them with maximum probable occupancy
levels, based on persons per apartment size/type. For example,
studios = 2 persons, 1-bedroom apartments = 3 persons, and 2-
bedroom apartments = 35 persons. These populations may be
dependent on local standards or regulations. Additionally, in or-
der to calculate building energy consumption for DHW or to
prepare energy budgets, the average daily figures can be con-
verted into per apartment or per building gallonage (liter usage)
by multiplying them with existing building occupancies.

PEAK DEMAND VS. AVERAGE DEMAND

Potential of Generating Storage


Figure 2.4 illustrates the actual consumption curve of a sample
building. The bottom line, 0.75 gal (2.84 L) represents average
consumption (for a 15-min period, the period for which all data
are taken). This is equivalent to leveling the buildings DHW con-
sumption across the entire day. Under one possible scenario, the
buildings DHW needs would be met by generating storage dur-
ing low-consumption periods (represented by the white areas
under the line), which would be used during peak times. The
other two lines illustrate levels of 10 and 25% excess capacity,
respectively.

Time of Day of Peak Flows


While flow curves show the general usage patterns of a building,
peak times and flows are used to identify demands on the boiler
or hot water heater more closely. Maximum 5, 15, 60, 120, and
Multifamily Buildings 27

Storage Potential Bldg 7 (Fall)


Gallons (Liters) per Occupied Apt. Weekday

Figure 2.4 Consumption curve.

180-min demand times occur essentially coincidentally during


both the weekend and weekday peaks. The concurrence of these
peaks justifies the use of the longer duration peak consumption
levels for storage models. The most frequent minimum 60-min
consumption periods occur at 4:00 A.M. on both weekdays and
weekend days. This demand period data should be used when
evaluating DHW system sizing and storage options.

Peak Demand and Average Demand


Five, 15, 60, 120, and 180-min maximum demand and hourly
average consumption figures may be used to examine peak de-
mand needs in contrast to total volume (average) consumption.
This type of analysis is useful in setting new system design and
sizing parameters and evaluating a mix of instantaneous genera-
tion and storage options. Monitored studies have revealed that,
in comparison to use in a maximum 60-min period, average hourly
28 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

consumption is only 42% of peak consumption. This suggests


the possibility of generating storage capacity to meet peak de-
mand during the hours of the day with below average demand.
Comparison of the 5 and 15-min peak periods demonstrates that
the highest (5-min) peak requires 40% of the DHW consumed
within the peak 15 min. Review of the 15 and 60-min peak peri-
ods reveals that the highest (15-min) peak is equal to one third of
the DHW consumed in the peak hour. Finally, there is slightly
(27%) more DHW consumed in the average hour than in the high-
est 15-min period of the day; this again makes a case for some
type of off-peak generation and storage strategy.2
Figure 2.5 illustrates that consumption during the peak
60-min period is 61% of consumption during the maximum
120-min period and that the volume of DHW used to satisfy the
120-min maximum demand is 75% of what is needed during
the peak 180-min span. In Figures 2.6 and 2.7 we can see how
all of the peak volumes contribute to the 1-h and 3-h peak de-
mand on the DHW generation and/or storage system. These
relationships can be used to model various configurations of hot
water supply system. As noted earlier, all these peak consump-
tion demands occur concurrently and must be considered in the
context of overall consumption patterns to further evaluate gen-
eration and storage options.

RETROFIT TO EXISTING SYSTEMS


(CUSTOMIZED SIZING)
If customizing is desired for an existing building, to select the
most appropriate system sizing levels it would be ideal to moni-
tor the current consumption for a short period. Research suggests
that the best time to conduct this monitoring in multifamily hous-
ing applications is during a series of anticipated winter weekend
peak periods. The design engineer should focus on and identify
the 2 to 3-h peak periods that generally occur between 10:00
A.M. and 2:00 P.M. A system designed to meet these demands
should satisfy all other year-round requirements. If this is not
possible or practical, use the guidelines in Table 2.2. The de-
signer should consult with the owner to determine if there have
been problems with the current system.

2Goldner and Price 1994.


Multifamily Buildings 29

Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Winter

Figure 2.5
Source: Goldner 1994, DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings.

Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Winter

Figure 2.6
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 420.
30 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW Consumption


Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Winter

Figure 2.7
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.110.

Research on Generation Rate and Storage Capacity


Recent research3 reveals that the most cost-efficient designs for
conventional water heating equipment in multifamily buildings
are based on either the 30/3 guideline (systems with genera-
tors and storage tanks) or the 5-min peak demand (instantaneous
systems). (If other advanced technologies that were not included
in the investigation are utilized, the 30/3 or 5-min peak demand
guidelines may not be appropriate. For example, hybrid systems,
combining both a conventional peaking water heating capabil-
ity with a baseload advanced high-efficency system, would tend
to use more storage and have lower heating rates.) According to
the 30/3 guideline, generator size is based on the peak 30-min
demand and storage tank volume is based on the maximum 3-h
demand. The research indicates that selection of either an in-
stantaneous hot water heater or a separate DHW boiler and
unfired storage tank configuration will produce the optimum mix
of low life cycle costs and high energy efficiencies.
The optimum configurations were found to be as follows:
1. For small to midsized buildings (up to 80 apartments), either a
separate DHW boiler with tank system sized to the 30/3 guide-
line, or an instantaneous system (based on the peak 5-min
demand).

3Goldner and Price 1996.


Multifamily Buildings 31

2. For mid to large-sized buildings (>75 apartments) and large


buildings (100+ apartments), which fall toward the upper end
of the LMH classification scale (i.e., toward the high cat-
egory), an instantaneous system.
3. For buildings with more than 125 apartments, a diversifica-
tion factor that lowers the probability of coincident demand
should also be employed.

EXAMPLES

Example 2.1 Traditional Multifamily Building


Consider a 58-unit apartment building where occupants are a
mix of families, singles, and middle-income couples and most of
the adults work. There is a public laundry in the basement with
a few washers, and the leases prohibit both washing machines
and dishwashers in the apartments (although conversations with
the owner confirm that a moderate number of people have such
appliances).

Step 1
Compute the maximum probable occupancy based on local
standards/expectations and conversations with the building
owner, manager, or architect.
For example, multiply the number of 3-bedroom apart-
ments (4) by the maximum number of persons in each
apartment (5) to determine the total number of persons (20).
This is then added to the resultant sum from all the other
apartment sizes, as follows.
Maximum No.
Apt. Size No. of Apts. Persons/Apt.

3-bedroom apts. 4 5 = 20
2-bedroom apts. 14 4 = 56
1-bedroom apts. 25 3.5 = 87.5
Studios 15 2.25 = 33.75
Building total (rounded) 198
persons

Note: The designer needs to determine the optimum usage and occupancy of
the facility. For example, in some facilities, the demographic profile may re-
quire using 3, 4, or 7 occupants per 3-bedroom apartment.
32 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Step 2
Determine the low, medium, or high usage factor (demographic
profile) of the project and building occupants from Table 2.1,
based on knowledge of the building, conversations with the
building owner, and observations. Consider the effect of ei-
ther currently installed or possible future additions of
appliances (e.g., washers), which might move a building to a
higher usage category.
Based on the information above, the medium usage fac-
tor is selected.

Step 3
Estimate the DHW consumption. To estimate how much hot
water is used in a building for energy consumption or sav-
ings calculations, use the LMH factor and the average day
hot water value in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines). If the building
is existing, substitute the maximum probable occupancy from
Step 1 with the actual current (or estimated) occupancy level.
Current
LMH No. of Demand System
Factor People Category Load
Average day:
Medium 153 30.0 gal/capita = 4590 gal/day
(113.55 L/capita) (17 373.15
L/day)

Step 4
Size the equipment. Follow Steps A and B, below, for either
Instantaneous Systems or Generation and Storage Sys-
tems, depending on the equipment used.

Instantaneous systems

For either an instantaneous, DHW-only system or a tankless coil


in a combination heating DHW boiler, follow the two steps below.
First find the system load in gallons per hour (gph) (liters per
hour [L/h]) based on the peak 5-min demand. Next, convert this
to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating. This can then be used to select equip-
ment.
Multifamily Buildings 33

Step A
Compute the system load using the LMH factor and the 5-min
peak demand values in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines).

No.
LMH Peak No. Demand Periods/ System
Factor of People Category H Load

Peak 5 min:
Medium 198 0.7 gal/capita 12 = 1663 gph
(2.65 L/capita) or 27 gpm
(6294.46 L/h
or 1.75 L/sec)

Step B
Convert the system load to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating.

System Conversion Temp. 1/Boiler Heater


Load Rise Efficiencya Input
1663 8.33 90F 1 = 1,558,439
gph lb/gal (50K) 0.8 Btu/h
(6.30 (4188.32 (1 649 151
m3/h) kJ/m3) kJ/h)
aThe efficiency can be represented as either a decimal (as shown) or a
percentage, e.g., 80%.

Instantaneous DHW-only heater


If sizing an instantaneous DHW-only heater, the 1,558,439
Btu/h (1 649 151 kJ/h) should be the size of the DHW heater.
(Note: A higher efficiency should be used for sizing an instan-
taneous heater; use 85% or the efficiency specified in the
equipment documentation.)

Combination heating/DHW boiler


When sizing the tankless coil of a combination heating/DHW
boiler, the calculated recovery rate is used to size the coil.
The additional load capacity for the DHW system must be
added to the space heating load to select the size of the com-
bination space heating/domestic hot water boiler.
34 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Generation and storage systems

For a system with a mix of generation and storage, use the fol-
lowing two steps: Calculate the generator size based on twice the
peak 30-min period to get a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating, then calculate
the storage tank volume based on the maximum 3-h demand.

Step A
Compute the system load using the peak 30-min and maxi-
mum 3-h hot water values in Table 2.2.

No.
LMH No. Demand Periods/ System
Factor People Category H Load
Peak 30 min:
Medium 198 2.9 gal/capita 2 = 1148 gph
(10.98 L/capita) (4348.08 L/h)

LMH No. Demand Storage


Factor People Category Volume
Maximum 3 h:
Medium 198 11.0 gal/capita = 2178 gal
(41.64 L/capita) (8244.73 L)

Step B
Convert the load into equipment ratings.

System Temp. 1/Boiler Heater


Load Conversion Rise Efficiencya Input
1148 8.33 90F 1 = 1,075,820
gph lb/gal (50K) 0.80 Btu/h
(4.35 (4188.32 (1 017 362
m3/h) kJ/m3) kJ/h)
aThe efficiency can be represented as either a decimal (as shown) or a per-
centage, e.g., 80%.

The 1,075,820 Btu/h (1 017 362 kJ/h) is the size of the


hot water heater. This heater should then be used to supply
2100 gal (7948.50 L) in unfired storage tanks.
Multifamily Buildings 35

Example 2.2 Special Use Housing Facility


There is a residential building in New York City that houses the
families of children who have cancer and are receiving treatment
at area hospitals. There are 88 residential studios, each with a
single bath. There are 18 kitchen units, which are centrally located
for shared use by the families. Each unit has a sink and
dishwasher. There is a washing machine on each of the occupied
floors. The families who occupy this residence do so because they
cannot afford to stay in more expensive accommodations. Often,
a child is accompanied by a single parent and together they occupy
one studio for the duration of the treatment program.
Calculate the 5-min, 15-min, 30-min, 1-h, 2-h, and 3-h con-
sumption. Plot the demand vs. time curve.

Solution
Since this demographic group includes occupants who presently
do not work (they are away from home) and has a high percentage
of children, it definitely falls into the high demand category
according to Table 2.1. There are 88 units with 2 occupants per
unit, so the total population is 176 people. According to Table
2.2 the 5-min peak, 15-min peak, 30-min peak, 1-h peak, 2-h
peak, and 3-h peak demand factors are 1.2, 3.0, 5.1, 8.5, 14.5,
and 19 gal (4.5, 11.4, 19.3, 32.2, 54.9, and 71.9 L), respectively.
Therefore, the anticipated demand is as follows:

Demand No. Demand Demand


Category People Factor (gal) (gal)

5-min peak 176 1.2 = 211


15-min peak 176 3.0 = 528
30-min peak 176 5.1 = 898
1-h peak 176 8.5 = 1496
2-h peak 176 14.5 = 2552
3-h peak 176 19 = 3344

Demand No. Demand Demand


Category People Factor (L) (L)

5-min peak 176 4.5 = 792


15-min peak 176 11.4 = 2 006.4
30-min peak 176 19.3 = 3 396.8
1-h peak 176 32.2 = 5 667.2
2-h peak 176 54.9 = 9 662.4
3-h peak 176 71.9 = 12 654.4
36 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The equipment selected must be capable of supplying this


peak load (see Figure 2.8) by means of either combined storage
(first draw) capacity and recovery or instantaneous generation.

POSSIBLE TRAPS
In order to avoid falling into a trap that leads to miscalculating
water demand, the designer must try to learn all of the unique
facets of a multifamily building. This is generally accomplished
by compiling a list of questions for the owner/manager/architect
during a project brainstorming session. Does the building have a
central laundry? If so, the designer should select the next higher
LMH value than otherwise would have been selected. Does the
building have retail spaces that might be used in the future for a
restaurant or other large water consuming application? If so, will
the building be obligated by lease to provide hot water for the
tenant? Would such a provision be a desirable selling point for
the retail space to the owner? The demand will then have to be
increased accordingly. For large restaurants or laundries, the

Peak Demand Curve

Figure 2.8
Source: Goldner and Price 1996, p. 8.
Multifamily Buildings 37

resulting flow should be added to the buildings demand. Do ten-


ants pay for the utilities used to generate hot water? If so, hot
water consumption might decrease. Do water conserving laws
that restrict water flow exist in the area (as they do in New York)?
Or is there an abundance of water in the area (such as there is in
Chicago) with showers allowed to flow more water? (The designer
should review local codes concerning water conservation require-
ments that may impact the hot water demand.) Is this a building
with European occupants who tend to bathe rather than shower?
(Bathing is believed to consume considerably more water than
showering.) This is the sort of creative thinking required to accu-
rately gauge water demand. Remember one thing especially: People
never complain about having too much hot water, but we do not
want to oversize the equipment as this saddles the owner/opera-
tor with both increased initial equipment costs (resulting from
larger-than-necessary equipment) and higher annual energy/op-
erating costs (resulting from lower, seasonal efficiencies due to
increased cycling of equipment operating farther from full load).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, S. C., and J. P. Kokko. 1988. Estimating hot water use in
existing commercial buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 94(2): 312.
Ciz, J. B. 1986. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five apart-
ment buildings (Part IInstallation and commissioning). OHRD Rpt.
8677K.
Decioco, J., and G. Dutt. 1986. Domestic hot water service in Lumley
Homes: A comparison of energy audit diagnosis with instrumented
analysis. Proceedings of the 1986 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily build-
ings. ASHRAE Transactions. 100(1): 147165.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. Energy use and DHW consumption research project:
Final reportPhase 1. Report no. 9419. Prepared for New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1994. Domestic hot water loads, sys-
tem sizing and selection for multifamily buildings. Proceedings of
the 1994 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1996. DHW modeling: System sizing
and selection criteria, Phase 2Interim project report no. 1. Prepared
for New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
Milligan, N. H. 1987. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five
38 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

apartment buildings, Part IIAnalysis and results. OHRD report


8753K.
Pearlman, M., and N. H. Milligan. 1988. Hot water and energy use in
apartment buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. Vol. 94, Pt. 1.
Taylor, H., and F. Force. 1986. Patterns of domestic hot water
consumption for a multifamily building. Proceedings of the 1986
ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishmentsPhase II final report.
American Gas Association Laboratories, ASHRAE research project
600RP.
Vine, E., R. Diamond, and R. Szydlowski. 1987. Domestic hot water
consumption in four low income apartment buildings. Energy. Vol.
12, No. 6.
Werden, R. G., and L. G. Spielvogel. 1969. Sizing of service water heating
equipment in commercial and institutional buildings. Report No. 2,
Project RP61. New York: Edison Electric Institute.
Dor mitories
Dormitories 39

3 DORMITORIES

INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers two types of buildings classified as dormito-
ries. The first type is a student dormitory or similar housing that
has a nonstructured use of hot water. The second type is an
institutional type dormitory, similar to that at a military school,
that has a structured hot water use.

STUDENT DORMITORIES
The peak demand for hot water for this type of building is more
spread out. Students tend to create schedules based upon when
their classes are held. Additional hot water demand that could
be anticipated is laundromat type clothes washers and possibly
a residential type kitchen. This type of building tends to have
multistory units.

Example 3.1 Student Dormitory


The dormitory consists of two buildings four stories high joined
by a high-ceiling commons, which encloses a basketball court
and a tennis court. The major sleeping areas are arranged around
156 three-bedroom suites with 60 double rooms and 12 single
bedrooms for resident advisers. Each room and suite has a bath-
room and each suite has a kitchen alcove. There are kitchen
alcoves and coin-operated laundry facilities located on each floor.
On the ground floor there are food kiosks and a computer lab.
The buildings have a mirror configuration with half of the suites

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
40 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

and rooms in each building. The laundry facility on each floor


consists of two washers and two dryers for a total of eight wash-
ers in each building.

Assumptions

1. The food kiosks provide their own water heating when the
spaces are leased out. These food venders are similar to those
found in airports and mall food courts.
2. There is a central mechanical space that serves both build-
ings where the water heaters and storage tanks are located.
3. A separate circulated hot water system is required for each
building.
4. A minimum of two water heaters are required, with each hav-
ing 65% of both buildings required capacity. This allows the
building to operate with minimum disruptions if one heater
is down for repairs.
5. As the coin-operated laundry facilities are an integral part of
the building, the hot water required is calculated as part of
the central system.
6. The water distribution temperature used is 120F (49C). Pres-
sure balance or thermostatic shower valves are used at each
bathroom group.
7. The suites have shower/bathtub combinations and the double
and single rooms have only showers. We will use the demand
for showers in our calculation.
8. Each building houses 300 students and advisors.
9. The flow from fixtures is as follows:
Showers = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Kitchen sinks = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Lavatories = 1.5 gpm (0.095 L/s)
10. An outside laundry service is available to students, and some
students will bring their laundry home. This will reduce the
demand on the coin-operated clothes washers. Laundry deter-
gents today are designed to get clothes clean using only cold
water and many items are recommended to be washed in cold
water. This reduces the demand for hot water for clothes wash-
ing. For this application we calculate that each wash cycle will
use no more than 10 gal (37.9 L) for washing and 10 gal (37.9 L)
for rinsing for a total of 20 gal (75.7 L). Each machine is calcu-
lated to go through two cycles during the peak design hour.
Dor mitories
Dormitories 41

11. Students tend to wash dirty dishes on an infrequent basis.


Therefore, the dishwasher load is lumped in with the kitchen
sink by increasing the demand from 10 gph (37.9 L/h) to 15
gph (56.8 L/h).

Fixtures each building

Showers Lavatories Kitchen Dish-


Sinks washers
Suites = 78 78 78 78 78
Double rooms = 30 30 30
Single rooms = 6 6 6
Public restrooms 4
Floor kitchen areas = 4 4 4

114 118 82 82
Coin-operated
clothes washers = 8
Mop sinks = 4

Calculations1

Showers 114 30 gph = 3420 gph


Lavatories 118 2 gph = 236 gph
Kitchen sinks 82 15 gph = 1230 gph
Mop sinks 4 20 gph = 80 gph
Gross demand 4966 gph
Demand factor 0.30
1490 gph
Clothes washer: 8 20 gal 2 cycles/h = 320 gph
Heater sizing: 320 gph + 1490 gph = 1810 gph demand
Tank storage: Using a percent useable storage capacity of 80%,
the demand is, thus, 1810 gph 0.80 = 2263 gal.
(Showers 114 114 L/h = 12 996 L/h
Lavatories 118 7.6 L/h = 896.8 L/h
Kitchen sinks 82 56.8 L/h = 4657.6 L/h
Mop sinks 4 75.7 L/h = 302.8 L/h
Gross demand 18 853.2 L/h
Demand factor 0.30
5656 L/h

1 Calculations for showers, lavatories, and mop sinks are based on ASPE Data
Book, looseleaf Chap. 4, Service Hot Water Systems, Table 7.
42 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Clothes washer: 8 75.7 L 2 cycles/h = 1211.2 L/h


Heater sizing: 1211.2 L/h + 5656 L/h = 6867.2 L/h demand
Tank storage: Using a percent useable storage capacity of 80%,
the demand is, thus, 6867.2 L/h 0.80 = 8584 L.)

Student dormitory conclusions

1. Remember the calculated demand of 2130 gph is for only


half the building. The total building recovery demand is 4260
gph and 5330 gal storage.
2. The amount of the storage required indicates a separate
water heater and storage tank arrangement.
3. The water heaters should each have a 4260 gph 0.65 =
2970 gph (16 126 L/h 0.65 = 10 482 L/h) recovery.
4. The circulation system shall be arranged in a way that elimi-
nates stratification in the storage tanks.
5. Piping arrangement and valving should be set up to isolate
water heaters for maintenance purposes.
6. The path of access to water heaters should be reviewed to
ensure that it allows replacement in the future.

INSTITUTIONAL DORMITORIES
The hot water requirements for this type of building are based
upon the shower and lavatory use occurring during a very short
period of time because of schedules. Any additional hot water
demand will be from kitchens, dining facilities, and possibly a
laundry. These specialized areas should have a separate water
heating system. (Refer to the chapter Laundries in this manual.)
Note that there will be a short time in the morning (2 h) and that
evening will be longer but less intense (4 to 5 h).

Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory


The building selected is a two-story coeducational unit with hous-
ing for 272 students and advisors. The arrangement is for 68
four-person bedroom groups, each of which will have 1 shower
and 2 lavatories requiring hot water. There will be 30 one-person
advisor bedrooms, each with a shower and lavatory. A parlor
area is provided with a connected residential kitchen area with
separate public toilets. A central kitchen, dining area, and laun-
Dor mitories
Dormitories 43

dry are provided in a separate building with a separate domestic


water heating system.

Assumptions

1. Shower use will tend to be quick, in and out, with large num-
bers of people using hot water at the same time.
2. The peak hour usage will be early in the morning and after
5:00 P.M. This allows a long recovery time. The time selected
for this example is 4 h (see note above).
3. The kitchen sink/dishwasher and mop sinks will not be used
during the peak hour.
4. Recovery capacity and 80% of storage will have to meet total
demand.
5. Recommend two water heaters with a capacity of 65% of the
demand calculation.

Calculations

Student showers: 68 heads 7 min


4 persons 2.5 gpm = 4760 gph
Advisor showers: 30 heads 7 min
2.5 gpm = 525 gph
Lavatories: 170 fixtures 2 gph
0.30 usage factor = 102 gph
Total peak hour demand 5285 gph
5285 gph
= 1321 gph minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 1321 gph 0.65 = 858 gph each heater
Storage tank sizing: 5285 gal 1321 gph = 3964 gal storage
required
(Student showers: 68 heads 7 min
4 persons 0.158 L/sec
60 = 18 050 L/h
Advisor showers: 30 heads 7 min
0.158 L/sec 60 = 1991 L/h
Lavatories: 170 fixtures 7.57 L/h
0.30 usage factor = 386 L/h
Total peak hour demand 20 427 L/h
44 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

20 427 L/h
= 5107 L/h minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 5107 L/h 0.65 = 3320 L/h each heater
Storage tank sizing: 20 427 L 3320 L/h = 17 107 L storage
required)

Institutional dormitory conclusions

1. The amount of storage required indicates a separate water


heater and storage tank arrangement.
2. The circulation system shall be arranged in a way that elimi-
nates stratification in the storage tanks.
3. The piping arrangement and valving should be set up to iso-
late water heaters for maintenance purposes.
4. The path of access to the water heaters should be reviewed to
ensure that it allows replacement in the future.
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 45

4 ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY
SCHOOLS

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for elementary and secondary schools.

TYPES OF SCHOOL
The terms elementary and secondary schools cover grades K
through 12. School districts have different ways of grouping
students, especially in the middle years. This middle group may
be known as either junior high school or middle school (see
Table 4.1).

Table 4.1 School Grade Divisions

Grade Level
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Elementary Junior high Senior high


Elementary Middle school Senior high
Elementary Junior high Senior high
Elementary Senior high

The name is not important in itself but may be an initial


guide to the types of activity that affect hot water requirements.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
46 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

For example, elementary schools generally do not have showers.


Middle, junior, and senior high schools generally have showers
for gym classes as well as sports teams that use the showers
before and after regular school hours. High schools and middle
schools may also have swimming pools.
The designation of the school may also be a first indication of
the areas of the facility in which to expect hot water require-
ments. Rooms that usually get hot water, beside the kitchen and
laundry, are the health clinic, teachers workrooms, art room,
teachers lounge, principals toilet, janitors closets, and special
education rooms, which often have showers and washing ma-
chines. Science rooms, classrooms, and student toilets are areas
that may have hot water but often do not. Always check with the
user. (See Table 4.2.)

Table 4.2 Potential Areas of Hot Water Usage

Type of School

Area Elementary Jr./Middle High

Classroom toilets X
Kitchen X X X
Laundry X X X
Art room X X X
Science room X X X
Health clinic X X X
Teachers lounge X X X
Teachers workroom X X X
Principals toilet X X X
Student toilet rooms X X X
Special ed. room X X X
Showers X X
Car wash X
Shop room X
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 47

INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents.
2. The architect.
3. School staff.
4. School district construction personnel.
5. School district design criteria and manuals.
6. School district maintenance personnel.
7. Survey of existing and similar facilities.

Information will be needed to determine:


1. Which fixtures require hot water.
2. Kitchen/food service requirements.
3. Shower requirements.
4. School population.
5. After hours requirements.
6. Hot water temperature requirements.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The criteria for determining the hot water demand are presented
as if one central system were being designed. In fact, the best
choice may be to use multiple systems. This may be necessitated
by criteria calling for a dedicated kitchen water heater or by iso-
lated small loads.
It is not the intent of this chapter to go into detail about the
selection of water heating equipment or the hot water delivery
system. An initial concept must be established for the purposes
of grouping the load and planning for the location of equipment.

KITCHEN AND FOOD SERVICE


Kitchen requirements, including dishwashers, generally are de-
termined by the owner, the architect, and the kitchen design
48 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

consultant. A basic consideration is whether the kitchen is a


full-service kitchen or merely a warming or holding kitchen. School
criteria may call for the kitchen to have a separate water heater.
The following should be determined for a full-service kitchen op-
eration:
1. Dishwashing requirements. (Model number and hot water
requirement for the dishwasher.)
2. Rinse and sterilization requirements. If done with 180F (60C)
water, is the booster heater provided at the dishwasher or at
a remote location?
3. Sinks and other kitchen hot water users, such as a can wash,
steamers, and rinse sprays.
4. Hours of operation. Are breakfast and lunch both served?
Does the kitchen operate during evenings or weekends?
5. Is any disposable table service used? This will affect the du-
ration of dishwashing. The dishwasher may be used only for
silverware and trays.

SHOWERS
The shower load is often the most significant hot water require-
ment in secondary schools and should be carefully evaluated.
The quantity of showers is usually determined by the schools
criteria, the architects design, and code requirements.
Beyond the number of showers, the hot water requirement
can be affected by such things as:
1. Gym class size and schedule.
2. Whether students are required to take showers.
3. Time period available for showers.
4. What temperature(s) are required.
5. Maximum flow of shower heads.
6. Special fixtures in the space (e.g., those for hydrotherapy).
7. Types of extracurricular activity (sports, etc.).

SCHOOL POPULATION
For new schools, the populationthe total number of students and
staffis usually given in the design criteria for the school. Other-
wise, it can be obtained from the school district or the architect or
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 49

by totaling the number of students allotted to each classroom. If the


water heating system is also to serve the future expansion of the
school, then the future population should be estimated.

CALCULATING THE HOT WATER DEMAND


Hot water demand for schools can be divided into three catego-
ries: general purpose, kitchen, and shower. It is important to
determine which, if any, of these loads occur at the same time
and what the duration of the overlap is. As a general rule, if there
is a kitchen, a system sized for the kitchen demand may also
handle the general purpose demand. If there are also showers,
the system must be sized for any concurrent shower and kitchen
load. If there is no concurrent use, the system should be sized to
handle the larger of the two, in which case it will also take care of
the general purpose load.

General Purpose Demand


Tabulate the quantities of each type of fixture. Using Table 4.3,
multiply the number of fixtures by the gallons (liters) per hour
for each and total the loads. This total will be the demand in
gallons (liters) per hour.

Table 4.3 Hot Water Demand per Fixture for Schools


Demanda (at 140F [60C] Final Temp.)
Fixture (gph/fixture) (L/h/fixture)
Lavatory (private) 2 7.57
Lavatory (public) 4 15.14
Dishwasher (residential type) 20 75.70
Sink (classroom, workroom, science room) 8 30.28
Clothes washer (residential type) 30 113.55
Service sink/mop basinb 20 75.70
Source: Reprinted with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refriger-
ating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers from the 1987 ASHRAE Handbook.
Modifications by the Washington, D.C., ASPE chapter.
a Demands shown represent the quantity of 140F (60C) water required to
produce the desired usable water temperature at the fixture.
bHot water demand for general purpose service sinks and mop basins in schools
is not included when supplied from the general purpose water heaters. This de-
mand does not usually occur simultaneously with peak demands from toilets and
kitchens.
50 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Kitchen Demand
Using the data in Table 4.4, calculate the kitchen demand in the
same manner used for the general purpose demand. The domi-
nant factor influencing the kitchen load will be the dishwasher
rinse requirement. If this is not available, the hot water require-
ment for the dishwasher can be estimated from Table 4.5.

Table 4.4 General Purpose Hot Water


Requirements of Kitchen Equipment
Demand, 140F (60C)
Type of Equipment (gph) (L/h)
Vegetable sink 45 170.33
Single compartment 30 113.55
Double compartment 60 227.10
Triple-pot sink 90 340.65
Prescrapper (open type) 180 681.30
Prerinse (hand operated) 45 170.33
Prerinse (closed type) 240 908.40
Recirculating prerinse 40 151.40
Lavatory or hand sink 5 18.93
Source: Dunn et al. 1959. American Gas Association.

Table 4.5 Rinse Water (180195F)


Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines
Dishmachine Dishmachine Flow Rate Consumption
Type Size (gpm) (gph)
Door type 16 x 16 in. 6.94 69
Inches rack 18 x 18 in. rack 8.67 87
20 x 20 in. rack 10.4 104
Undercounter type 5 70
Conveyor type Single tank 6.94 416
Multiple tank Dishes flat 5.78 347
Dishes inclined 4.62 277
Silverware washers 7 45
Utensil washers 8 75
Make-up water
requirements
180F on certain
conveyor types 2.31 139

Note: Based on water pressure of 20 psig at equipment. Based on operation at 100%


mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual de-
mand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 51

Table 4.5(M) Rinse Water (8291C)


Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines
Dishmachine Dishmachine Flow Rate Consumption
Type Size (L/sec) (L/h)
Door type 406 406 mm 0.44 261.17
Millimeters rack 457 457 mm rack 0.55 329.3
508 508 mm rack 0.66 393.64
Undercounter type 0.32 264.95
Conveyor type Single tank 0.44 1574.56
Multiple tank Dishes flat 0.36 1313.4
Dishes inclined 0.29 1048.45
Silverware washers 0.44 170.33
Utensil washers 0.50 283.88
Make-up water
requirements
82C on certain
conveyor types 0.15 526.12

Note: Based on water pressure of 140 kPa at equipment. Based on operation at 100%
mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual de-
mand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.

Shower Load
The shower load is derived by multiplying the number of shower-
heads by the flow rate per shower by the amount of time the
showerheads are used per hour. The load is expressed in gallons
(liters) per hour. Generally, the water to showers is tempered by
mixing the hot water with cold water; therefore, the actual re-
quirement for hot water will be only a portion of the total shower
flow. See Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed water tempera-
ture formula.
52 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

EXAMPLES

Example 4.1 Elementary School


This school is not equipped with showers but does have a small
(lunch only) cafeteria with a food preparation area. The general
purpose demand is created by the following fixtures:

No. of Demanda Total


Fixture Fixtures (gph/fixture) (gph)
Lavatory (private) 10 2 20
Lavatory (public) 50 4 200
Sink (classroom) 20 8 160
380b
aFrom Table 4.3.
bMop sinks not included.

No. of Demanda Total


Fixture Fixtures (L/h/fixture) (L/h)

Lavatory (private) 10 7.57 75.7


Lavatory (public) 50 15.14 757
Sink (classroom) 20 30.28 605.6
1438.3b
aFrom Table 4.3.
bMop sinks not included.

The kitchen demand is created by the following equipment:

No. of Demanda Total


Equipment Pieces (gph) (gph)

Vegetable sink 1 45 45
Triple-compartment sink 1 90 90
Prerinse 1 45 45
Hand sink 2 5 10
Dishwasher (door type) 1 69 69
259
aFrom Table 4.4.
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 53

No. of Demanda Total


Equipment Pieces (L/h) (L/h)

Vegetable sink 1 170.33 170.33


Triple-compartment sink 1 340.65 340.65
Prerinse 1 170.33 170.33
Hand sink 2 18.93 37.86
Dishwasher (door type) 1 261.17 261.17
980.34
aFrom Table 4.4.

The designer has decided with this type of system to use one
or more water heater(s) to provide domestic hot water for the
school. Since the kitchen requires 140F (60C) water, the heater(s)
will raise the temperature of the water to this level and reduce it
to 110F (43C) for general usage. Using the mixed water tem-
perature formula found in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7), we calculate
the amount of 140F (60C) water needed to meet the general
usage demand:

(110 40)
= 0.70
(140 40)

[ (43 4)
(60 4)
= 0.70]

0.70 380 gph = 266 gph of 140F water

(0.70 1483.3 L/h = 1038.31 L/h of 60C water)

Although the general demand is slightly higher than the


kitchen demand, the diversity of the general demand is such that
the kitchen demand should be the factor governing the sizing of
the water heater(s). For this example, the designer has selected a
heater that has a storage capacity of approximately half of the
kitchen demand with a recovery rate approximately equal to the
kitchen demand.
54 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Example 4.2 High School


This school is a fully equipped high school with locker rooms,
science rooms, lounges, shops, and a major kitchen. With all the
activities that occur at this school, concurrent loads can be ex-
pected and must be taken into consideration when designing a
system. The first step is to determine the domestic hot water
demands that are generated in each category.

General purpose demand

No. of Demanda Total


Fixture Fixtures (gph/fixture) (gph)
Lavatory (private) 12 2 24
Lavatory (public) 60 4 240
Sink 25 8 200
Dishwasher (residential) 2 20 40
Clothes washer (residential) 3 30b 90
594c
60b
534
aFrom Table 4.3.
bOnly one of the clothes washers will be used during school hours; therefore, the
total demand can be reduced by 60 gph.
cMop sinks not included.

No. of Demanda Total


Fixture Fixtures (L/h/fixture) (L/h)
Lavatory (private) 12 7.57 90.84
Lavatory (public) 60 15.14 908.4
Sink 25 30.28 757.00
Dishwasher (residential) 2 75.7 151.4
Clothes washer (residential) 3 113.55b 340.65
2248.29c
227.00b
2021.29
aFrom Table 4.3.
bOnly one of the clothes washers will be used during school hours; therefore, the
total demand can be reduced by 227.00 L/h.
cMop sinks not included.
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 55

Kitchen demand

Normal operating hours, not serving hours, are from 10:00 A.M.
until 3:00 P.M.

No. of Demanda Total


Equipment Pieces (gph) (gph)
Vegetable sink 2 45 90
Double-compartment sink 1 60 60
Triple-compartment sink 1 90 90
Prerinse 2 45 90
Hand sink 2 5 10
Bar sink 1 30 30
Dishwasher (conveyor type) 1 416 416
786
aFrom Tables 4.4 and 4.5.

No. of Demanda Total


Equipment Pieces (L/h) (L/h)
Vegetable sink 2 170.33 340.66
Double compartment sink 1 227.1 227.1
Triple compartment sink 1 340.65 340.65
Prerinse 2 170.33 340.66
Hand sink 2 18.93 37.86
Bar sink 1 113.55 113.55
Dishwasher (conveyor type) 1 1574.56 1574.56
2975.04
aFrom Tables 4.4 and 4.5.

Shower demand

Showers are taken after gym classes and after athletic team prac-
tices.
The total number of showers is 23. Each shower head has a
flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). A worst-case scenario for usage
is estimated to be 5 showers per hour per head for 6 min each.

23 heads 2.5 gpm 6 min 5 showers/h = 1725 gph

(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 6 min 5 showers/h


56 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

= 6624 L/h)
(This scenario would happen only after school when the athletic
teams have completed their practices.)
Possibly a better and more normal scenario to look at is the
usage after gym classes. Since time is very limited, only a few
quick showers will be taken.

23 heads 2.5 gpm 3 min 2 showers/h = 345 gph

(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 3 min 2 showers/h


= 1324.8 L/h)

System selection factors

At this point in the design, it must be determined how the do-


mestic hot water is to be distributed. For this example, the designer
has decided to provide two separate systems, one for the kitchen
at 140F (60) and one for the general and shower demands at
110F (43C). Since 110F (43C) water will be supplied to the
showers and a normal shower is taken at an average of 102F
(39C), the designer can compute the actual hot water usage for
the showers using the mixed water temperature formula found
in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7).

(102 40)
= 0.89
(110 40)

1725 gph 0.89 = 1535 gph

345 gph 0.89 = 307 gph

[ (39 4)
(43 4)
= 0.89

6624 L/h 0.89 = 5895.36 L/h

1324.8 L/h 0.89 = 1179.07 L/h ]


As previously noted, the water heater(s) for the kitchen de-
mand will serve only that demand. Therefore, there are no loads
concurrent with other demands. If the heater(s) served all de-
mands, the kitchen demand and the normal shower demand
would have to be combined. The following shows how the equip-
ment would be sized in this case:
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 57

Kitchen demand
Size the storage capacity of the water heater(s) for approxi-
mately half of the demand and the recovery rate for
approximately 100% of the demand.

General and shower demand


There are a few factors that must be taken into account when
sizing the equipment for this demand. One is the concur-
rence of the general demand and the normal shower demand.
Another is the large shower demand after athletic teams prac-
tice plus the use of two clothes washers concurrent with this
demand. (The length of time for heater recovery can be longer
in this case, since there is all night to recover the tank.) For
this example, the designer has decided to provide storage ca-
pacity of approximately 50% of the total of the general demand,
534 gph (2021.29 L/h), and normal shower demand, 307
gph (1179.07 L/h), and have recovery capacity of approxi-
mately 100% of this total demand.

REFERENCES
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water sys-
tems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishments. ASHRAE Research
Project No. RP-600.
Hotels and Motels 59

5
INTRODUCTION
HOTELS AND
MOTELS

The hot water demand for a hotel/motel depends on the facilitys


type of occupancy and the guest room, food service, and laundry
demands. Occasionally, there also will be a health club involved.
These variables are discussed below. It is the responsibility of
the designer to determine these variables through the applica-
tion of engineering principles and by asking the appropriate
questions of the owners/operators of the hotel or motel.

HOTEL AND MOTEL CLASSIFICATION


A hotel or motel is classified according to its construction, its
location, and the intent of the owners. The designer must do the
required research to determine the appropriate classification.
The following classifications are given for clarification and
reference.

Convention Hotel or Motel


This type of facility has an adequate number of guest rooms,
meeting rooms, ballrooms, food service, etc., to support large
groups with common schedules making high shower demands
within a short period of time a real possibility.
This classification also applies to any hotel or motel in close
proximity to such a facility. If such is the case, the hotel or motel

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
60 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

owners should be contacted and asked if they wish to have a


domestic water heating system capable of meeting convention
demand.

Business Travelers Hotel or Motel


It has been estimated that 45 to 50% of all hotel and motel busi-
ness fits into this category, and the percentage increases each
year. Owners catering to this group select locations favorable to
business travelers, and the better ones select room furnishings
to meet their needs. The presence of desk phones and phones by
the bed is one indication of the hotel/motels intended primary
use. The owners should be asked to verify their intended occu-
pancy.

Resort Hotel or Motel


This type of facility is found in or adjacent to locations that at-
tract large numbers of people for the purposes of enjoyment. Some
typical attractions are theme parks, mountains, beaches, and
racetracks. Although most resort facilities have in common a rea-
sonably long period of peak demand because their guests lack
common time tables, you have to be careful. Facilities near race
tracks and theme parks, for instance, are subject to short de-
mand periods. If there is any doubt about this, the designer should
ask the owners.

General Occupancy Hotel or Motel


This type of facility is usually a mix of the other three
classifications, the effect of which is the lengthening of the peak
demand. An example of this type of facility is a hotel or motel in a
reasonably large town that draws people for many reasons. It
does not, however, have the number of meeting rooms necessary
to support a full convention occupancy, and it has no ballrooms.

GUEST ROOM DEMAND

Questions and Assumptions

1. How many guest rooms are there?


2. What type of occupancy does the facility serve?
Hotels and Motels 61

3. What is the average occupancy per room expected during peak


occupancy?
The owners can provide the best answer to this question. If
they are unable to provide the information, the following assump-
tions may be used.
Convention hotel or motel: 1.5 to 2.0 persons per room.
Business travelers hotel or motel (urban): 1.5 to 2.0 per-
sons per room.
Business travelers hotel or motel (nonurban): 1.25 to 1.75
persons per room.
Resort hotel or motel: 2.5 persons per room.
Resort suite/condo hotel: 2.5 to 4.0 persons per suite.
General occupancy hotel or motel: 1.5 to 2.0 persons per
room.
4. What will the peak demand period be?
Lacking other information, the following assumptions may
be considered applicable:
Convention hotel or motel: 1-h peak.
Business travelers hotel or motel: 1-h peak.
Resort hotel or motel: 3-h peak.
General occupancy hotel or motel: 2-h peak.
5. What will be the greatest contributor to the guest room de-
mand?
The shower demand is almost always the greatest contribu-
tor to guest room demand. Some small factor can be assumed for
lavatory demand. One significant additional load is the hot tub
or whirlpool bath. If the facility under consideration has hot tubs
or whirlpool baths, it is essential to ask the owners:
What is the fill capacity?
What temperature must be maintained?
Will the tubs have built-in heaters to maintain the desired
temperature, or will the temperature have to be maintained
by the occasional introduction of hot water?
The designer also will have to make an assumption about the
percentage of tubs that will be in use during the peak de-
mand period. The owners should evaluate this assumption.
6. What percentage of guests will shower during any given peak
demand period?
62 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

One number that may be considered is 70%. In situations


where the peak demand period is 2 h, consider 70% for the
entire period, then use 70% of that number for the peak hour.
The 70% estimate is an assumption based on various pre-
mises. For example, in a convention hotel there will be
scheduled events; for business travelers there are normal
business hours. Apply the same logic for 3-h peak demand
periods.
7. What is the maximum flow potential of the shower heads?
8. What is the average duration of a guest shower?
In a hotel or motel, 5 min should be a reasonable assump-
tion.
9. How much hot water should be stored?
This is a value judgment based on the recovery chosen by the
designer and the estimate of simultaneous shower useboth
of which are affected by the classification and location of the
facility. If its decided to provide recovery equal to the full
peak demand, then it seems reasonable to accommodate those
times when an inordinate number of people shower at the
same time. Think of the stored water as showers in the bank.
A general guide is to provide 15% of the hourly demand for
facilities of 100 or more persons and 20% for smaller facili-
ties.

Example 5.1 Guest Room Demand


The following information is known or assumed about a conven-
tion facility. It has 300 guest rooms. We find that the minimum
supply water temperature will be 40F (4C) and that 2.5 gpm
(0.16 L/sec) maximum flow shower heads are to be used. We
assume 1.5 persons per room at peak occupancy and an average
shower time of 5 min per guest. We assume 70% of the guests
will shower during the peak hour demand period. The tempera-
ture of hot water desired at the shower head is 105F (41C). Hot
water will be stored at 140F (60C) and delivered to guest rooms
after being tempered to 105F (41C).
300 rooms 1.5 guests/room = 450 guests
450 guests 70% = 315 guests showering in peak hour
315 guests 5 min/guest 2.5 gpm = 3938 gal of
105F water required during peak hour
(315 guests 5 min/guest 0.16 L/sec 60 sec/min =
Hotels and Motels 63

15 120 L of 41C water required during peak hour)

The heat required to raise 3938 gph (15 120 L/h) of 40F (4C)
water to 105F (41C) is
3938 gph 8.33 lb/gal/F (105 40F) = 2,132,230
Btu/h output required
[15.12 m3/h 4188.32 kJ/m3/K (41 4C) =
2 343 113.74 kJ/h output required]

If it is decided to provide full recovery to reduce the storage


requirements (and probably the system cost), note the efficiency
of the water heaters that will be used. (It is never advisable to use
only one heater for an establishment where hot water is essential
to its operation.) For the purposes of this example, assume 80%.
The total input required by heaters then is

2,132,230 Btu/h
= 2,665,288 Btu/h
0.80

( 2 343 113.74 kJ/h


0.80
= 2 928 892.18 kJ/h )
Storage

The designer has decided to provide storage to accommodate the


showering of 15% of the guests simultaneously.

3938 gph 15% = 591 gal of 105F water


(15 120 L/h 15% = 2268 L of 41C water)
Since 140F (60C) water is going to be stored, the equivalent
quantity of 140F (60C) water is as follows (see Chapter 1, Equa-
tion 1.7, for the mixed temperature formula):

105 40F
= 0.65 591 gal = 384 gal
140 40F

( 41 4C
60 4C )
= 0.65 2268 L = 1474.2 L

If we use a storage tank with a tank efficiency of 80% and we


desire to draw 384 gal (1453.59 L) from the tank during the peak
hour, the quantity that must be stored is:

384 gal
64 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

= 480 gal minimum


0.80

( 1474.2 L
0.80
= 1842.75 L minimum )
Select the next larger size standard tank.
Another way to select the recovery capacity when using larger
storage tanks is to divide the useable storage by the number of
hours the peak demand lasts. Subtract the result from the peak
hour demand to determine the minimum required recovery.
To provide owners with the most cost-effective system, evalu-
ate the cost of several combinations of storage, recovery, and
efficiency.

FOOD SERVICE DEMAND

Questions and Assumptions

1. What type of food service is being offered (full restaurant, fast


food, etc.)?
2. What hours will food service be offered?
3. Are there multiple kitchens? Will there be a time when they
operate simultaneously?

Hot water demand

Since hot water demand is driven by the kitchen equipment, the


following questions need to be asked:
1. What will be the time period (total hours) of the kitchens
longest cleanup mode?
2. What fixtures that utilize hot water will be in the kitchen?
3. What temperature water is required by each?
4. What are the manufacturer and model number of the dish-
washer? You will need to obtain information about the hot
water characteristics of this equipment.
5. Is a booster heater being used to furnish 180F (82C) water
to the dishwasher?
Hotels and Motels 65

Guide to Estimating Hourly Demand


The following can be used to estimate the hourly demand of 140F
(60C) water to several types of fixture. (Lavatories can basically
be ignored.)
1-compartment sink: 30 gph (113.55 L/h)
2-compartment sink: 60 gph (227.1 L/h)
3-compartment sink: 90 gph (340.65 L/h)
4-compartment sink: 120 gph (454.2 L/h)
Prerinse: 45 gph (170.33 L/h)
Can wash: 45 gph (170.33 L/h)
These figures include initial fill and occasional refill or makeup.
Sometimes, if a 4-compartment sink is furnished, sanitizing
is done with chemicals and 180F (82C) water is not required.

Example 5.2 Food Service Demand


Assume you have a convention hotel that serves all three meals
each day. The kitchen has the following equipment:

Assumed Assumed
Equipment 140F (gph) 180F (gph)a

Conveyor type dishwasher 320 320


3-compartment sink 90
2-compartment sink 60
1-compartment sink 30
Dishwasher prerinse 45
Can wash 45
590 320
aWater is raised from 140 to 180F by booster heater.

Assumed Assumed
66 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Equipment 60C (L/h) 82C (L/h)a


Conveyor type dishwasher 1211.2 1211.2
3-compartment sink 340.65
2-compartment sink 227.1
1-compartment sink 113.35
Dishwasher prerinse 170.33
Can wash 170.33

2232.95 1211.2
aWater is raised from 60 to 82C by booster heater.

Assume the kitchen will be in the cleanup mode for a maxi-


mum of 3 h after every meal. (Discussions with kitchen operators
suggest that 3 h is a reasonable number that incorporates the
necessary time for an extremely busy cleanup period.) Total hot
water required per hour will be 590 gph (2232.95 L/h) of 140F
(60C) water, 320 gph (1211.2 L/h) of which must be raised to
180F (82C) by a booster heater.
To evaluate the storage required, consider the equipment to be
served. You may assume that a large demand will occur when the
cleanup effort is initiated. All the sinks will be filled, perhaps re-
quiring 140F (60C) water. The dishwasher tanks will need to be
filled initially; assume 30 gal (113.55 L), though you should check
with the manufacturer. Therefore, you will need at least 210 gal
(794.85 L) of 140F (60C) water for the initial fill of 3 sinks and a
dishwasher tank. The normal draw down after initial fill should be
no greater than the initial fill. The major running demand will be
the dishwasher and prerinse, which operate continuously. If you
wish to calculate initial fill with a water temperature lower than
140F (60C), then do so. Hands cannot be immersed in very hot
water, but it may be the practice to fill the sinks initially with very
hot water for hot soak purposes.

Selection of water heating equipment

To select a storage tank, first multiply the expected initial fill


requirement by 1.1 to provide a 10% safety factor:

210 gal 1.1 = 231 gal

(794.85 L 1.1 = 874.34 L)


Hotels and Motels 67

Then select the nominal tank size by dividing 231 gal (874.34 L)
by the manufacturers published tank efficiency. (Assume 75%.)
231 gal
= 308 gal nominal storage required
0.75

( 874.34 L
0.75
= 1165.79 L nominal storage required )
Select the next larger size standard tank. If heaters with full de-
mand recovery capacity are specified, the water drawn from
storage during high demand periods will be quickly replaced and
no greater storage capacity should be required. Selecting the stor-
age tank size requires the engineers judgment.

Required recovery

For a kitchen, you may want to calculate full recovery, not taking
into consideration storage since it is normally an insignificant
percentage of the demand, particularly when a conveyor type dish-
washer is used. Assume a minimum inlet temperature of 40F
(4C). Also assume that an electric booster heater is furnished to
raise the dishwasher hot water from 140 to 180F (60 to 82C).
Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter 1 (Equation 1.2),
we calculate the 140F (60C) water recovery as follows:

590 gph 8.33 Btu/gal/F (140 40F) = 491,470


Btu/h output required

[(2.23 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 277.59K) =


518 927.82 kJ/h output required]
Divide the output by the efficiency of the heater to determine the
input required.

LAUNDRY DEMAND

Questions and Assumptions


This demand is driven by the equipment used and the peak opera-
tion times. For large facilities, it can be a significant demand. For
small facilities, small residential or light commercial equipment is
often used. You must check the maximum operating water tempera-
ture and the gallons (liters) per hour required by each machine.
68 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The manufacturer of the laundry equipment can tell you how


much hot water is required for each machine. Generally, if you
tell them the capacity of each machine in pounds per hour (kg/
h), they can tell you the gallons per hour (L/h) of hot wa-
ter required per pound (kg). For large machines, the draw down
rate can be high, so adequate storage is necessary. A number of
laundry equipment manufacturers have suggested that the mini-
mum requirement is to store 5075% of the hourly demand, and
provide a recovery equal to the hourly demand. This will provide
stored water to meet the high draw down demand, and the recov-
ery will provide for the continuous demand. Fifty percent is usually
adequate, but check with the manufacturer if possible. You dont
want temperature degradation due to the addition of cold water
during periods of high demand.
If you have small machines, again it is helpful to check with
the manufacturer for the maximum demand in gallons per hour
(L/h).
The temperature required by the user can be critical.

Example 5.3 Laundry Demand


Consider a full-service convention hotel that has two 135-lb (61.24
kg) and one 75-lb (34.02 kg) washer extractor. The manufacturer
has indicated that the machines require 2 gph of hot water for
each pound (16.65 L/h of hot water for each kg) of capacity. The
hotel owners have stated that they wash with 160F (71C) water
and the laundry operates 16 h each day. Minimum supply water
temperature will be 40F (4C).
It is obvious that storage will be of little value in meeting hot
water demand because of the long hours of operation. Adequate
storage must be provided, however, to meet short-term, high draw
down rates. Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter
1 (Equation 1.2), select the storage tank using 60% of peak hour
demand. The total machine capacity is 345 lb (156.49 kg).
345 lb 2 gph/lb = 690 gph of 160F water
(156.49 kg 16.65 L/h/kg = 2 605.56 L/h of 71C water)
690 8.33 (160 40) = 689,724 Btu/h output re-
quired
[2.61 m3/h 4 188.32 kJ/m3 K (344.26 277.59 K) =
727 687.18 kJ/h output required]
Hotels and Motels 69

Divide by the heater efficiency to obtain the input required.

689,724 Btu/h output = 862,155 Btu/h input


0.80 (heater efficiency)

[ 727 687.18 kJ/h output


0.80 (heater efficiency)
= 909 608.98 kJ/h input
]
Use 60% of peak hour demand to select the minimum storage
capacity.
690 gph 0.6 = 414 gal minimum
(2605.56 L/h 0.6 = 1563.34 minimum)
Select the next larger size standard unit or use multiple tanks.

GENERAL NOTES

System Considerations
The choice of a system(s) to meet the hotel/motels hot water
demand is up to the designer. There are several factors and ideas
that should be considered:
1. Should the hotel/motel be served by a single system? Should
it be served by two systems, one serving the guest rooms and
the other serving the laundry/kitchen? Does the hotel/motel
need three separate systems?
2. What type(s) of tempering device should be installed to en-
sure safe delivery of the proper temperature water to the
various areas?
3. If systems are combined, what size should the combined stor-
age tank be?
4. Is it desirable to install a crossover bypass system so that, if
one system is down, water from another system can be di-
verted to temporarily provide service to the down system? If
this is done, it is important to remember that a tempering
valve must be placed in a bypass for the lower temperature
system so that, when this system is temporarily used for a
higher temperature, water can be routed through the tem-
pering valve bypass.
70 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Design Criteria Considerations


When classifying the occupancy of a facility, be careful! In a re-
sort facility there may be a convention hall. This means that any
of the small hotels normally considered resort facilities could be
(and often are!) used by people attending a convention. The key
thing to look for is the convention facility. This is a good time for
the designer to contact the owners or managers of the facility.
If the hotel guest room system is occasionally overloaded by
an unusually high occupancy rate, the result should not be an
immediate and drastic drop in temperature if the system was
sized reasonably. Some safety should be built into the minimum
supply water temperature. If the temperature is above the mini-
mum at the time of the large demand, then there is that spare
capacity in the bank. There is some rationale to not sizing the
system for the greatest possible demand, which may occur, say,
once every 10 years. Sizing a system that way would cost the
owners a lot of money. Be aware, however, that some facilities
are very high end and their owners may direct you to size the
system so they never run short.
Hospitals 71

6
INTRODUCTION
HOSPITALS

The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step


through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating
distribution system for a hospital. It is important for the designer
to realize that there is a vast difference between designing a
domestic water heating system for a hospital and designing such
a system for any other type of building. A hospital encompasses
almost all types of hot water use, plus there are areas of opera-
tion that are unique to a hospital.
The first section of this chapter addresses design consider-
ations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. The final section
presents some design examples.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calcu-
lating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The proce-
dure presented here will help predict the minimum amount
of hot water needed by the facility.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Safety and Health Concerns


See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
72 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

USER GROUP ANALYSIS


The specific areas of a facility, called user groups, should each
be considered when determining hot water usage. The user groups
identified below are typical of either a large or a small hospital
facility. (Each facility must be reviewed to determine its layout.)
The general outline that follows may be used for each user group.

General Outline

Identify the following for each user group:


1. Fixtures requiring hot water.
2. Whether the fixtures are public or private.
3. Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fixture.
4. Flow rates for each fixture.
5. The usage pattern of each fixture.
6. The acceptable time delay between the opening of a hot water
tap and the delivery of hot water.
Review the plans to determine:
1. The location of each fixture.
2. The locations of fixtures with specific temperature require-
ments.

User Groups

Patient areas

General patient areas in a hospital are typically used by people


admitted for surgical or medical procedures. Surgical patients
are people who enter the facility to have a surgical procedure
done and then remain in the facility to recover. A medical patient
is a person who enters a facility with a health ailment not requir-
ing surgery but who requires constant and/or specialized care.
Surgical patients, early in their stay in the facility, are sponge
bathed and, per doctors orders, may use the shower facilities.
Medical patients typically have the use of the shower/bathing
facilities at all times.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivateor are wards used?
Hospitals 73

2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub, or is there a cen-


tral bathing area?
3. Check whether patient bathing is assisted and, if so, how
many staff are available to provide assistance.
4. Determine the flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water to be used in the pa-
tient area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of
scalding in Chapter 1).
2. Due to the number of showers/bathtubs in this area, a high
use of hot water is possible.
3. In an intensive care area or isolation room, the hand washing
sink/lavatory is used more frequently than in a typical pa-
tient area.

Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medi-
cine and simple food or drink items for patients and do their
required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is located
nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks
in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms are in the vicinity of
the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl
sink while the soiled utility room typically has a double bowl
sink, a hand washing lavatory, and a flushing rim sink (also known
as a clinic sink) with a bedpan washer.
The nurses station is not a heavy hot water use area and is
typically part of another specific user group (i.e., patient areas
have their own nurses stations). In many of the newer facilities,
the nurses station is shared between departments to lower the
number of staff required. This is done commonly in smaller fa-
cilities.

Hydrotherapy

The hydrotherapy area is a location where therapy that utilizes


water occurs. The therapies may involve many different tempera-
tures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The therapy
tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50 to 500-gal
(189.27 to 1892.71-L) capacity or larger.
Items that should be determined include:
74 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

1. The number and sizes of all the tubs/baths in the area.


2. For each type of tub, the planned number of therapies per
hour.
3. The hours the department is in use.
4. Desired fill time for each tub. (Staff will fill tub as rapidly as
possible.) Also determine whether the tubs are fully or par-
tially filled for cleaning between therapies.
5. Water temperatures used for the therapies.
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inad-
equate hot water supply.)
3. Before running tempered water to a thermostatic mixing valve,
check with the valves manufacturer to make sure it will func-
tion properly under expected conditions.

Dietary and food service

A hospital dietary department typically is in operation 24 h a


day, but that depends on the size of the facility. The department
feeds not only the patients and their visitors but also the staff
and sometimes the public. Normally three full meals a day are
provided, but a late-night meal also is served in some facilities.
Most dietary departments are designed by a food service consult-
ant, who should be contacted and consulted.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. The number of meals provided for each meal or day. Consult
the food service consultant.
2. The number of dishwashers and, for each, its type, size, gal-
lons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and required
temperature.
3. Number of sinks in the area and the type of each (prerinse,
etc.). Obtain water usages from the food service consultant
or use Table 6.1.
4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used, and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C), to be
boosted at the equipment or is a separate water heating sys-
tem desired?
Hospitals 75

Areas of concern:
1. Water temperature in the area. Typically, three temperatures
are needed, 110F (43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for
dietary use, and 180F (82C) for sanitizing purposes.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and runs
simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.

Surgical suite

The surgical suite is where the facilitys surgical procedures are


performed.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Hours of scheduled surgery and typical starting time.
2. Number of scrub sinks in the suite and the length of time
required for the staff to wash.
3. Equipment used in the area and the water temperature it
requires (e.g., an electric flash sterilizer may use hot water to
shorten the warm-up time).
4. Number of showers in the suites locker rooms.
Areas of concern:
1. The time of the suites startup. Note that the suite typically
begins operation in the A.M., sometimes early A.M. (e.g., 6:00
A.M.), which is the same time other areas of the facility are
beginning startup, i.e., during hot water peak demand.
2. The average number of emergency operations from the trauma
unit or emergency room at night.

Laundry

A hospital produces a large amount of laundry, which needs to


be cleaned. The size of the facility determines the size of the laun-
dry department. Not all facilities have their own laundry
departments; some opt to send the laundry to outside services.
Items that should be determined include:
1. The number and size of each washing machine in the area
(pound capacity and gallons [liters] of hot water per hour per
pound [kilogram] or per cycle).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per hour
per machine.
76 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

3. The departments start time and hours of operation.


4. The temperatures of the water used.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The depart-
ment commonly begins operating in the early A.M., which is
the same time other areas of the facility are starting up (i.e.,
during hot water peak demand). The filling of the washers is
typically the first thing done at startup. The probability that
the washing machines will fill simultaneously is high during
startup.
2. Some of the laundry may be considered contaminated and
require special treatment. Verification of this possibility is
required.
Refer to Laundries, Chapter 12, for the sizing of hot water sys-
tems for this area. Due to the elevated water temperatures
required, separate water heating systems may have to be used.

Central sterile supply

This is where surgical and other equipment/tools used in the


facility are sent for cleaning or sterilization prior to disposal or
reuse. The central sterile supply department is typically in op-
eration during and after the surgical suites scheduled hours of
operation. The department has many pieces of equipment that
use hot water; it could be considered a specialized dishwashing
area.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Hours that central sterile supply is in operation and when
startup begins.
2. Number of times each piece of equipment is used per hour.
3. Equipment requirements with regard to water temperature,
flow, water quality, and pressure.
Areas of concern:
1. The departments scheduled hours of operation. The depart-
ment commonly begins operating in the A.M., which is the
same time other areas of the facility start up (i.e., during hot
water peak demand).
2. Water pressures, quality, and temperatures are critical in this
area.

Obstetrics/Nursery
Hospitals 77

This department is where the birth process occurs. Due to the


unpredictability of the birth process, it is in use 24 h a day. Many
of the newer facilities provide showers or tub/shower combina-
tions in the individual birthing rooms and post-birthing rooms.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Layout of the obstetrics department. Does each room have a
tub/shower or are there central bathing facilities or both?
Are there birthing rooms? After the birth, are the mother and
infant transported to another room?
2. Determine the shower head flow and/or the tub flow/capac-
ity.
Areas of concern:
1. The birth process can be a long ordeal, and taking showers
during the process relaxes and soothes the mother. Many
facilities and health organizations recommend this. After the
birth, baths and showers are taken not only to relax the mother
but to flush the perineal area, which may be done in a sitz
bath.
2. Hot water supply temperature is 110F (43C) (the same as in
the patient area).

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration, maintenance,


autopsy, the morgue)

A hospital facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring


hot water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and staff shower rooms.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. In areas where showers are located, determine the flow rates
of the shower heads.
2. Determine the water temperatures needed in those areas
(maintenance may desire 140F [60C] temperatures for
cleanup or washdown areas).
Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage times
of many of the other specific user groups. Though the fix-
tures may be few, they still are used and should be considered
when doing calculations.
78 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

WORKSHEETS AND TABLES

Worksheet 6.AUser Group


This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculat-
ing the hot water requirements for an individual user group. A
different sheet should be used for each user group. All water
quantity usage figuresgallons per minute (gpm), (liters per
second [L/sec]), gallons per hour (gph), (liters per hour [L/h]),
and minutes of use per hour (min use/h)are suggested.
The designer must ascertain the correct quantities through
actual fixture/device/equipment literature (e.g., shop draw-
ings) and/or discussions with the owner and/or user.
The fixture column lists the fixtures in a facility that use
hot water. The designer may add to this list if necessary. The
quantity column indicates the number of those fixtures located
in the user group area. Gpm (L/sec) is the flow rate from the
fixture used in the calculation. Min use/h is the estimated use
of the fixture in 1 h. (Note: In the case of dietary demands, and
perhaps other occasional demands, gph [L/h] will be substi-
tuted for min use/h.)
The next section of the worksheet, Temperature at Outlet,
is for the water temperature at the faucet outlet, not the system
temperature. This is important since cold water will be added to
the system hot water to obtain the desired outlet temperature.
Because of this, the flow from the faucet is not all hot water.
Table 1.1 is used to determine the actual amount of hot water
needed at the faucet outlet. The temperature at outlet section
is split into four subsections, each having a different faucet out-
let water temperature. For the last subsection, labeled other,
any temperature may be used, but the temperature must be the
same for all fixtures used in that column. Each temperature sub-
section is split into two more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h). The equation for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated, each col-
umn is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of the sheet
under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm (L/sec) and
gph (L/h) are found in Table 6.2. Each total is multiplied by the
appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals, which are
used on Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals. The user group to-
tals are the amount of hot water predicted to be used in a particular
user group during the peak hour(s). Designers should use their
best judgment when working with these figures.
Hospitals 79

Worksheet 6.AUser Group


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom group
Tub/shower & lavatory 2.5 10
Public lavatory 0.5 10
Private lavatory 2 4
Single bowl sink 2.5 1
Double bowl sink 2.5 1
Bathtub 7 10
Shower 2.5 10
Flushing rim sink 4.5 1
Floor receptor 4.5 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 2.5 10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal) 15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal) 15
Laundry tub 4.5 1
Residential washing
machine 4.5 6
Residential dishwasher 4.5 3
Commercial dishwasher 7
Triple compartment sink,
per faucet, 9
Commercial kitchen,
single sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
double sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse 2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash 9 10
Sonic cleaner 4.5
Washer/disenfector 9

TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
80 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A (M) User Group


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom group
Tub/shower & lavatory 0.16 10
Public lavatory 0.03 10
Private lavatory 0.13 4
Single bowl sink 0.16 1
Double bowl sink 0.16 1
Bathtub 0.44 10
Shower 0.16 10
Flushing rim sink 0.28 1
Floor receptor 0.28 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 0.16 10
Small hydro-tub
Less than 378.5 L 0.95
Large hydro-tub
More than 378.5 L 0.95
Laundry tub 0.28 1
Residential washing
machine 0.28 6
Residential dishwasher 0.28 3
Commercial dishwasher 0.44
Triple compartment sink
per faucet 0.57
Commercial kitchen
single sink 0.57
Commercial kitchen
double sink 0.57
Commercial kitchen
prerinse 0.16
Hose station or
cart/can wash 0.57 10
Sonic cleaner 0.28
Washer/disenfector 0.57

TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 81

Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals


This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calcu-
lating a facilitys hot water requirements. The totals found at
the bottom of the sheet indicate the predicted amount of hot
water the facility will use during the peak usage hour. Designers
should use their best judgment when working with these num-
bers to determine the amount of hot water supplied to the facility.
The items in the first, or user group, column are obtained
from Worksheet 6.A. As seen, the user group totals from
Worksheet 6.A are placed in the columns under the appropriate
temperature at outlet, gpm (L/sec), and gph (L/h) headings.
All of the user group totals for gpm (L/sec) are added together
and the resulting number is placed in the Subtotals section
near the bottom of the worksheet. This also is done for gph (L/h)
figures.
Designers need to determine when more than one water heater
supply temperature (e.g., 105F, 110F, 140F [41C, 43C, 60C])
will be required in the facility. When more than one water heater
is required to supply different temperatures, separate Worksheets
6.A and 6.B should be used for each water heater system. Subto-
tal each temperature at outlet column, use Table 1.1 to look up
the hot water multiplier for the system water temperature sup-
plied to the facility, then multiply each subtotal by its appropriate
multiplier. When this is done, total the actual gpm (L/sec) and
gph (L/h) demands for the system water temperature supplied to
the facility (the bottom row of the worksheet) and put the result-
ing numbers under totals at the bottom right of the worksheet.
These totals are the gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h) the water heater(s)
must supply to the facility. Designers should use their best judg-
ment when working with these figures.
82 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (F)
105
___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
User Group GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas

SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Hospitals 83

Worksheet 6.B (M) User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (C)
41
___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
User Group L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas

SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
84 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1


This is a copy of Worksheet 6.A with recommendations on tem-
peratures at outlet and other comments. (See worksheet
footnotes.) Designers should use their best judgment and take
into account national, state, and local codes when considering
these recommendations.

Worksheet 6.A User GroupExample


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Min ___________
105 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatoryb,c 2.5 10 *l *
Public lavatoryb 0.5 10 * *
Private lavatoryb 2 4 * *
Single bowl sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Double bowl sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Bathtube 7 10 * *
Showerb 2.5 10 * *
Flushing rim sinkf 4.5 1 * *
Floor receptorf 4.5 1 * *
Scrub sink, per faucetg 2.5 10 * *
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal)d 15 * *
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal)d 15 * *
Laundry tubf 4&5 1 * *
Residential washing
machinef 4.5 6 * *
Residential dishwasherf 4.5 3 * *
Commercial dishwasherj 7 * *
Triple compartment sink,
per fauceth,i 9 k * 90
Commercial kitchen,
single sinkh,i 9 * 30
Commercial kitchen,
double sinkh,i 9 * 60
Commercial kitchen,
prerinseg 2.5 * 45
Hose station or
cart/ can washh 9 10 * *
Sonic cleanerj 4.5 * *
Washer/disenfectorj 9 * *

TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
(Continued)
Hospitals 85

(Worksheet 6.A Example continued)

aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

bBased on ANSI standards of 2.5 gpm for showerheads, 2.5 gpm for sinks, 2.0
gpm for lavatories, and 0.5 gpm for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.

dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 4.5 gpm and in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.

hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses ( gph).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.

kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
86 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A(M) User GroupExample


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
Min ___________
41 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom group
tub/shower
& lavatoryb,c 1,2 0.16 10 *l *
Public lavatoryb 1 0.03 10 * *
Private lavatoryb 1 0.13 4 * *
Single bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Double bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Bathtube 4 0.44 10 * *
Showerb 1 0.16 10 * *
Flushing rim sinkf 5 0.28 1 * *
Floor receptorf 5 0.28 1 * *
Scrub sink,
per faucetg 6 0.16 10 * *
Small hydro-tub
(less than 378.5 L)d 3 0.95 * *
Large hydro-tub
(more than
378.5 L)d 3 0.95 * *
Laundry tubf 5 0.28 1 * *
Residential washing
machinef 5 0.28 6 * *
Residential
dishwasherf 5 0.28 3 * *
Commercial
dishwasherj 9 0.44 * *
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8 0.57 k * 340.65
Commercial kitchen
single sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 113.55
Commercial kitchen
double sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 227.10
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg 6 0.16 * 170.33
Hose station or
cart/can washh 7 0.57 10 * * *
Sonic cleanerj 9 0.28 * *
Washer/disinfectorj 9 0.57 * *
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B
Note: L/sec calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. L/h calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
(Continued)
Hospitals 87

(Worksheet 6.A[M] Example continued)

bBased on ANSI standards of 0.16 L/sec for showerheads, 0.16 L/sec for sinks,
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 0.28 L/sec and DN15 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/
sec maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses (L/h).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.

Table 6.1 General Purpose Hot Water Requirements


for Various Kitchen Uses
This table, which supplies information on the hot water require-
ments for various kitchen uses, should be used for the dietary
and food service user group.

Table 6.1 General Purpose Hot Water


Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses
Equipment GPH L/H
Vegetable sink 45 170.33
Single compartment sink 30 113.55
Double compartment sink 60 227.10
Triple compartment sink 90 340.65
Prescrapper (open type) 180 681.30
Prerinse (hand operated) 45 170.33
Prerinse (closed type) 240 908.40
Recirculating prerinse 40 151.40
Bar sink 30 113.55
Lavatories 5 18.93
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
88 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 6.2 Usage Factors for User Groups


This table provides the recommended usage factors for use with
Worksheet 6.A. The following discussion gives the background of
how these numbers were determined. (They represent a consen-
sus of opinion of experienced designers; however, designers should
use their best judgment when working with these figures):

General

The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water us-
ing fixture will be operated during a 1-h period. These figures are
based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.

Table 6.2 Usage Factors for User Groups


User Groups
Dietary & Central
Patient Nurses Hydro- Food Surgical Sterile Obstetrics/ Misc.
Area Station therapy Service Suite Supply Nursery Areas

GPM (L/Sec) 0.10 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.05
GPH (L/H) 0.40 0.50 0.90 0.90 0.50 0.90 0.40 0.10
Note: Based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.

Patient area

This user group is split into two areas, surgical and medical pa-
tient areas. Many patients in these areas are not ambulatory and
require assistance from the staff to use the toilet or the bathing
facilities. Many surgical patients are not allowed to use the shower
or bathing facilities until approximately the second day after sur-
gery. Medical patients are often not allowed to use the facilities
until after their conditions improve. Because of this, many are
sponge bathed. The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by
the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
only the shower being in use (i.e., the lavatory is not in use dur-
ing the same minute). Also, it is assumed that not all the patients
are using the fixtures during the same minute.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
either the shower or the lavatory being used in an hour during
Hospitals 89

peak usage time. Because the lavatory uses less water than the
shower, the factor is less than 0.50 (50%).

Nurses station

This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used most


heavily during shift changes. This is because of the preparation
necessary before patients can be aided.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the relationship between the staff and patients. During a peak 3-
h period of hot water use, the patient area is used more heavily
than the nurses station. Since many patients need assistance
using the bathing or shower facilities, staff members are in the
patient areas aiding patients and not at the nurses station using
the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on these
same issues, but because of the time staff members spend at the
nurses station organizing or distributing medicines and doing
other work, the hand washing fixtures there are heavily used.

Hydrotherapy

When in operation, this area is a large water user. The staff can
be split between the physical and hydrotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the cyclical use of the therapy tubs and on the assumption that
staff members also are doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that during peak usage times almost all the fixtures
in this area are used. That assumes that the staff schedules wa-
ter therapies during one time and physical therapies during
another.

Dietary and food service

This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the


facility, the usage of water for food preparation and for cleaning
may overlap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that cleaning (the washing of dishes, etc.) does
not occur in the same minute as food preparation. Also, it as-
sumes that the sinks are filled and then work is done using an
intermittent, not a steady, water supply.
90 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of
the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.

Surgical suite

Surgical procedures account for the majority of the time this area
is in use. Though the scrub sinks are used intermittently during
a procedure (e.g., staff leaving the room and returning will scrub
again), the showers and scrub sinks are typically not used con-
currently.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for both the gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h) are based on the above scenario. During any 1 min or h of
the facilitys peak usage period, either the scrub sinks or the
showers are in use.

Central sterile supply

This area, which houses washing equipment, is in use during


the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.20 (20%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that some of the equipment is in a fill cycle dur-
ing any 1 min. Due to the nature of equipment cycles, all the
equipment does not use water during the same minute.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
most of the equipment being used in the facilitys peak usage
hour.

Obstetrics/Nursery

This user group is in use 24 h a day. The birth process and


resting afterward typically account for the majority of
a patients time in this area. Showers are sometimes taken dur-
ing labor to relax the mother, and the hand washing lavatory is
used extensively during labor by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) gpm (L/sec) usage factor is based on usage in
the patient area. Though a patient in the obstetrics (OB)/nurs-
ery area bathes after a birth, there is no set schedule for this
because of the unpredictable nature of the birth process. Thus,
at any 1 min, only 10% of the fixtures in this area are operated.
(This is part of the reasoning for the 5% factor used for the nurses
station. Fixtures in the OB/nursery user group typically are used
by staff members, implying that those workers are not concur-
rently at the nurses station using fixtures there.)
Hospitals 91

The 0.40 (40%) gph (L/h) usage factor also is based on the
patient wing area. Also, many patients remain in the birthing
rooms after delivery. (Theyre not transferred to separate post-
partum rooms.) Because of this, lavatories are used during labor
by the staff and bathing or shower facilities are used by patients
during the peak usage period. Both fixtures are not used exten-
sively during the same hour.

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration, maintenance,


autopsy, the morgue)

The rest of the facility uses water but not during the facilitys peak
usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the miscel-
laneous areas. These areas must be taken into account, however,
because water using fixtures are available and used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that only a minor number of the fixtures are
used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are used
outside of the facilitys peak usage hour.
The designer must determine the usage pattern for each mis-
cellaneous area.

QUESTIONS FOR OWNER OR CLIENT

Patient Areas and Nurses Stations

1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivate?


2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub or is there a cen-
tral bathing area?
3. Determine the flow from shower heads or tub flow/capaci-
ties.

Hydrotherapy

1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to be
92 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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fully filled for cleaning between patients?


5. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?

Dietary and Food Service

1. What is the number of meals provided each day?


2. What is the type of dishwasher used (number, size, gallons
[liters] per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature required)?
3. What are the type and number of sinks, prerinses, etc., in
the area?
4. Are cart/can washers used and, if so, during what hours are
they operational and what temperatures are required?

Surgical Suite

1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the


typical starting time?
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what tempera-
tures are required (e.g., does the electric flash sterilizer require
hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?

Laundry

1. What are the number and size of each washing machine in


the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?

Central Sterile Supply

1. What are the operating hours of central sterile supply and


when does startup begin?
Hospitals 93

2. How many times is each piece of equipment used per hour?


3. What equipment is in the area and what are the required
water temperature, flow rate, water quality, and pressure for
each piece?

Obstetrics/Nursery

1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there central


bathing facilities? Is there a birthing room and after the birth
are the mother and infant transported to another room?
2. Verify the shower head flow and/or tub flow/capacity.
3. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
4. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas departments?

Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,


Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue)

1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in these areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap open-
ing and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of branch
piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue with all users.)

EXAMPLES

Example 6.232-Bed Hospital


The facility in question is a 32-patient-bed hospital (having 24
patient-care, 6 obstetrics, and 2 intensive care, or ICU, beds). A
facility of this size typically is located outside of a metropolitan
area. The facility is a complete care, 24 h/day hospital without a
laundry (a facility of this size typically does not produce enough
laundry to warrant its own laundry facility).

Description of user groups

Patient area
The facility has 24 patient-care beds (12 for medical patients
and 12 for surgical patients). The facility has a wing arrange-
ment with medical patients in one wing and surgical patients
94 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

in the other. The rooms are single patient rooms with a shower
(2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/
sec] typical) in each. There is a tub room with a single bath-
tub. Each wing has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5
gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double
bowl sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with
bedpan washer). Each wing has a janitors closet with a re-
ceptor.

Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, one nurses station pro-
vides service to the medical, surgical, and ICU patient beds.
This station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink at the
station for general water use. A second nurses station, for
obstetrics, has a general use sink. This station shares the
use of the drug dispensing and toilet rooms with the other
station.
An on-call room for staff members, which has a shower
and lavatory, is also provided in this area.

Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hips/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), and a hands/
elbows/arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]) with a hand washing lava-
tory in the area. The 25-gal (94.63-L) arm tank is filled using
the hip/leg tub valve. In this example, a mixing valve will be
used at a maximum flow of 15 gpm (0.95 L/sec). There is also
a shower with lavatory provided for outpatient services.

Dietary and food service


Because of the size of the facility, the dietary department pro-
vides three hot meals a day and a cold meal at night. It is a
full-service department with the following equipment: triple
compartment sink with prerinse, scrapping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, sink for vegetable
preparations, and a hand washing lavatory. The department
starts operation at 6:00 A.M. The department requires 140F
(60C) water at all fixtures except the hand washing lavatory,
where 110F (43C) supply water is required. A 105F (41C)
faucet outlet temperature is assumed. The dishwasher re-
quires 180F (82C) water and the 140F (60C) water will be
Hospitals 95

boosted at the dishwasher with an electric booster heater.

Surgical suite
The facility has two operating rooms with two double scrub
sinks in the suite, and the department runs from 6:00 A.M.
to 12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday. The department also
has two general purpose sinks, a flash sterilizer (steam is
provided from a central system), janitors receptor, two flush-
ing rim sinks (one in recovery), and two showers with lavatories
in the locker areas.

Central sterile supply


The central sterile supply operates between 6:00 A.M. (when
surgery starts at 6:00 A.M.; otherwise 8:00 A.M.) and 4:00
P.M. The department has two gravity sterilizers, a sonic
cleaner, washer disinfector, hand washing lavatory, double
sink, and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer. The sonic
cleaner and washer disinfector are typically used once an hour.

Obstetrics/Nursery
This department has six labor and delivery rooms set up so
that the mother and infant may remain in one room for the
duration of their stay. If an overflow occurs, the surgical pa-
tient wing is adjacent to the OB and the mother is transferred
to an open room. Each room has a tub/shower with two hand
washing lavatories. The OB department shares the soiled and
clean utility rooms with the surgical patient wing.

Miscellaneous areas
Same-day surgery is a place where minor surgeries can be
performed as outpatient services (patients need not stay in
the facility overnight). The area has a general use sink and is
adjacent to the emergency room (ER), thus sharing many of
ERs fixtures. Hours are between 6:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.
The ER has a scrub sink, flushing rim sink with bedpan
washer, two general use sinks, a double sink, and a toilet
room with lavatory. This department is considered to be in
use 24 h a day.
Radiology is the department where X-rays are taken. The
department typically has a general use sink in each proce-
dure room. In this example, the department has two general
radiology rooms and a CT scan room, each with a sink. The
96 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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area also has a janitors closet with receptor, a toilet room


with lavatory, and a dark room with a sink and processor.
(You need to determine if the processor requires hot water.)
In this case, the processor is a cold water unit.
The maintenance area has a cart wash area and service
sink, both using 140F (60C) water. Also the area has male
and female staff locker rooms, each with one shower and two
lavatories.

Questions for owner or client

(This is a sample application of the questions from the previously


defined user group analysis. Answers to questions appear in bold-
face type.)

Patient areas and nurses stations

1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivate?


Private
2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
Shower with one central tub per wing
3. Determine the flow from shower heads or tub flow/ca-
pacities.
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) for shower head, lavatory at
2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec)

Hydrotherapy

1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal (416.35 L),
and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
Two
3. What hours is the department in use?
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to
be fully filled for cleaning between patients?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is to be used.
Yes
5. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
Hospitals 97

103F (39C)
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
Yes, with a 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head and
a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory

Dietary and food service

1. What is the number of meals provided each day?


200
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type,
size, gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and tem-
perature required for each?
One
Hobart AM14
1.2 gal/rack at 53 racks = 64 gal/cycle (4.54 L/
rack at 53 racks = 240.62 L/cycle)
One cycle/h
140F (60C)
3. What is the number of sinks, prerinse, etc. in the area
and what is the type of each?
Triple compartment sink with prerinse
Scrapping sink with prerinse
Double sink for food thawing
Single sink for vegetable prep
A hand washing lavatory
4. Are cart/can washers used and, if so, during what hours
are they operational and what temperatures are required?
Yes
Washed after meals are served
140F (60C)

Surgical suite

1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the


typical starting time?
6:00 A.M. 12:00 P.M. typical
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
Two double scrub sinks at 2.5 gpm/faucet (0.16 L/
sec/faucet)
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what tem-
98 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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peratures are required (e.g., does the electric flash steril-


izer require hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
Two sinks
Janitors receptors
Two flushing rim sinks
Steam flash sterilizer
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?
Two showers (1 in the locker room for each sex)
and 2 lavatories

Laundry

1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the wash-
ing machines in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and
gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
Nonefacility sends laundry out.
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is
in operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?

Central sterile supply

1. What are the operating hours of central sterile supply


and when does startup begin?
6:00 A.M. 4:00 P.M.
2. How many times is each piece of equipment used per hour?
Sonic cleaner (5 gph [18.93 L/h]) and washer (27
gph [102.20 L/h])
3. What equipment is in the area and what is the required
water temperature, flow rate, water quality, and pressure
for each piece?
140F (60C) is needed at the equipment.
35 psig (241.32 kPa)
120F (49C) supplied at the sink and lavatory
110F (43C) and 105F (41C) outlet temperatures,
respectively
The equipment in the area is electric.
Hospitals 99

Obstetrics/Nursery

1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there


central bathing facilities?
Individual room tub/showers and two lavatories
2. Is there a birthing room and after the birth are the mother
and infant transported to another room?
Typically, no to both questions
3. Determine the shower head flow and/or tub flow/
capacity.
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) showers and 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/
sec) lavatories
4. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
None (If surgical procedure is required, patient is
transported to surgical suite.)
5. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas depart-
ments?
It shares with the surgical patient wing.

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration,


maintenance, autopsy, the morgue)
(Refer to the description of the facility for information.)
1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given
area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in the areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap
opening and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of
branch piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue
with all users.)
100 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

User group worksheets, 32-bed hospital

Worksheet 6.A User Group: Patient Area


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 2.5 10 60 600
Private Lavatory 2 2 4 4 16
Single Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Bathtub 1 7 10 7 70
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5

TOTALS: 76 691 9 9
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 7.6 276 0.9 3.6
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A (M)User Group: Patient Area


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 0.16 10 3.84 2304.0
Private Lavatory 2 0.13 4 0.26 62.4
Single Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Double Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Bathtub 1 0.44 10 0.44 264
Flushing Rim Sink 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8

TOTALS: 4.86 2649.6 0.56 33.6


Usage Factor UF Refer to Table 6.2: 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B 0.49 1059.84 0.06 13.44
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 101

Worksheet 6.A User Group: Nurses Station


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 2.5 10 2.5 25
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5

TOTALS: 9.5 38
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.5 19
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A (M) User Group: Nurses Station


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 0.16 10 0.16 96
Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 31.2
Single Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2

TOTALS: 0.61 146.4


Usage Factor UF Refer to Table 6.2: 0.1 0.5
Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B 0.03 73.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
102 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ 103
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 2.5 10 2.5 25
Public Lavatory 1 0.5 10 0.5 5
Small Hydro-Tub 2
Less Than
100 Gal (4 fills) 15 12 30 360

TOTALS: 3 30 30 360
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 5B: 0.75 27 7.5 324
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 39
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 0.16 10 0.16 96
Public Lavatory 1 0.03 10 0.50 18
Small Hydro-Tub 2
Less Than
378.5 Liters (4 fills) 0.95 12 1.89 1368

TOTALS: 0.66 114 1.89 1368


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 5B: 0.17 102.6 0.47 1231.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 103

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 1 0.5 10 0.5 5


Commercial
Dishwasher 1 7 64 gphb 7 64
Triple Compartment
Sink 2 9 90 gphb 18 180
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 1 9 30 gphb 9 30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 1 9 60 gphb 9 60
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 1 2.5 45 gphb 2.5 45
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90

TOTALS: 0.5 5 54.5 469


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.2 4.5 21.8 422
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.
104 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 1 0.03 10 0.03 18


Commercial
Dishwasher 1 0.44 64 0.44 242.24
Triple Compartment
Sink 2 0.57 340.65 L/hb 1.14 681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 1 0.57 113.55 L/hb 0.57 113.55
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 1 0.57 227.1 L/hb 0.57 227.1
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 1 0.16 170.33 L/hb 0.16 170.33
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 37.85 L/hb 0.57 37.85

TOTALS: 0.03 18 3.45 1472.37


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.01 16.2 1.38 1325.13
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
Hospitals 105

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Surgical Suite


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 2 2 4 4 16
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
Shower 2 2.5 10 5 50
Flushing Rim Sink 2 4.5 1 9 9
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 4 2.5 10 10 100

TOTALS: 24 171 13.5 13.5

Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 12 85.5 6.8 6.8
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Surgical Suite


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 2 0.13 4 0.26 62.4


Single Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2
Shower 2 0.16 10 0.32 192
Flushing Rim Sink 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 4 0.16 10 0.64 384

TOTALS: 1.54 657.6 0.84 50.4


Usage Factor s (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.77 328.8 0.42 25.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
106 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Central Sterile Supply


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Sonic Cleaner 1 4.5 5 gphb 4.5 5
Washer/Disenfector 1 9 27 gphb 9 27

TOTALS: 4.5 10.5 4.5 4.5 13.5 32


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 5B: 0.9 9.5 0.9 4.1 2.7 28.8
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Central Sterile Supply


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 31.2


Double Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Flushing Rim Sink 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Sonic Cleaner 1 0.28 18.93 L/hb 0.28 18.93
Washer/Disenfector 1 0.57 102.2 L/hb 0.57 102.2

TOTALS: 0.29 40.8 0.28 16.8 0.85 121.13


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 5B: 0.06 36.72 0.06 15.12 0.17 109.02
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
Hospitals 107

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Obstetrics/Nursery


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 6 2.5 10 15 150
Private Lavatory 6 2 4 12 48

TOTALS: 27 198
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 2.7 79.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Obstetrics/Nursery


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 6 0.16 10 0.96 576
Private Lavatory 6 0.13 4 0.78 187.2

TOTALS: 1.74 763.2


Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.17 305.28
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.
108 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 6 2 4 12 48
Single Bowl Sink 7 2.5 1 17.5 17.5
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Shower 2 2.5 10 5 50
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Floor Receptor 2 4.5 1 9 9
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 1 2.5 10 2.5 2.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90

TOTALS: 39.5 143 13.5 13.5 9 90


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 2.0 14.3 0.7 1.4 0.5 9
aNote: Temperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41 43 60 Other
Min ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 6 0.13 4 0.78 187.2


Single Bowl Sink 7 0.16 1 1.12 67.2
Double Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Shower 2 0.16 10 0.32 192
Flushing Rim Sink 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Floor Receptor 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 1 0.16 10 0.16 9.6
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342

TOTALS: 2.54 552 0.84 50.4 0.57 342


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 0.13 55.2 0.42 5.04 0.03 34.2
aNote: Temperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 109

User group totals worksheet, 32-bed hospital

Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (F)
105
___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other (103)
___________
User Group GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

PATIENT AREA 7.6 276 0.9 3.6


NURSES STATION 0.5 19
HYDROTHERAPY 0.75 27 7.5 324
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE 0.2 4.5 21.8 422
SURGICAL SUITE 12 85.5 6.8 6.8
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY 0.9 9.5 0.9 4.1 2.7 28.8
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY 2.7 79.2
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 2 14.3 0.7 1.4 0.5 9

SUBTOTALS: 26.7 515 9.3 15.9 25 459 7.5 324


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier: 16.2 314 6.2 10.7 25 459 4.4 191 52 976
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
110 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.B(M) User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (C)
41
___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other (39)
___________
User Group L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

PATIENT AREA 0.49 1059.84 0.06 13.44


NURSES STATION 0.03 73.2
HYDROTHERAPY 0.17 102.6 0.47 1231.2
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE 0.01 16.2 1.38 1325.13
SURGICAL SUITE 0.77 328.8 0.42 25.2
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY 0.06 40.8 0.06 15.12 0.17 109.02
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY 0.17 325.28
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 0.13 55.2 0.42 5.04 0.03 34.2

SUBTOTALS: 1.83 2001.91 0.96 58.8 1.58 1468.35 0.47 1231.2


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier: 1.12 1221.17 0.64 39.4 1.58 1468.35 0.28 726.41 3.62 3455.83

Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.


aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Hospitals 111

Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital


This is an example of a 300-patient-bed hospital. A facility of this
size typically is located around a metropolitan area. This is a
complete-care, 24 h/day hospital with a full-service kitchen and
a laundry (this size hospital typically produces enough laundry
to warrant its own laundry facility). Refer to the attached
worksheets for specific fixture quantities.

Description of user groups

Patient area
The hospital has 300 patient-care beds, including those in
intensive care suites, critical care suites, postsurgery rooms,
emergency suites, and patient-care rooms. The facility is di-
vided by floor, with medical patients and surgical patients
housed on different floors. Patient rooms are private or semi-
private rooms with a shower (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical)
and a lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. In the
emergency care, intensive care and critical care suites, each
bed has a lavatory, and each suite has a flushing rim sink
with a bedpan washer. There are tub rooms on each floor
with a single bathtub for those who desire to take a bath.
Each floor has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm
[0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double bowl
sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with bed-
pan washer). Each floor has a janitors closet with receptor.

Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, each suite has a nurses
station, which provides service to the medical, surgical, in-
tensive care unit, and critical care unit (CCU) patient
beds. Each station has a medical drug dispensing room (single
sink), a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink
for general use. There are also nurses stations at the emer-
gency services area and the same-day surgery suites. These
nurses stations each have a general use sink at the station
and a toilet room with lavatory. An on-call room, which has a
shower and lavatory for staff members, is located in each of
these areas.
112 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a large hydrotherapy tub (500 gal
[1892.5 L]), 3 hip/leg tubs (100 gal [378.5 L]), arms/hips/
leg/back tubs (110 gal [416.35 L]) and a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.6]), and there is a hand washing
lavatory in the area. Mens and womens locker rooms with
showers and lavatories are provided for outpatient services.

Dietary and food service


The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night for all the patient rooms and the staff din-
ing room. It is a full-service department with the following
equipment: triple compartment sink with prerinse, scraping
sink with prerinse, dishwasher, double sinks for food prep/
thawing, single sinks for vegetable preparation, and hand
washing sinks. The department starts operation at 6:00 A.M.
and could make up to 1200 meals a day. All fixtures require
140F (60C) water except the hand washing lavatory, which
requires 110F (43C) water. The dishwasher requires 180F
(82C) water, and the 140F (60C) supply water temperature
will be raised at the dishwater with an electric booster heater.
This facility also has a guest cafeteria, which serves three
meals a day and has the following equipment: triple compart-
ment sink with prerinse, scraping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, single sink for veg-
etable preparation, and a hand washing sink.

Surgical/recovery suite
The facility has 24 operating rooms, each with two double
scrub sinks. The surgery department runs from 6:00 A.M. to
12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday with on-call services the
remainder of the time. The department also has general pur-
pose sinks, flash sterilizers (steam is provided from a boiler
in the boiler room), two janitors receptors, flushing rim sinks
(one in recovery), and showers with lavatories in the mens
and womens staff locker areas. The area also has four toilet
rooms with lavatories and two dark rooms. Each dark room
has a sink and a processor, which requires tempered water.
Thermostatic mixing valves should be used to provide the
tempered 110F (43C) water.
Hospitals 113

Laundry
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water
systems for this area.

Central sterile supply


The central sterile supply starts at 6:00 A.M. if there is sched-
uled surgery at that time; if not, it starts at 8:00 A.M. The
department stops at 4:00 P.M. The area has four gravity steam
sterilizers (steam is supplied from the boiler room), a sonic
cleaner, washer disinfector, cart washer, hand washing lava-
tories, double compartment sink with prerinse hose, and
flushing rim sink with bedpan washer. The sonic cleaner and
washer disinfector are typically used 2 cycles per hour.

Obstetrics/Nursery
The department has two delivery rooms and four sepa-
rate labor rooms. Each delivery room has two scrub-up
sinks, a steam sterilizer (steam is supplied from the boiler
room), and a single wash-up sink. There is a soiled utility
room with a flushing rim sink and a single wash-up sink.
Each labor room has a toilet with lavatory.
There are three levels of nursery in this facility: one (level
I) is for the newborns requiring standard care; one (level II) is
for newborns requiring extra observation; and one (the
neonatal intensive care unit, or NICU) is for newborns requir-
ing critical care. An isolation room is used for newborns who
need to be isolated. Each nursery has a lavatory, a single
wash-up sink, and a larger sink used to wash and bathe the
newborns. There is one shared soiled utility room with a wash-
up sink and a flushing rim sink.

Miscellaneous areas
Same-day (outpatient) surgery is where minor surgeries are
performed as outpatient services (i.e., the patients need not
stay overnight in the facility). The area has a general use sink,
a flushing rim sink, and scrub sinks adjacent to the two op-
erating rooms. Hours of operation are between 6:00 A.M. and
8:00 P.M.
The emergency room is in use 24 h a day. It has a scrub
sink, a flushing rim sink with bedpan washer, and a general
use sink in each of the four trauma rooms (areas used for
114 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

severely injured or critical patients). Each of the 12 examina-


tion pods is equipped with a lavatory. The pelvic exam room
has a toilet with lavatory. There are two cast rooms, each
with a lavatory.
Radiology is where X-rays are taken. The department has
two general radiology rooms, three CT scan rooms, and two
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines , each with a
flushing rim sink and a lavatory. Each procedure room is
provided with a general use sink. The area also has a jani-
tors closet with receptor, a toilet room with lavatory, and
three dark rooms, each with a sink and a cold water film
processor.
The maintenance area has a cart wash and service sink,
both using 140F (60C) water. Also the area has male and
female staff locker rooms, each with two showers and two
lavatories.
Hospitals 115

User group worksheets, 300-bed hospital

Worksheet 6.AUser Group:


Patient Area/OB/Nursery
Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 300 2.5 10 750 7500
Public Lavatory 20 0.5 10 10 100
Private Lavatory 5 2 4 10 40
Single Bowl Sink 20 2.5 1 50 50
Double Bowl Sink 5 2.5 1 12.5 12.5
Bathtub 3 7 10 21 210
Flushing Rim Sink 10 4.5 1 45 45
Floor Receptor 5 4.5 1 22.5 22.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 2 2.5 10 5 50
Residential Washing
Machine 2 4.5 6 9 54

TOTALS: 859 7962 76.5 121.5


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 5 B: 85.9 3184.8 7.7 48.8
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
116 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group:


Patient Area/OB/Nursery
Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 300 0.16 10 48.00 28 800
Public Lavatory 20 0.03 10 0.60 360
Private Lavatory 5 0.13 4 0.65 156
Single Bowl Sink 20 0.16 1 3.20 192
Double Bowl Sink 5 0.16 1 0.80 48
Bathtub 3 0.44 10 1.32 792
Flushing Rim Sink 10 0.28 1 2.8 168
Floor Receptor 5 0.28 1 1.4 84
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 2 0.16 10 0.32 192
Residential Washing
Machine 2 0.28 6 0.56 201.6

TOTALS: 54.89 30 540 4.76 453.6


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6. B: 5.49 12 216 0.48 181.44
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 117

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 6 0.5 10 3 30


Private Lavatory 20 2 4 40 160
Single Bowl Sink 5 2.5 1 12.5 12.5
Double Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
Bathtub 6 7 10 42 420
Shower 6 2.5 10 15 150
Flushing Rim Sink 2 4.5 1 9 9
Floor Receptor 2 4.5 1 9 9
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 3
100 Gal fills/h 15 18 45 810
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 2
100 Gal fills/h 15 30 30 900
Residential Washing
Machine 2 4.5 6 9 54
Residential
Dishwasher 2 4.5 3 9 27

TOTALS: 117.5 777.5 36 99 75 1710


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6. B: 29.5 700 9 89.1 18.8 153
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
118 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 6 0.03 10 0.18 108


Private Lavatory 20 0.13 4 2.6 624
Single Bowl Sink 5 0.16 1 0.80 48
Double Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2
Bathtub 6 0.44 10 2.64 1584
Shower 6 0.16 10 0.96 576
Flushing Rim Sink 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Floor Receptor 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 3
100 Gal fills/h 0.95 18 2.85 3078
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 2
100 Gal fills/h 0.95 30 1.90 3420
Machine 2 0.28 6 0.56 201.6
Residential
Dishwasher 2 0.28 3 0.56 100.8

TOTALS: 7.5 2959.2 2.24 369.6 4.75 6498


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6. B: 1.88 2663.28 0.56 332.64 1.19 5848.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 119

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 4 0.5 10 2 20


Single Bowl Sink 3 2.5 1 7.5 7.5
Double Bowl Sink 3 2.5 1 7.5 7.5
Floor Receptor 2 4.5 1 9 9
Commercial
Dishwasher 3 7 64 gphb 21 192
Triple Compartment
Sink 3 9 90 gphb 27 270
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 3 9 30 gphb 27 90
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 3 9 60 gphb 27 180
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 3 2.5 45 gphb 7.5 135
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90

TOTALS: 17 35 9 9 119 957


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 6.8 31 3.6 8.1 47 861
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.
120 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 4 0.03 10 0.12 72


Single Bowl Sink 3 0.16 1 0.48 28.8
Double Bowl Sink 3 0.16 1 0.48 28.8
Floor Receptor 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Commercial
Dishwasher 3 0.44 242.24 L/hb 1.32 726.72
Triple Compartment
Sink
Per Faucet 3 0.57 340.65 L/hb 1.71 1021.95
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 3 0.57 113.55 L/hb 1.71 340.65
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 3 0.57 227.10 L/hb 1.71 681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 3 0.16 170.33 L/hb 0.48 510.98
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342

TOTALS: 1.08 129.6 0.56 33.6 7.50 3623.6


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 0.43 116.64 0.22 30.24 3.00 3261.24
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
Hospitals 121

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Surgical Suite


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 10 0.5 10 5 50


Single Bowl Sink 10 2.5 1 25 25
Double Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
Shower 12 2.5 10 30 300
Flushing Rim Sink 4 4.5 1 18 18
Floor Receptor 2 4.5 1 9 9
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 30 2.5 10 75 750

TOTALS: 140 113 27 27


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 70 565 13 13
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Surgical Suite


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 10 0.03 10 0.30 180


Single Bowl Sink 10 0.16 1 1.60 96
Double Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2
Shower 12 0.16 10 1.92 1152
Flushing Rim Sink 4 0.28 1 1.12 67.2
Floor Receptor 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 30 0.16 10 4.80 2880

TOTALS: 8.94 4327.2 1.68 100.8


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6. B: 4.47 2163.6 0.84 50.4
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
122 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 6.A User Group: Central Sterile Supply


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 4 0.5 10 2 20


Double Bowl Sink 4 2.5 1 20 10
Flushing Rim Sink 2 4.5 1 9 9
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 2 2.5 45 gphb 5 90
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90
Sonic Cleaner 1 4.5 5 gphb 4.5 5
Washer/Disenfector 1 9 27 gphb 9 27
TOTALS: 12 30 14 14 28 212
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 2.4 27 2.7 12 5.5 191
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Central Sterile Supply


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 4 0.03 10 0.12 72


Double Bowl Sink 4 0.16 1 0.64 38.4
Flushing Rim Sink 2 0.28 1 0.56 33.6
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse 2 0.16 170.33 L/hb 0.32 340.66
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342
Sonic Cleaner 1 0.28 18.93 L/hb 0.28 18.93
Washer/Disenfector 1 0.57 102.20 L/hb 0.57 102.20
TOTALS: 0.76 110.4 0.84 50.4 1.74 803.79
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 0.15 99.36 0.17 45.36 0.35 723.41
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
Hospitals 123

Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 20 0.5 10 10 100


Private Lavatory 30 2 4 60 240
Single Bowl Sink 36 2.5 1 90 90
Double Bowl Sink 8 2.5 1 20 20
Shower 7 2.5 10 17 175
Flushing Rim Sink 18 4.5 1 81 81
Floor Receptor 4 4.5 1 18 18
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 4 2.5 10 10 100
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90
TOTALS: 208 725 99 99 9 90
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 10 72 5 9.9 0.5 9
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 20 0.03 10 0.60 360


Private Lavatory 30 0.13 4 3.9 936
Single Bowl Sink 36 0.16 1 5.76 345.6
Double Bowl Sink 8 0.16 1 1.28 76.8
Shower 7 0.16 10 1.12 672
Flushing Rim Sink 18 0.28 1 5.04 302.4
Floor Receptor 4 0.28 1 1.12 67.2
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 4 0.16 10 0.64 384
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342
TOTALS: 13.3 2774.4 6.16 369.6 0.57 342
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 0.67 277.44 0.31 36.96 0.02 34.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
124 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

User group totals worksheet, 300-bed hospital

Worksheet 6.B User Group Totals

Temperature at Outleta (F)


105
___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ 103
___________
User Group GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

PATIENT AREA 85.9 3,184.8 7.7 48.8


NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY 29.5 700 9 89.1 18.8 153
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE 6.8 31.5 3.6 8.1 47.6 861
SURGICAL SUITE 70 565 13.5 13.5
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY 2.4 27 2.7 12.2 5.5 191
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 10.4 72.5 4.95 9.9 0.45 9

SUBTOTALS: 204.9 4,581 41.5 181.6 53.6 1061 18.8 153


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
140F
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier: 124.9 2,794.4 27.8 121 53.6 1061 11.1 90 217 3,111

Note: Totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.


aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Hospitals 125

Worksheet 6.B(M)User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (C)
41
______________ 43
_____________ 60
_____________ Other (39)
_____________
User Group L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

PATIENT AREA 5.49 12 216 0.48 181.44


NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY 1.88 2 663.28 0.56 332.64 1.19 5848.2
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE 0.43 116.64 0.22 30.24 3.00 3261.24
SURGICAL SUITE 4.47 2 163.6 0.84 50.4
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY 0.15 99.36 0.17 45.36 0.35 723.41
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 0.67 277.44 0.31 36.96 0.02 34.2

SUBTOTALS: 13.09 17 536.32 2.58 677.04 3.37 4018.85 1.19 5848.2


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H

Subtotals Hot
Water Multiplier: 7.98 10 697.16 1.73 453.62 3.37 4018.85 0.70 3450.44 13.78 18 620.07

Note: Totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A


aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Spas, Pools, Health Clubs, and Athletic Centers 127

7
SPAS, POOLS,
HEALTH CLUBS,
AND ATHLETIC
CENTERS

INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for spas, pools, health clubs, and athletic centers.

INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
This is especially true if unique therapies or special treatments
will be performed at the facility.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents,
2. The interior design documents,
3. The architect,
4. The interior designer,
5. The owner,
6. The spa manager or coordinator,
7. The therapist,
8. Maintenance personnel,
9. Comparisons with similar facilities, and
10. Cut sheets on each piece of equipment.
Information will be used to determine:

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
128 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

1. Which fixtures require hot water,


2. The number and types of fixture required,
3. Shower room requirements,
4. Peak usage times,
5. The types of therapy specific to each room, such as:
Manicure,
Pedicure,
Vichy showers,
Hydro showers,
Body showers,
Massages.
6. Hot water requirements, such as:
Water temperature (for each type of therapy),
Demand required,
Recovery required.
7. Any special requirements that may be typical to this facility.

HOT WATER REQUIREMENTS

Therapies/Special Needs
The therapy load can oftentimes be a significant load. This needs
to be carefully evaluated. Coordinating with the health club/spa
staff, including the therapist, managers, and maintenance staff,
is very important. The owner, architect, or interior designer usu-
ally determines the quantities of fixtures.
The hot water requirements of therapies and special needs
can be affected by such things as:
1. The schedule of each type of therapy per room per hour and
the number of therapy rooms.
2. Whether cleaning/maintenance is required between thera-
pies.
3. What temperature is required for different therapies.
4. What other activities are happening concurrently with the
therapies.
5. The maximum flows for the equipment used.
Spas, Pools, Health Clubs, and Athletic Centers 129

6. The actual time of operation per therapy for each fixture.


The different therapies are listed below with their typical as-
sociated water temperature(s). These temperatures can vary
according to therapist and client. Manufacturers should be con-
tacted for the flow rates of the equipment.
1. Vichy shower (requires two temperatures):
Hot water temperature 101F (38C),
Cold water temperature 80F (27C).
2. Swiss showers
Range in temperature from 80 to 101F (27 to 38C).
3. Mineral salt bath
Constant temperature of 101F (38C).
4. Water path (lower leg/ankle therapies typically consisting of
two water paths)
Cold water path 55F (13C),
Hot water path 105F (41C).
5. Hydrotherapy tub
Temperature will change based on type of hydrotherapy pro-
cedure.
6. Manicures/pedicures
Constant temperature of 95F (35C).

Shower Rooms
The locker room shower load must also be considered. Typically
showers will operate concurrently with the therapies. The quan-
tity of showers is usually determined by the owners requirements,
the architects design, and/or code requirements. Facilities often
include areas with showers designed for specific functions, such
as family changing areas and childrens locker rooms. These areas
need to be evaluated for their use during the peak hours of opera-
tion.
The hot water requirements of the showers can be affected by
such things as:
1. Hours of operation.
2. Occupancy at different hours. It should be noted that the
occupancy will vary throughout the day. This list is only a
guide; the occupancy may vary with location and owners re-
130 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

quirements.
Early morning, 5:00 to 8:00 A.M.workforce, young pro-
fessionals.
Late morning, 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.parents with/without
children, older or retired people.
Noon, 11:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M.workforce, young profes-
sionals.
Afternoon, 1:30 TO 4:00 P.M.parents with children, older
or retired people.
Early evening, 4:00 to 6:00 P.M.the after work crowd,
young professionals.
Late evening, 7:00 to 9:00 P.M.families and single people.
3. Maximum flow rate of shower heads.
4. Special fixtures required.
5. Duration of showers.
6. Type of clients using the facility.
Note: It is not unusual for 25 to 50% of the showers in health
club facilities to be operating throughout the day. It is antici-
pated that during the peak hour 100% of the showers will operate
simultaneously.

Other Demands
There may be other demands associated with these facilities, de-
pending on owner preferences. If any of these other services are
specified, they too must be considered in the overall hot water
calculation. These demands are usually not large and need to be
added to the overall system capacity.
1. Laundry demand,
2. Food service demand.

CALCULATING THE HOT WATER DEMAND


Hot water demand for spas can be divided into several catego-
ries: general purpose, therapies, showers, laundries, and/or food
service. It is important to determine which, if any, of these loads
will occur at the same time and what the duration of the overlap
will be. As a general rule, if the facility is a full-service spa, in-
cluding therapies, weight training, aerobics, etc., a system
Spas, Pools, Health Clubs, and Athletic Centers 131

designed for both the therapies and the shower area should be
considered. If food service is also included, then this must be
considered in the calculations. If there will not be concurrent
usage, then the system can be designed according to the maxi-
mum demand during the peak hour. Consideration needs to be
given to providing two water heaters, each sized for 60% of the
total demand required.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 133

8
NURSING/
INTERMEDIATE CARE
AND
RETIREMENT HOMES

INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating sys-
tem for a nursing/intermediate care and retirement home. It is
important for the designer to realize that there is a difference be-
tween designing a domestic water heating system for this type of
facility and designing one for any other type of building.
The first section of this chapter addresses design consider-
ations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. A third section
contains worksheets, and the final section presents a design
example.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calcu-
lating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The proce-
dure presented here will help predict the minimum amount of
hot water needed by the facility.
Nursing care facilities typically have residents who require
nursing supervision in an inpatient setting. These resi-
dents generally have health issues or are frail from age, both of
which may adversely affect their mobility and ability to care for
themselves. These facilities offer 24 h per day care and typically
are regulated by the state department of health.
Intermediate care facilities typically have residents who ei-
ther desire or need nursing supervision. These residents are
healthier and more mobile than the residents of nursing care

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
134 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

facilities and may still be able to care for themselves. The nurs-
ing supervision is provided for general assistance and emergency
care.
Retirement homes, as discussed in this chapter, are under-
stood to be facilities that are either adjacent or attached to
nursing/intermediate care units. The facilities are so arranged
to enable the spouse/friend of a person in the nursing care unit
to be close by and aid in care. Residents of these facilities are
fully mobile and capable of taking care of themselves. Medical
assistance is available, however, if it is needed. Retirement homes
are similar to apartment complexes for the elderly.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Safety and Health Concerns


See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.

USER GROUP ANALYSIS


The specific areas of a facility, called user groups, should each
be considered when determining hot water usage. The user groups
identified below are typical of either a large or a small nursing/
intermediate care and retirement home. (Each facility must be
reviewed to determine its layout.) The general outline that fol-
lows may be used for each user group.

General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1. Fixtures requiring hot water,
2. Whether the fixtures are public or private,
3. Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fix-
ture,
4. Flow rates for each fixture,
5. The usage pattern of each fixture.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 135

User Groups

Nursing/Intermediate care facility

Resident areas
General resident areas in a nursing/intermediate care
facility typically are sleeping quarters, which may be shared
(double rooms are usual) and each of which has its own toilet
room. People living in this type of facility typically require
constant, specialized care.

Items that need to be determined include:


1. Are resident rooms private or semiprivate?
2. Does each resident room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
3. Does each room have a lavatory?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water in the resident
area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of scald-
ing in Chapter 1).
2. If the resident rooms each have a tub/shower, high hot
water usage is possible.

Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medi-
cine and simple food and drink items for residents and do
their required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is
located nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typi-
cally have sinks in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms
are in the vicinity of the station. The clean utility room typi-
cally has a single bowl sink while the soiled utility room
typically has a double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and a flushing rim sink (also known as a clinic sink) with a
bedpan washer. There may also be a bedpan sanitizer, and if
so, the hot water requirements of this unit will need to be
addressed.
136 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is where therapy using water
occurs. The therapies may involve many different tempera-
tures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The
therapy tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50-
gal to 500-gal (189.25-L to 1892.50-L) capacity or larger.

Items that should be determined include:


1. The number and size of each tub in the area.
2. For each type of tub, the number of planned therapies
per hour.
3. The hours the department is in use.
4. Desired fill time for each tub. (Staff will fill tub as rapidly
as possible.) Also determine whether the tubs are fully or
partially filled for cleaning between therapies.
5. Water temperatures used for the therapies.
6. Whether there is a shower for bathing purposes in the
area. (It could be in use at the same time the tub is being
cleaned or refilled.)

Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inad-
equate hot water supply.)

Dietary and food service


The dietary department provides three meals a day.
Most dietary departments are designed by food service con-
sultants, who should be contacted and consulted.

Items that need to be determined include:


1. The number of meals provided for each meal or day. Con-
sult the food service consultant.
2. The number of dishwashers and, for each, its type, size,
gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and required
temperature.
3. Number of sinks in the area and the type of each (prerinse,
etc.). Obtain water usages from the food service consult-
ant or use Table 8.1.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 137

4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C),
to be boosted at the equipment or is a separate water
heating system desired?
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperatures and pressures in the area. Typically
two and sometimes three temperatures are needed: 110F
(43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for dietary use,
and 180F (82C) for dishwashing. Some of the equip-
ment may have higher or lower than water line pressure
requirements.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and
runs simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.

Central bathing
Central bathing is where staff members aid residents who
cannot bathe themselves and where, if individual rooms do
not have their own tubs/showers, all the residents shower/
bathe. The area typically has a shower, a residential style
tub, and a specialized bathing tub for nonambulatory resi-
dents.

Items that need to be determined include:


1. The hours of scheduled bathing and the typical starting
time.
2. The type of specialized tub and the amount of water it
requires.
3. The layout of the fixtures. (Does it match the room layout
noted above?)
Areas of concern:
1. The suites scheduled operating hours and the number of
planned baths per hour.
2. Determine the maximum number of baths that may be
performed per hour in the tub. Assume that when staff
members aid residents in bathing, the maximum number
possible will be done.
138 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Laundry
A nursing care facility produces a large amount of laundry.
The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry de-
partment. Not all facilities have their own laundry department;
some opt to send the laundry to an outside service.

Items that should be determined include:


1. The number and size of each washing machine in the
area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot water
per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The departments start time and hours of operation.
4. The temperatures of the water used.

Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The de-
partment commonly begins operating in the early A.M.,
which is the same time other areas of the facility begin
startup (i.e., during hot water peak demand). The filling
of the washers is typically the first thing done at startup.
The probability that the washing machines will fill simul-
taneously is high during startup.
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot wa-
ter systems for this area. Due to the elevated water
temperatures required, separate water heating systems may
have to be used.

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and


maintenance)
The facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring hot
water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and staff shower rooms.

Items that need to be determined include:


1. In areas where showers are located, the flow rates of the
shower heads.
2. The water temperatures needed in those areas (mainte-
nance may desire 140F [60C] temperatures for cleanup
or washdown areas).
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 139

Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage
times of many of the other specific user groups. Though
the fixtures may be few, they still are used and should be
considered when doing calculations.

Retirement home

Resident areas
General resident areas in a retirement home are typically pri-
vate apartments.

Items that need to be determined include:


1. Number of bedrooms in each apartment and thus the
number of occupants to be considered.
2. The number and types of fixture in each apartment.
3. Does each apartment have a dishwasher and/or separate
laundry area?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Though codes may not require 110F (43C) water for this
type of facility (because of the generally adequate health
of its occupants) that water temperature might be con-
sidered to prevent scalding (see the discussion of scalding
in Chapter 1).

Laundry
Since a retirement home is similar to an apartment complex,
the facility may have a laundry room with a number of resi-
dential type washing machines.

Items that should be determined include:


1. The number of washing machines in the area and the size
of each (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot wa-
ter per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The rooms start time and the hours it is open for use.
140 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

4. The temperatures of the water used.

Areas of concern:
1. The laundry rooms scheduled hours of operation. Since
residents use this area, its hours of use are not regu-
latedthus, it could be used at any time. There is a
possibility that the washing machines will fill simul-
taneously.

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and


maintenance)
The facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring hot
water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and public toilet rooms. If
the facility adjoins a nursing care facility, these areas may be
shared with the nursing care facility. The items that need to
be determined and areas of concern are the same as those
noted above for a nursing care facility.

WORKSHEETS AND TABLES

Worksheet 8.AUser Group


This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calcu-
lating the hot water requirements for an individual user group. A
different sheet should be used for each user group. All water
quantity usage figuresgallons per hour (gph), liters per hour
(L/h), gallons per minute (gpm), liters per second (L/sec), and
minutes of use per hour (min use/h)are suggested. The de-
signer must ascertain the correct quantities through actual
fixture/device/equipment literature (e.g., shop drawings) and/
or discussions with the owner and/or user.
The fixture column lists fixtures in a facility that use hot
water. The designer may add other fixtures to this list if neces-
sary. The quantity column indicates the number of those fixtures
located in the user group area. Gpm (L/sec) is the flow rate
from the fixture used in the calculation. Min use/h is
the estimated use of the fixture in 1 h.
The next section, temperature at outlet, is for the water
temperature at the faucet outlet not the system temperature. This
is important, since cold water will be added to the system hot
water to obtain the desired outlet temperature. Because of this,
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 141

the flow from the faucet is not all hot water. Table 1.1 is used to
determine the actual amount of hot water needed at the faucet
outlet. The temperature at outlet section is split into four sub-
sections, each having a different faucet outlet water temperature.
For the last subsection, labeled other, any temperature may be
used, but the temperature must be the same for all fixtures used
in that column. Each temperature subsection is split into two
more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h). The equation
for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated,
each column is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of
the sheet under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm
(L/sec) and gph (L/h) are found in Table 8.2. Each total is multi-
plied by the appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals,
which are used on Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals. The
user group totals are the amount of hot water predicted to be
used in a particular user group during the peak hour(s). Design-
ers should use their best judgment when working with these
figures.
142 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.AUser Group


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatory 2.5 10
Public lavatory 0.5 10
Private lavatory 2 4
Single bowl sink 2.5 1
Double Bowl Sink 2.5 1
Bathtub 7 10
Shower 2.5 10
Flushing rim sink 4.5 1
Floor receptor 4.5 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 2.5 10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal) 15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal) 15
Laundry tub 4.5 1
Residential washing
machine 4.5 6
Residential dishwasher 4.5 3
Commercial dishwasher 7
Triple compartment sink,
per faucet 9
Commercial kitchen,
single sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
double sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse 2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash 9 10

TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8. B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 143

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower & Lavatory 0.16 10
Public Lavatory 0.03 10
Private Lavatory 0.13 4
Single Bowl Sink 0.16 1
Double Bowl Sink 0.16 1
Bathtub 0.44 10
Shower 0.16 10
Flushing Rim Sink 0.28 1
Floor Receptor 0.28 1
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 0.16 10
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 378.5 L 0.95
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 378.5 L 0.95
Laundry Tub 0.28 1
Residential Washing
Machine 0.28 6
Residential Dishwasher 0.28 3
Commercial Dishwasher 0.44
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Faucet 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse 0.16
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 0.57 10

TOTALS:
Usage Factors ( UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
144 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.BUser Group Totals


This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculat-
ing a facilitys hot water requirements. The totals found at the
bottom of the sheet indicate the predicted amount of hot water
the facility will use during the peak usage hour. Designers should
use their best judgment when working with these numbers to
determine the amount of hot water supplied to the facility.
The items in the first, or user group, column are obtained
from Worksheet 8.A. As seen, the user group totals from
Worksheet 8.A are placed in the columns under the appropriate
temperature at outlet, gpm (L/sec), and gph (L/h) headings.
All of the user group totals for gpm (L/sec) are added together
and the resulting number is placed in the Subtotals section
near the bottom of the worksheet. This also is done for the gph
(L/h) figures.
Designers need to determine when more than one hot water
heater supply temperature (e.g., 105F, 110F, 140F [41C, 43C,
60C]) will be required in the facility. When more than one water
heater is required to supply different temperatures, separate
Worksheets 8.A and 8.B should be used for each water heater
system. Subtotal each temperature at outlet column, use Table
1.1 to look up the hot water multiplier for the system wa-
ter temperature supplied to the facility, then multiply each
subtotal by its appropriate multiplier. When this is done, total
the actual gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h) demands for the system
water temperature supplied to the facility (the bottom row of the
worksheet), and put the resulting numbers under totals at the
bottom right of the worksheet. These totals are the gpm (L/sec)
and gph (L/h) the water heater(s) are required to supply to the
facility. Designers should use their best judgment when working
with these figures.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 145

Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (F)
105
___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
User Group GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Nursing care facility


Resident area
Nurses station
Hydrotherapy
Dietary &
food service
Central bathing
Miscellaneous areas
Retirement home
Resident rooms
Miscellaneous areas

SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier:

Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 8.A.


aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
146 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.B(M)User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (C)
41
___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
User Group L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Nursing care facility


Resident area
Nurses station
Hydrotherapy
Dietary &
food service
Central bathing
Miscellaneous areas
Retirement home
Resident rooms
Miscellaneous areas

SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H

Subtotals Hot Water


Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 8.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 147

Worksheet 8.AUser GroupExample


This is a copy of Worksheet 8.A with recommendations on tem-
perature at outlet and other comments. (See worksheet footnotes.)
Designers should use their best judgment and take into account
national, state, and local codes when considering these recom-
mendations.

Worksheet 8.AUser Group Example


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatoryb,c 2.5 10 *l *
Public Lavatoryb 0.5 10 * *
Private Lavatoryb 2 4 * *
Single Bowl Sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Double Bowl Sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Bathtube 7 10 * *
Showerb 2.5 10 * *
Flushing Rim Sinkf 4.5 1
Floor Receptorf 4.5 1
Small Hydro-Tub Based on
Less Than 100 Gald 15 tub size
Large Hydro-Tub Based on
More Than 100 Gald 15 tub size
Laundry Tubf 4.5 1
Residential Washing
Machinef 4.5 6 * *
Residential Dishwasherf 4.5 3 * *
Commercial Dishwasherj 7 Equip. used * *
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Fauceth,i 9 k * 90
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sinkh,i 9 * 30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sinkh,i 9 * 60
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinseg 2.5 * 45
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Washh 9 10 * *
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:

(Continued)
148 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(Worksheet 8.A Example continued)


Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH
calculation is for a storage type water heating system.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bBased on ANSI standard of 2.5 gpm for showerheads, 2.5 gpm for sinks, 2.0 gpm
for lavatories, and 0.5 gpm for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except 2 baths per hour.
fBased on 4.5 gpm and in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec maxi-
mum velocity.
iBased on Table 8.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitches
Uses (gph).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 8.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 149

Worksheet 8.A(M)User GroupExample


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom group
tub/shower &
lavatoryb,c 1,2 0.16 10 *l *
Public lavatoryb 1 0.03 10 * *
Private lavatory b 1 0.13 4 * *
Single bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Double bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Bathtube 4 0.44 10 * *
Showerb 1 0.16 10 * *
Flushing rim sinkf 5 0.28 1
Floor receptorf 5 0.28 1
Small hydro-tubd Based on
(less than 378.5 L) 3 0.95 Tub Size
Large hydro-tubd Based on
(more than 378.5 L) 3 0.95 Tub Size
Laundry tubf 5 0.28 1
Residential washing
machinef 5 0.28 6 * *
Residential
dishwasherf 5 0.28 3 * *
Commercial Equip.
dishwasherj 9 0.44 used * *
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8 0.57 k * 340.65
Commercial kitchen
single sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 113.55
Commercial kitchen
double sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 227.10
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg 6 0.16 * 170.33
Hose station or
cart/can washh 7 0.57 10 * *

TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B

(Continued)
150 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(Worksheet 8.A[M] Example continued)


Note: L/sec calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. L/h
calculation is for a storage type water heating system.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bBased on ANSI Standard of 0.16 L/sec for showerheads, 0.16 L/sec for sinks,
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except 2 baths per hour.
fBased on 0.28 L/sec and DN15 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 8.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses (L/h).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 8.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 151

Table 8.1General Purpose Hot Water Requirements


for Various Kitchen Uses
This table, which supplies information on water usage for vari-
ous kitchen uses, should be used for the dietary and food service
user group.

Table 8.1 General Purpose Hot Water


Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses
Equipment GPH L/H

Vegetable sink 45 170.33


Single compartment sink 30 113.55
Double compartment sink 60 227.10
Triple compartment sink 90 340.65
Prescrapper (open type) 180 681.30
Prerinse (hand operated) 45 170.33
Prerinse (closed type) 240 908.40
Recirculating prerinse 40 151.40
Bar sink 30 113.55
Lavatories (each) 5 18.93

Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
152 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 8.2Usage Factors for User Groups


This table provides the recommended usage factors for use with
Worksheet 8.A. The following discussion gives the background of
how these numbers were determined. (They represent a consen-
sus of opinion of a group of experienced designers; however,
designers should use their best judgment when working with
these figures).

Table 8.2 Usage Factors for User Groups


Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility User Groups
Dietary
Resident Nurses Hydro- & Food Central Misc.
Area Station therapy Service Bathing Areas

GPM (L/Sec) 0.10 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.25 0.05


GPH (L/H) 0.30 0.50 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.10

Retirement Home User Groups


Resident Rooms Laundry Misc. Areas
GPM (L/Sec) 0.10 0.50 0.05
GPH (L/H) 0.40 0.75 0.10

Note: Based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.

General

The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water us-
ing fixture will be operated during a 1-h period.
These figures are based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h
peak period.

Nursing/Intermediate care facility

Resident area
Many residents in nursing care areas are not ambulatory and
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities.
Residents of intermediate care areas generally are ambula-
tory and thus can use the shower facilities without assistance.
The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 153

on the fact that not all residents use their fixtures during the
same minute. Also, fixtures in this user group flow less water
per minute than fixtures elsewhere and are used for short
periods of time.
The 0.30 (30%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that fixtures in this user group use less water than
fixtures elsewhere and are used for short periods of time.

Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used
most heavily during shift changes. This is because of the
preparation necessary before residents can be aided.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the relationship between the staff and residents. During a
peak 3-h period of hot water use, the resident area is used
more heavily than the nurses station. Since many residents
need assistance using the bathing/shower facilities, staff
members are in the resident area aiding residents and not at
the nurses station using the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is also based
on these same issues, but because of the time staff members
spend at the nurses station organizing/distributing medi-
cines and doing other work, the hand washing fixtures there
are used extensively.

Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The therapy
staff can be split between the physical therapy and the hy-
drotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the cyclical use of the hydrotherapy tubs and on the as-
sumption that staff members are also doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that during the peak usage time, almost all of
the fixtures in this area are in use. This assumes that the
staff schedules the water therapies during one time and the
physical therapies during another.

Dietary and food service


This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the
facility, the usage of water for cooking and for cleaning may over-
154 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

lap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is
based on the assumption that cleaning (washing of dishes,
etc.) does not occur in the same minute as food prepa-
ration. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then
work is done using an intermittent, not a steady, water sup-
ply.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the area fixtures are used dur-
ing one of the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.

Central bathing
When in operation, this area is a large water user. Staff mem-
bers set a schedule for bathing nonambulatory residents, and
during that time only one bathing fixture is used. The worst
case scenario is when the residents are assisted by staff. This
is because the staff are on a schedule and bathe the resi-
dents based on that schedule.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the use of one tub at a time in each room (assuming each
room has a shower, a residential tub, and a non-ambulatory
residents bathing tub). Also taken into consideration was
the time needed for the staff to get the residents and to dry
them off.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that during peak usage time almost all of the fixtures
in this area are used.

Miscellaneous areas
The rest of the facility uses water, but not during the facilitys
peak usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the
miscellaneous areas. These areas should be taken into ac-
count, though, because water using fixtures are available and
used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that a very small number of the fixtures are used
during 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that most of the fixtures in these areas are not used
during the facilitys peak usage hour.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 155

Retirement home

Resident rooms
The residents of a retirement home are ambulatory and do not
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities. As
noted earlier, this type of facility is similar to an apartment
building, but its residents are of a uniform age group.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that when the shower is in use, the rooms
lavatory and kitchen sink are not in use during the same
minute, and not all residents are using the fixtures.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that the kitchen sink and either the shower or the
lavatory are used during an hour of peak usage time.

Laundry
The laundry area of a retirement home is smaller than one
for a typical apartment building. This is because the usage
time for a retirement home laundry is more spread out over
the course of the day since residents typically do not work.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that when one washer starts its filling
cycle another is being filled with clothes, and the second
machines cycle begins when the first washer is still filling.
Though the two washers fill at the same time, it is assumed
that only half of the other washers are in use in the peak
moment. Also, when a resident is using the washers, the fix-
tures in his/her apartment are not in use.
The 0.75 (75%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
most of the washers being used during a peak usage period.
Also, there is the possibility that a resident may leave the
laundry room and go back to his/her room and use the fix-
tures there.

Miscellaneous areas
Though the rest of the facilitys fixtures use water, they are
not heavily used fixtures. That is because, if the facility is
separate from the nursing care facility, the staff is small. If it
is attached to the nursing care facility, staff members are
generally in the other areas. Miscellaneous areas should be
taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are
available and used there.
156 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that only a very small number of the fix-
tures are used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage
time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are not
used during the facilitys peak usage hour.

QUESTIONS FOR OWNER OR CLIENT

Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility

Resident areas/Nurses stations

1. Are resident rooms private or semiprivate?


2. Does each resident room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
3. Determine the flow from shower heads or tub flow/capaci-
ties.

Hydrotherapy

1. What are the number and sizes of the tubs in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between therapies?
6. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
7. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?

Dietary and food service

1. What is the number of meals provided for each mealtime/


day?
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type, size,
gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature
required for each?
3. What are the type and number of sinks, prerinses, etc., in
the area?
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 157

4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired?

Central bathing

1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and the typical start-
ing time?
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing tubs,
and what are their types and water demands?
4. Is there a desired temperature of the water the staff uses to
bathe residents?

Laundry

1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines in


the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
use?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and maintenance)

1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rates of


the shower heads.
2. What are the water temperatures needed in these areas?
3. What is the acceptable time delay between the hot tap open-
ing and the delivery of acceptable water (due to the length of
the branch piping)?

Retirement Home

Resident areas/apartments

1. Are resident rooms single or double bedroom units?


2. Is the facility set up so that the spouse of a person in nursing
or intermediate care has priority use?
158 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

3. What is the flow from shower heads or the tub flow/


capacities?
4. Do the apartments have dishwashers/ washing machines or
the possibility of the addition of such in the future?

Laundry

1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines in


the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What are the start time and the hours the room is available
for use?
3. What water temperatures are used/needed?

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., maintenance)

1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of the
shower heads.
2. What water temperatures are used/needed in these areas?

EXAMPLE: 48-BED NURSING/INTERMEDIATE


CARE AND RETIREMENT HOME
The facility in question has a 48-resident-bed nursing/interme-
diate care unit with an attached 24-single-bedroom retirement
home. It is a complete care, 24 h/day facility with a laundry. The
laundry facility has its own water heater due to the elevated tem-
perature and load entailed.

Description of User Groups

Nursing/intermediate care facility

Resident area
The facility has 32 nursing care beds and 16 intermediate
care beds. It has a three-wing layout with nursing care resi-
dents in one wing and intermediate care beds in the other
two. (The second intermediate care wing is considered a swing
care wing; it also could be used for nursing care.) The rooms
are double resident rooms with a water closet and lavatory
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 159

(2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. Each wing has a clean
utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical), a
soiled utility room (double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer), and a janitors
closet with receptor. (There are a total of 27 lavatories, 3 single
sinks, 3 double bowl sinks, 3 flushing rim sinks, and 3 floor
receptors in the resident area.)

Nurses station
A single nurses station provides service to the three wings.
The station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink for
general use.

Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hip/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]), and a hand washing lavatory.
The 25-gal (94.63-L) arms tank is filled using the hip/leg tub
valve.

Dietary and food service


The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night. It is a full-service department with the
following equipment: a triple compartment sink with prerinse,
a scrapping sink with prerinse, a dishwasher, a double sink
for food thawing, a sink for vegetable preparation, and a hand
washing lavatory. The department starts operation at 6:00
A.M. Through a discussion with the food service consultant,
the designer learned that the department makes 200 meals a
day. A water temperature of 140F (60C) is required at all
fixtures except the hand washing lavatory, where 110F (43C)
water is needed. The dishwasher requires 180F (82C) rinse
water and the 140F (60C) water will be boosted at the dish-
washer with an electric booster heater.

Central bathing
One of the intermediate care wings has a tub room with one
bathtub and one shower for residents private or assisted use.
The tub rooms for the nursing care wing and the second in-
termediate care wing each have one bathtub and shower for
160 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

private or assisted use and a specialized tub for


nonambulatory residents. (The second intermediate care wing
is considered a swing care wing; it also could be used for
nursing care.) Each tub room has a water closet and lavatory
for staff and resident use.

Laundry
The facility sends the bulk of its laundry out to an off-site
location. There are three residential type washers and dryers
for the residents personal use.

Miscellaneous areas
The administration area has two public restrooms each with
two lavatories (0.5 gpm [0.03 L/sec]). There also is a small
kitchenette with a sink (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec]).
The maintenance area has a cart wash and a service sink,
both of which use 140F (60C) water. The area also has male
and female staff locker rooms, each with one shower and two
lavatories.

Retirement home

The retirement home is a 24-unit complex attached to the nurs-


ing/intermediate care facility. It is designed for the spouses of
residents in the nursing care facility. Its hot water is supplied by
the nursing care facilitys system.

Resident rooms
Each unit has a kitchen area with a double bowl sink and the
capability for a dishwasher, and a bathroom with a tub/
shower and a lavatory.

Laundry
The complex has a laundry room with four residential type
washing machines and a laundry tub. The room is scheduled
to be open 24 h/day.

Miscellaneous areas
The complex has a lounge and social gathering area. There
are two toilet rooms in the area, each with a lavatory, and
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 161

there is a single bowl sink in the lounge. A floor receptor is


located in a small room off the corridor.

Questions for Owner or Client


(This is a sample application of the questions from the previously
defined user group analysis. Answers to questions appear in bold-
face type.)

Nursing/intermediate care facility

Resident areas/nurses stations

1. Are resident rooms private or semiprivate?


Semiprivate (double)
2. Does each resident room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
Central bathing
3. Determine the flow from the shower head or the tub flow/
capacity.
This is a new facility, thus, none exist.

Hydrotherapy

1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the tubs in
the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal
(416.35 L), and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
Two total
3. What hours is the department in use?
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is used, thus, fill time is
7 min.
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between
therapies?
Yes
6. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
103F (39C)
162 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

7. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?


No, but a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory is present.

Dietary and food service

1. What is the number of meals provided each mealtime/


day?
200 per day
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type,
size, gallons per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature
required for each?
One, Hobart AM14, 1.2 gal per rack at 53 racks =
64 gal per cycle (56.78 L per rack at 53 racks =
3009.34 L per cycle), 1 cycle per h, 140F (60C).
3. What is the number of sinks, prerinses, etc. in the area
and what is the type of each?
Triple compartment sink w/prerinse, scrapping
sink w/prerinse, double sink for food thawing,
sink for vegetable prep, and a hand washing sink.
4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired?
Yes, used after meals are served, 1400F (60C).

Central bathing

1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and what is the


typical starting time?
Staff-assisted baths are from 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.
3 days/week.
Ambulatory residents may use the bathing facili-
ties during these times if they are scheduled and
at other times if that is acceptable to staff.
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
There are three bathing rooms, each with one tub
and shower.
Each bathing room also has a hand washing lava-
tory, which could be used when the bath/shower is
in use.
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing
tubs, and what are the type and water demand of each?
Two total, 50 gal (189.25 L) each, to fill for bath
use.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 163

When the special bath is used, the other tub and


shower are not used.
The baths should be designed for 4 fills/h.
4. Is there a desired temperature for the water the staff uses
for bathing residents?
140F (60C) maximum for the baths

Laundry
Note: Since the fixtures in this area are for residents use and
will be monitored, their use is covered under Miscellaneous
Areas.
1. What is the number of the washing machines in the area
and what is the size of each (pound [kilogram] ca-
pacity and gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour
per kilogram])?
Three residential style
Only intermediate care residents may use, with
limited supervision
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
Nothing organized
3. What are the start time and the hours the room is in use?
The laundry room is open between 7:00 A.M. and
4:00 P.M.
Staff members desire some supervision and typi-
cally aid the residents in the use of the washers.
4. What are the temperatures of water used?

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and mainte-


nance)

1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of


the shower heads.
Two showers at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) each, 4
lavatories at 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) each
Four public lavatories at 0.5 gpm (0.03 L/sec) each
Kitchen sink at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec)
Service sink and cart wash in maintenance
2. What are the water temperatures needed in these areas?
110F (43C) in administration and shower rooms
164 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

140F (60C) in maintenance

Retirement home

Resident areas/Apartments

1. Are resident rooms single or double bedroom units?


Single
2. Is the facility set up such that the spouse of a person in
nursing or intermediate care has priority use?
Yes
3. What is the flow from the shower head or the tub flow/
capacity?
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head
4. Do the apartments have dishwashers/washing machines
or the capability of the addition of such in the future?
Dishwashers supplied by renters
Consider 24 in calculations

Laundry

1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines


in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per
hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
4 residential type
2. What are the start time and the hours the room is avail-
able for use?
Open 24 h/day
3. What are the water temperatures used/needed?
140F (60C)

Miscellaneous areas (e.g., maintenance)

1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of


the shower heads.
None
2. What are the water temperatures used/needed in these
areas?
No special temperatures

User Group Worksheets, 48-Bed Nursing/Intermediate


Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 165

Care and Retirement Home

Nursing/intermediate care facility

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Patient Area


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 27 2 4 54 216


Single Bowl Sink 3 2.5 1 7.5 7.5
Double Bowl Sink 3 2.5 1 7.5 7.5
Flushing Rim Sink 3 4.5 1 13.5 13.5
Floor Receptor 3 4.5 1 13.5 13.5

TOTALS: 69 231 27 27
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 6.9 69.3 2.7 8.1
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Patient Area


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 27 0.13 4 3.51 842.4


Single Bowl Sink 3 0.16 1 0.48 28.8
Double Bowl Sink 3 0.16 1 0.48 28.8
Flushing Rim Sink 3 0.28 1 0.84 50.4
Floor Receptor 3 0.28 1 0.84 50.4

TOTALS: 4.47 900 1.68 100.8


Usage Factor UF Refer to Table 8.2: 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B 0.45 270 0.17 30.24
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Nurses Station


Temperature at Outleta (F)
166 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5

TOTALS: 7 13
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.05 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.4 6.5
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Nurses Station


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 31.2


Single Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2

TOTALS: 0.64 50.4


Usage Factor UF Refer to Table 8.2: 0.05 0.50
Group Totals UF Totals; 0.03 25.2
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 167

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 2
100 Gal (4 fills) 15 7 30 420

TOTALS: 2 8 30 420
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.5 7.2 7.5 378
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Hydrotherapy


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ 39
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 30.28


Large Hydro-Tub 2
More Than 378.5 L (4 fills) 0.95 7 1.9 798

TOTALS: 0.13 30.28 1.9 798


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.25 0.90 0.25 0.90
User Group Totals (UF Totals); 0.03 27.25 0.48 718.2
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
168 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Commercial
Dishwasher 1 7 64 7 64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet 2 9 90 GPHb 18 180
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 1 9 30 GPHb 9 30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 1 9 60 GPHb 9 60
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse 2 2.5 45 GPHb 5 90
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90

TOTALS: 2 8 57 514
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.8 7.2 22.8 463
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 169

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Dietary & Food Service


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 31.2


Commercial
Dishwasher 1 0.44 64 0.44 1689.6
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet 2 0.57 340.65 L/hb 1.14 681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 1 0.57 113.55 L/hb 0.57 113.55
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 1 0.57 227.10 L/hb 0.57 227.10
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse 2 0.16 170.33 L/hb 0.32 340.66
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342

TOTALS: 0.13 31.2 3.6 3394.21


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.40 0.90 0.40 0.90
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.05 28.08 1.44 3054.79
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
170 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Central Bathing


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Private Lavatory 3 2 4 6 24
Bathtub 3 7 10 21 210
Shower 3 2.5 10 7.5 75
Specialized Bathtub 2 15 200gphb 30 400

TOTALS: 64.5 709


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 16.1 638
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThis value is in total gph and does not reflect min use/h.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Central Bathing


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Private Lavatory 3 0.13 4 0.39 93.6


Bathtub 3 0.44 10 1.32 792
Shower 3 0.16 10 0.48 288
Specialized Bathtub 2 0.95 757 L/hb 1.9 1514.00

TOTALS: 4.09 2687.6


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.25 0.90
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 1.02 2418.84
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThis value is in total L/h and does not reflect min use/h.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 171

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 4 0.5 10 2 20


Private Lavatory 5 2 4 10 40
Single Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 25
Shower 2 2.5 10 5 50
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Laundry Tub 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Residential
Washing Machine 3 4.5 6 13.5 81
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90

TOTALS: 19.5 113 22.5 90 9 90


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 1.0 11.3 1.1 9 0.5 9
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
172 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 4 0.03 10 0.12 72


Private Lavatory 5 0.13 4 0.65 156
Single Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Shower 2 0.16 10 0.32 192
Flushing Rim Sink 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Laundry Tub 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Residential
Washing Machine 3 0.28 6 0.84 302.4
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 0.57 10 0.57 342

TOTALS: 1.25 429.6 1.70 352.8 0.57 342


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.10
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.06 42.96 0.09 35.28 0.03 34.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 173

Retirement home

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Resident Rooms


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 2.5 10 60 600
Double Bowl Sink 24 2.5 1 60 60
Residential
Dishwasher 24 4.5 3 108 324

TOTALS: 120 660 108 324


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 12 264 10.8 130
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Resident Rooms


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 0.16 10 3.84 230.4
Double Bowl Sink 24 0.16 1 3.84 230.4
Residential
Dishwasher 24 0.28 3 6.72 1209.6

TOTALS: 7.68 460.8 6.72 1209.6


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.10 0.40 0.10 0.40
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.77 184.32 0.67 483.84
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
174 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Laundry


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Laundry Tub 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5


Residential Washing
Machine 4 4.5 6 18 108

TOTALS: 22.5 113


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.5 0.75
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 11.3 84.4
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Laundry


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Laundry Tub 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8


Residential Washing
Machine 4 0.28 6 1.12 403.2

TOTALS: 1.40 420


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.50 0.75
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.7 315
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 175

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (F)
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Public Lavatory 2 0.5 10 1 10


Single Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5

TOTALS: 3.5 12.5 4.5 4.5


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):0.05 0.1 0.05 0.1
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.2 1.3 0.2 0.5
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.

Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Miscellaneous Areas


Temperature at Outleta (C)
A B C (L/Sec = A B L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
41
Min ___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Public Lavatory 2 0.03 10 0.06 36


Single Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8

TOTALS: 0.22 45.6 0.28 16.8


Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):0.05 0.10 0.05 0.10
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.01 4.56 0.01 1.68
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
176 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

User Group Totals Worksheet, 48-Bed Nursing/


Intermediate Care and Retirement Home

Worksheet 8.BUser Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (F)
105
___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
User Group GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH

Nursing care facility


PATIENT AREAS 6.9 69.3 2.7 8.1
NURSES STATION 0.4 6.5
HYDROTHERAPY 0.5 7.2 7.5 378
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE 0.8 7.2 22.8 341
CENTRAL BATHING 16.1 638
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 1.0 11.3 1.1 9.0 0.5 9
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS 12 264 10.8 130
LAUNDRY 11.3 84.4
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 0.2 1.3 0.2 0.5

SUBTOTALS: 37.9 1005 26.1 232 23.3 350 7.5 378


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH

Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier 23.1 613 17.5 155.4 23.3 350 4.4 223 68.3 1341
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 177

Worksheet 8.B(M)User Group Totals


Temperature at Outleta (C)
41
___________ 43
___________ 60
___________ Other (39)
___________
User Group L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H L/Sec L/H

Nursing care facility


PATIENT AREAS 0.45 270 0.17 30.24
NURSES STATION 0.03 25.2
HYDROTHERAPY 0.03 27.25 0.48 718.2
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE 0.05 28.08 1.44 3054.79
CENTRAL BATHING 1.02 2418.84
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 0.06 42.96 0.09 35.28 0.03 34.2
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS 0.77 184.32 0.67 483.84
LAUNDRY 0.7 315
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS 0.01 4.56 0.01 1.68

SUBTOTALS: 2.42 3001.21 1.64 866.04 1.47 3088.99 0.48 718.2


HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b 0.61 0.61 0.67 0.67 1 1 0.59 0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H

Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier 1.48 1830.74 1.10 580.25 1.47 3088.99 0.28 423.74 4.33 5923.72
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Jail and Prison Housing Units 179

9
INTRODUCTION
JAIL AND PRISON
HOUSING UNITS

The objective of this chapter is to help the designer understand


and deal with the problems of designing water heating systems
for jail and prison housing units. It is important that the de-
signer recognize that each building is unique and work closely
with the owner, architect, and government authorities to deter-
mine how a building will operate. A buildings operation will affect
when and for how long the peak hot water demand will occur.
The first part of this chapter discusses generally some of the
design criteria and areas of special concern involved in designing
for jail and prison housing units. The second part gives two prac-
tical examples of sizing methodology, one for jails and one for
prisons.

GENERAL
The design criteria used to design hot water systems for
jail housing units differ from those used for prison housing units.
This difference is due to the fact that the facilities are used for
different purposes. Jails are used primarily to house people
awaiting trial or serving short sentences. Prisons are used to house
convicted criminals serving long prison terms. This difference
affects the prisoners daily routines, which, in turn, determine
when the facilities peak hot water demands occur.
It is required that hot water temperature for the showers and
lavatories in jails and prisons be limited to between 100 and

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
180 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

110F (38 and 43C). This temperature range has been estab-
lished to prevent inmates from using hot water as a weapon.1
The generally used standard temperature is 105F (41C). Push-
button type self-closing or timed-control valves are used to deliver
hot water of this temperature to the showers and lavatories. Oc-
casionally an owner will require that a shower control valve that
allows some inmate control of shower water temperature be pro-
vided. New security type valves provide this feature. Hot water at
the design temperature must be furnished at the fixture because
of the lower-than-usual water temperature and the self-closing
features of inmate control valves.
The designer should take into consideration that the typical
life of a jail or prison is 50 to 100 years and that any system
installed must be accessible for replacement or repair.
Large jail facilities and all prisons have central laundry fa-
cilities and central kitchens. The hot water systems for the laundry
and kitchen areas should be separate from those for housing be-
cause these areas have very different hot water demands. For
instance, the temperature of the hot water delivered will be higher,
between 140 and 180F (60 and 82C). If a centralized water heat-
ing system is used for the general purpose and kitchen/laundry
water, then a fail-safe water tempering system must be installed
for the general purpose water.

Hot Water Demand


The usual fixtures requiring hot water found in housing units
are showers and lavatories. Some units also have small kitchens
or serving areas, which may have additional sinks and small dish-
washers. Such serving areas are project specific. In jails, very
often one or two residential type washing machines are required
for each housing unit pod (a group of 10 to 20 cells). The typical
housing unit is composed of multiple pods, with each cell open-
ing onto a day room. Currently it is recommended that there be
one shower for every eight inmates and a lavatory in each
cell. 2 The number and location of the showers are decided by
the architect in coordination with the owner and according to
specific code requirements. The shower operation is the factor
that determines the required sizes of the water heater and stor-
age tank.

1American Corrections Association, Adult Corrections Institutions, 3d ed.


2 Ibid.
Jail and Prison Housing Units 181

Primary considerations

1. The standard recommendation of eight inmates per shower


was made so that all inmates could shower during a 1-h pe-
riod. This arrangement allows an average of 7 min for each
inmate to shower. About half that time is taken up by drying
and switching inmates, leaving only about 3.5 min of actual
water usage per inmate.
2. Showers are the main factor affecting water heater size. Al-
lowance should be made for the many lavatories in housing
units when sizing the storage tank.
3. The efficiency of storage systems varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer, but 65 to 80% is a good efficiency range to use
until you have actual data on the tank and system specified.

JAIL EXAMPLE
This is an example of a jail housing unit with six pods of 24 cells
each (one inmate per cell) and three showers per pod. Assume
that the hot water generated is 140F (60C) and the incoming
water temperature is 50F (10C).

Questions

1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?


No
2. Will all the cell pods release their inmates for showering within
the same hour?
Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a
1-h recovery period.)
3. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited?
Yes, to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min of water usage
4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking inmates, either
now or in the future?
No

Calculations for Jail Housing Units


The ratio of 140 to 50F (60 to 10C) water flowing at the shower
can be calculated using the mixed-water formula, Equation 1.7,
from Chapter 1:
182 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(Tm Tc)
P =
(Th Tc)
where

P = Percentage of mixture that is hot water

Tm= Temperature of mixed water = 105F (41C)

Th = Temperature of hot water = 140F (60C)

Tc = Temperature of cold water = 50F (10C)


105 50 55
P = = = 0.61
140 50 90

( P = 4160 1010 = 5031 = 0.61)


With each shower flowing 2.5 gpm (0.13 L/sec),

2.5 gpm 0.61 = 1.53 gpm will be 140F hot water

(0.13 L/sec 0.61 = 0.08 L/sec will be 60C hot water)

8 inmates 3.5 min = 28 min of water flowing per


shower during the peak hour

6 pods 3 showers per pod = 18 showers total

18 showers 28 min = 504 min

504 min 1.53 gpm = 771.12 gal 140F hot water per
peak hour demand

(504 min 0.10 L/sec 60 sec/min = 3024 L 60C hot


water per peak hour demand)

At this time a judgment will have to be made by the designer as


to whether or not the auxiliary equipment will be operating
during the peak hour. For this example, we will assume it will
not.

Auxiliary Equipment Demand

Door type dishwasher with internal heater = 69 gph


(261.17 L/h)
Jail and Prison Housing Units 183

Single compartment sink = 30 gph (113.55 L/h)

Clothes washing machines, 1 per pod 6 pods = 6

6 2 loads @ 20 gal/load = 240 gph

(6 2 loads @ 75.7 L/load = 908.40 L/h)

Auxiliary equipment demand for 140F water = 339 gph

(Auxiliary equipment demand for 60C water =


1283.12 L/h)
Assuming that operation of the auxiliary equipment does not
coincide with the peak hour demand, sizing the heater and stor-
age tank to handle the additional load will not be necessary. The
heater size required for inmate showering is more than twice the
size needed for the auxiliary equipment demand.

Recommendation

Heater sizing

Two heaters should be selected, each sized to serve between 60


and 100% of the total demand. In prison housing units some
redundancy in the water heating system is necessary. The level
of redundancy should be discussed with the facilitys owners.

Storage tank sizing

If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to handle


the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized to handle
approximately 50% of the shower demand during the period of
peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to prevent
the heater from cycling on and off more than four times per hour
during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates finding a
balance between excessive tank size and short cycling.

Calculation

771.12 gph 0.50 = 385.6 gal


(2.93 m3/h 0.50 = 1.47 m3/h)
385.6
= 481.6 gal storage tank size
0.80
184 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

( 1470 L
0.80
= 1837.5 L storage tank size )
The auxiliary equipment demand of 339 gph (1283.12 L/
h) will have the greatest influence on the amount of cycling
done by the heater during off-peak hours.

339 gph
= 5.56 gpm average flow of 140F water
60

( 1283.12 L/h
60 60
= 0.36 L/sec average flow of 60C water )
5.56 gpm 15 min = 83.4 gal
(0.36 L/sec 60 sec/min 15 min = 324 L)
83.4
0.80 = 104.25 gal storage

( 324 L = 405 L storage


0.80 )
The selected size of a 481.6-gal (1837.5-L) storage tank is
more than adequate to meet this demand.

PRISON EXAMPLE
This is an example of a housing facility for 384 inmates. It has
four wings (96 inmates per wing) and each wing has four stories
(24 inmates per wing per story). A central kitchen and laundry
are located in a separate building. Shower areas are provided on
every floor of every wing, and each of these areas has three shower
heads.

Design Criteria and Assumptions

1. Inmate lavatories and showers will be supplied with 105F


(41C) circulated hot water. Showers are to have 2.5 gpm
(0.16 L/sec) flow restrictors and lavatories 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/
sec) flow restrictors.
2. There will be separate systems for the kitchen and laundry
areas.
3. The water temperature for the laundry area will be 180F
(82C) and for the kitchen area 140F (60C), plus there will
be a separate loop of 105F (41C) water for the hand wash-
ing lavatories and toilets located in the kitchen area .
Jail and Prison Housing Units 185

4. Water at 140F (60C) will be supplied to the dishwasher.


The dishwasher will have a separate booster heater to raise
water temperature to the 180F (82C) required for the final
rinse cycle.
5. The storage tank capacity varies considerablyfrom 0% for
instantaneous heaters to more than100%. Check to deter-
mine if the owner has a preference. Remember, most owners
already operate existing jails or prisons; they may have es-
tablished design parameters. The initial cost of equipment,
the unit performance, and operating costs are also factors to
be considered when sizing the storage tank.
6. Look for additional support facilities, such as the barber shop,
pantries, or an emergency medical clinic.
7. Although operating hours for the laundry area are generally
from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., review operational times and
schedules with the owner.
8. Sources of heat: The selection of steam, natural gas, or elec-
tricity will have an enormous impact on the type of heater
and on energy consumption.
Note: A central steam generation plant may favor an instan-
taneous type steam-to-hot-water converter with minimum hot
water storage for surges. Remember, redundancy in heaters
is always required for jails and prisons to allow for problems
created by inmates. The cost of generating and distributing
steam is also a factor to be considered.
9. The method to use for sizing the water heater and storage
tank may be determined by the owner/operator of the facil-
ity.
10. One inmate per cell equals 384 inmates. A question that
should be asked is whether the owner plans to expand in the
future by putting more than one inmate in each cell.

Questions

1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?


No
2. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited or do inmates
have control over when they shower?
Showers are limited to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min
of water usage per shower.
3. Will all of the cell pods release their inmates for show-
186 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

ering within the same hour?


Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a
1-h recovery period.)
4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking the inmates now
or in the future?
No
5. Does the facility have a work-release program?
Yes
6. What is the time allocated for the work-release inmates to
shower prior to leaving for their duties in the workrelease
program?
One hour, at the same approximate time as the other
inmates.

Calculations for Inmate Housing Units


Refer to the calculations done for the jail example (page 170) for
the methodology for determining the 1.53 gpm (0.1 L/sec) flow
per shower head and the operation time of 28 min per shower.
48 showers 28 min = 1344 min
1344 min 1.53 gpm = 2056 gal of 140F hot water for
peak hour demand
(1344 min 0.096 L/sec 60 sec/min = 7741.44 L/h of
60C hot water for peak hour demand)

Storage Tank Sizing


In this example, inmate lavatories will have the only impact on
tank sizing because the kitchen and laundry will have separate
systems.
If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to
handle the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized
to handle approximately 50% of the shower demand during the
period of peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to
prevent the heater from cycling on and off more than four times
per hour during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates
finding a balance between excessive tank size and short cycling.
Jail and Prison Housing Units 187

Calculation

2056 gph 0.50 = 1028 gal 140F hot water

(7.74 m3/h 0.50 = 3.87 m3 60C hot water)


1028 gal
= 1285 gal storage tank size
0.80 eff.

( 3870 L
0.80 eff.
= 4837.5 L storage tank size )
Kitchen Considerations

1. The item that has the greatest effect on hot water demand is
the dishwasher. Some central kitchens do not have dining
areas, in which case all meals are shipped to the housing
units in bulk for distribution and the dishwashers are in the
housing units.
2. The temperature of the hot water going to kitchen lavatories
should not exceed 110F (43C) for safety reasons.
3. Check to see if the dishwasher has a booster heater
and determine the type of energy used (steam or electricity).
This information will help you decide whether or not to gen-
erate 180F (82C) water.
Note: Some dishwashers on the market use chemicals for
disinfecting, thus the higher water temperature is not required.
4. After dishwashers, compartment sinks are the next largest
user of 140F (60C) hot water. The higher temperature is
required to cut through grease on pots and pans. Some three-
compartment sinks have booster heaters in the rinse tank to
maintain the higher temperature.
5. Other kitchen items that use hot water are the prerinse for
the dishwasher, the vegetable sinks, and the cart washdown
hose bibs.
6. Always check the kitchen consultants plans for hot water
requirements.
7. Refer to the Hospitals chapter for additional information on
kitchens.
188 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Laundry Considerations

1. Review the laundry consultants plans and determine the type


of washing machine/extractor used. Prison laundries are simi-
lar to hospital laundries in that they process sheets, pillow
cases, and uniforms. The size and number of machines are
normally decided by the owner or the consultant.
2. Inmates each generate about 30 lb (13.61 kg) of laundry a
week. This consists of 1 pillowcase, 2 sheets, 1 towel, and
uniforms.
3. Additionally, prison laundries usually handle the uniforms
of the correctional officers.
4. Sometimes prison laundries do laundry for outside hospitals
as a prison industry.
5. Consider the feasibility of a heat recovery system that uses
the wash-water discharge. The laundry consultant can prob-
ably advise you about this.
6. Laundry equipment suppliers are the only reliable source of
information on the hot water demands and required
temperaures of their washers. They can tell you how many
gallons (liters) of water the machines require and the maxi-
mum number of cycles per hour they will operate.
7. Washers demand their hot water fast. It is not unusual for a
2-in. (DN50) hot water line to be connected to the larger wash-
ers. Therefore, larger than normal storage capacity is needed
to handle the surges in hot water demand. One rule of thumb
is to provide 75% of the maximum hourly demand in storage;
dont provide less than 50% of that amount.
8. In 1992 a new federal law (Bloodborne Pathogen) was passed
to protect workers against the human immunodeficiency vi-
rus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV). All detention facilities
are now under this new federal regulation. A major/critical
new standard was created by the law: When an officers uni-
form becomes contaminated with blood products, the officer
cannot leave his workplace with the uniform on. The facility
must clean that uniform and reissue it to the officer. The
law states further that inmate labor cannot be used when
handling blood contaminated items.
A washer and dryer for the aforementioned are required to
achieve compliance with the law. They should be located in a
space that is under the direct supervision of an officer so the
security of the officers uniforms will not be jeopardized.
Industrial Facilities 189

10
INTRODUCTION
INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES

Industrial facility is such a general term that it would be im-


possible to describe each specific type. For the purposes of this
manual, the term will mean a location where any or all of the
general activities described below take place and where domestic
hot water is used for personnel washing as required by code and
for other purposes considered unrelated to process or product
that are described in this chapter. The use of hot water for pro-
cess or product preparation is outside the scope of this work.

EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIALS

1. Manufacturing facilities are places where products are cre-


ated, repaired, or assembled from parts or materials received
at or produced within the same facility. The products are
then finished, tested, packaged, and stored or distributed.
2. Pharmaceutical facilities are locations where products con-
cerning medicine or drugs are created or produced from
materials or ingredients that are purified, combined, or pro-
duced in the same facility. The products are then tested,
packaged, and stored.
3. Pilot plants are facilities where experimental manufacturing
and production techniques for new products are tested on a
small scale. These plants can be either located separately or
included within larger facilities.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
190 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

4. Food product facilities are places where edible food products


are received or created from ingredients that are received,
purified, prepared, or produced in the same facilities. The
products are then tested, packaged, and stored. Such facili-
ties include dairies, slaughter houses, and food preparation
facilities.
5. Chemical processing plants are facilities where products are
purified or created from ingredients received, manufactured,
or produced within the facilities. The products are then chemi-
cally combined, mixed together, or processed at these same
facilities; tested, packaged, and stored.
6. Steel mills, foundries, and mining, ore processing, and petro-
leum refinery facilities are places where naturally occurring
or refined raw materials are received or recovered, then
shaped, altered, processed, or refined, and finally packaged
and stored or distributed.
7. Printing and publishing facilities are places where all types of
reading material, photographs, etc., are received, created, as-
sembled, and produced; then bound, packaged, and stored.
8. Central utility generating facilities are places where power is
generated and include such facilities as fossil fuel, nuclear
power, hydroelectric, steam-producing, and co-generation fa-
cilities.
9. Laboratories, including biology, chemistry, and physics research
and development, experimental, and testing laboratories. Ex-
cluded are laboratories used exclusively for educational
purposes and those within educational facilities.
10. Warehouses are facilities where products, equipment, or com-
ponents are stored while awaiting either shipment or use by
the facility.
11. Fluid treatment facilities are places where fluids are received
and then treated or purified prior to distribution or disposal.
Such facilities include sewage, industrial, and potable water
treatment plants.

GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA


The work done in industrial facilities is separated into workday
hours or shifts of varying lengths, depending on the nature of
the workplace. A majority of the hot water usage by workers di-
rectly engaged in production within a given facility occurs at the
beginning and end of their shifts or workdays and during lunch
Industrial Facilities 191

periods and breaks. The use of hot water for other general pur-
poses is spread throughout the workday and is occasionally
needed for emergency purposes such as spill cleanup.

AREAS WITHIN INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

Washrooms and Toilets


Routinely, washrooms and toilet rooms are provided in separate
areas for a facilitys general production staff, its production staff
supervisors, and its administrative/office staff.
Hot water use in the toilet areas provided for the administra-
tive/office staff is the same as that in the toilet areas of an office
building. The two toilet areas have the same characteristics of
use. The number and types of fixture required are governed by
the applicable plumbing code.
The washrooms and toilet areas for production personnel and
supervisors require different design criteria because their use is
affected by work shifts. The production personnel toilet areas
usually consist of locker rooms, toilet rooms, wash-up facilities,
and showers. The number of the various types of fixture usually
is not covered in the applicable code, therefore, judgment and
prior experience are required to make this decision. Consider-
ation must be given to the number of people using the areas
when shifts change and to whether their work is clean or dirty.
(Dirty work makes the clothes and person of the average produc-
tion worker dirty and occurs in such facilities as foundries and
steel mills.) Another consideration is whether code or client policy
requires that production personnel shower prior to leaving the
facility.

Wash Fixtures
The wash fixtures for production personnel are often single, large
fixtures with multiple wash stations. These fixtures are manu-
factured in various standard configurations, such as circle,
semicircle, and quarter circle, and in various sizes.
Spray heads ranging from 0.5 to 0.75 gpm/station (0.03 to
0.05 L/sec/station) are available for light and heavy industrial
facilities. Some individual wash stations are not capable of inde-
pendent operation, which means that the entire fixture would
have to be turned on if just one person were washing.
192 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Where no client preference exists, the following general design


criteria should be used to select fixtures:
1. Twenty min should be allowed at the end of a shift for wash
up and showers.
2. Wash fixtures must be provided for all shift personnel. These
fixtures can be either individual lavatories or group wash foun-
tains. A generally accepted ratio of one wash station or lavatory
for every six people can be used as a starting point to decide
the number of fixtures, with any fraction increasing the num-
ber of fixtures by one. Where no guidance is given, one station
should be provided for every 5 to 12 people, the figure chosen
depending on the number of people there are.
3. Where individual wash up is anticipated, individual lavatories
are preferable to group wash fountains because when just one
person is washing up at a time, wash fountain spray heads
provide much more water than is necessary.

Showers
If not governed by local code, shower heads should each be lim-
ited to a flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). Generally, males are
provided with group showers, while females are given the privacy
of individual shower stalls. All new and renovated installations
should be Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant.
The number of shower heads is based on the number of people
expected to use the washroom at each change of shift. If no code
requirements are provided, use the clients preference. Allow for
a total of about 20 min for a shift to complete showering. In
laboratories, offices, and other similar facilities, when showers
are provided adjacent to toilet rooms (as compared to toilets ad-
jacent to lockers and washrooms), they usually are used by
personnel finishing some form of exercise (such as jogging or
training on facility-provided equipment) during lunch time prior
to returning to work.

SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT

Water Heater
When an instantaneous system is used, the most critical factor
to consider when selecting a water heater capable of meeting the
expected load is the minimum flow rate. No diversity factor should
Industrial Facilities 193

be used for dirty facilities.


The shower room is considered a dump load, which means
that almost the entire storage and recovery volume is used dur-
ing the shower period. Experience has shown that 20 min is
usually enough time to allow for an entire shift to shower. Each
shower is assumed to last 5 min.

Example 10.1

A foundry with 100 shift workers assigned to an area will be


used to select a storage tank and an instantaneous heater.
First we select the storage type heater: One hundred people
require the use of a wash fountain. Figuring 8 people per station,
12.5 or 13 stations are needed. If we provide 12 stations (two 6-
station units) and allow a 20-min time frame, that gives each
person 1.6 min of wash timenot quite enough to wash hands.
Because of the dirty working conditions in a foundry, use two 8-
station units, which will allow 3.2 min per person washing time.
For the showers, assume that 20% of the workers will take show-
ers and that 5 heads are required. To calculate the necessary
heater capacity, add the two requirements:
For a 20-min period of time, two 8-wash station units require 5
gpm (0.32 L/sec) each.
5 gpm 20 min = 100 gal for each station
(0.32 L/sec 60 sec/min 20 min = 384 L for each station)
100 gal 2 stations = 200 gal
(384 L 2 stations = 768 L)
For a 5-min period of time, 5 showers flow at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec).
2.5 gpm 5 min = 12.5 gal per shower
(0.16 L/sec 60 sec/min 5 min = 48 L)
12.5 gal 5 showers = 62.5 gal
(48 L 5 showers = 240 L)
The storage type water heater selected should have a recov-
ery and storage capacity of delivering 262.5 gal (994 L) in 20
min. If this is the only purpose of the heater, the safest (but not
necessarily the most economical) selection would be to store the
entire required amount of water (plus 30% additional gal) in,
say, a 341-gal (1291-L) storage tank and recover the amount of
water slowly over a 6-h period.
Next, we select the instantaneous heater. Wash station use is
194 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

10 gpm (0.63 L/sec) and shower use is 12.5 gpm (0.79 L/sec).
The instantaneous heater should be sized to handle a demand of
22.5 gpm (1.42 L/sec).

Storage Tank
Systems that require close temperature control and flow a large
amount of hot water at a steady rate over an extended period of
time do not require large storage tanks. If a large storage tank is
provided, there is a good probability that the water temperature
will be lowered, which may be unacceptable. It would be better to
select a relatively small storage tank to act as a stabilizer against
demand surges, have a water heater recovery rate approximately
equal to demand, and use a blending valve. This arrangement
will ensure a steady supply of hot water at a constant tempera-
ture, which will allow for good modulation.

FACILITY-SPECIFIC DESIGN ISSUES

Meat and Food Processing Facilities


Meat, food, and other such processing facilities are required by
the FDA to have their work areas and equipment sanitized each
day with 180F (82C) hot water. The amount of water used to do
this depends on the amount of time allotted for cleanup, the
number of people simultaneously cleaning up, and the number
and flow rates of the wash-down stations. The extended period of
time usually required for cleanup is too long to be considered a
dump load. In addition, there should not be a significant drop in
the temperature of the wash water during this period. This type
of hot water use usually requires a high recovery rate to provide
enough water at the accepted temperature. A storage tank will
help to lower the instantaneous flow rate of the heater and bal-
ance the swing loads caused by the cleanup operation. If
temperature is critical, the designer may want to store hotter
water and supply the system through a tempering valve.

Manufacturing Facilities
Manufacturing work is divided into two types, dirty work and
clean work. (See explanation under Washrooms and Toilets
above.) Workers engaged in clean activities generally do not take
showers at the end of a shift, whereas many workers emerging
Industrial Facilities 195

from a dirty workplace do shower prior to going home.

Pharmaceutical Facilities
Pharmaceutical facilities include many different areas, such as
production areas, clean rooms, sterile areas, and often laborato-
ries and animal facilities associated with the testing and quality
control of products. In general, there is little use of potable hot
water in the production areas. Because spills may contain bio-
logical matter or chemicals not permitted to be treated as regular
waste, spills are cleaned up with mops or rags, which are then
placed in receptacles for proper disposal. Where sterility is re-
quired, special antibacterial cleaners are used. These are sprayed
on exposed piping, walls, floors, and ceilings and wiped up by
hand. Large accidental spills of liquid product are often cleaned
up with dedicated wet vacuum equipment, which is carried on
carts that do not leave the areas where they are stored. In non-
critical areas, hose stations often are provided for room wash
down. These are usually supplied with cold water and steam, or
hot and cold water. Potentially harmful bacteria are isolated in
special areas of the facility where bacteria kill drainage systems
are in place. The equipment and piping for clean in place and
steam in place systems do not use domestic hot water.
Laboratory sinks generally do not use much hot water. When
only laboratory sinks are considered, the use of standard code
obtained water fixture units leads to oversized systems. Glass
and small equipment washers and sterilizers often do use hot
water. Where sterility is required, a final rinse of purified water,
which does not use potable water as feedwater, will be used.
Small wash sinks or lavatories are provided at the entrances to
clean and sterile rooms for personnel to use for washing prior to
putting on sterile or clean clothing. These sinks are used prima-
rily by production personnel at the beginning and end of shifts,
but visitors and inspectors also must wash up.
Animal facilities often use a large amount of hot water for
cage washing and room wash down. Another potential hot water
use is for a slurry system, which disposes of shredded bedding.
Animal facilities usually have routines with set times for the cages
and rooms to be cleaned. Animal areas with integral cage wash-
ing machines should be provided with dedicated hot water
generators.
It is common to wash and sterilize vials, stoppers, and bottles
196 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

prior to use or reuse. When the washing of relatively large quan-


tities of glassware is required, it is common practice to have a
prewash area to remove most of the gross contaminants prior to
placement in a sterile washing machine. Another arrangement is
to use potable hot water for prewashing and distilled or purified
water for the final sterile wash.

Food Product Facilities


Food product facilities use hot water for the washing of rooms
and exposed piping and the cleaning of equipment. Cleaning is
done during preplanned and scheduled downtime. The amount
of hot water used depends on the number of operators engaged
in the cleaning and the type of cleaning apparatus used. The hot
water temperature is generally 180F (82C).

Chemical Processing Facilities


Chemical processing facilities often require that personnel wear
protective clothing to guard against contamination by the chemi-
cals present during a normal workday. Experience suggests that
many of these facilities are involved in dirty work and that most
of the personnel take showers at the end of a shift prior to leav-
ing for home. Often potable hot water is used for the rinsing of
protective suits and the decontamination of small parts and equip-
ment.

Facilities that Process Raw Materials


This category includes facilities involved in such diverse processes
as oil refinery, mineral separation and enrichment, coal process-
ing, and paper milling. Experience suggests that many of these
facilities are dirty workplaces and that personnel take showers
at the end of a shift prior to leaving for home.

Printing and Publishing Facilities


Printing facilities usually are divided into printers of newspa-
pers, of magazines, of books, and of miscellaneous other materials.
They provide showers for plant personnel. Often photo labs, which
can use large quantities of hot water, are included.
Industrial Facilities 197

Central Utilities
In fossil fuel power plants, toilet rooms typically are located adja-
cent to areas where workers normally are required to be present
for extended periods of time. These areas can be far apart, and
each location may require an individual water heater. Central
locker rooms with wash-up fixtures and toilets are provided.
Nuclear power plants must be separated from all other facili-
ties primarily for safety reasons. The control room of a nuclear
power plant must have the fixtures and piping secured and de-
signed to withstand the movement and oscillation of an
earthquake that is twice the magnitude of the largest earthquake
recorded in the area. Decontamination to remove low levels of
radiation from both personnel and equipment will be provided.
This often involves personnel taking cold showers first to close
the pores of the skin to prevent radioactive particles from enter-
ing the body. After readings of acceptable levels of radiation are
achieved, hot showers may be taken. In equipment decontami-
nation areas sinks and scrub brushes with detergent are used to
remove low levels of radioactive deposits from equipment. Water
is used in these areasand could be used in significant volumes
and at significant flow rates during planned shutdowns and emer-
gency situations. A complete list of potential problems should be
given in a facilitys safety analysis report, which describes all
normal operating and potential emergency operating conditions.

Laboratories
General laboratory rooms almost always have sinks. Hot water
use at these sinks is usually light. Washers and sterilizers for
glassware and small equipment are located in different parts of
the laboratory complex and use hot water at random intervals.
To ensure an ample supply of hot water, a worst case scenario
(based on discussions with the owner) should be used to calcu-
late storage and recovery capacity. Animal facilities are discussed
above, under pharmaceutical facilities.

Warehouses
Warehouses require hot water use only in toilet rooms. Separate
toilet rooms usually are provided for staff and drivers (who are
nonstaff). The toilet rooms for drivers often are used heavily for
short periods of time.
198 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Fluid Treatment Facilities


Most general areas of fluid treatment facilities have no special
requirements for the use of potable hot water. These facilities
usually include testing laboratories. Refer to the discussion of
such in the laboratories section, above. Generally no hot water
use is necessary in the production areas where water and waste
are treated, although shower facilities are required in sewage treat-
ment plants.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF HOT WATER

Photo Processing
There are two types of photo processing in general use. One in-
volves the use of self-contained automatic machines, which develop
film and produce prints from negatives. These machines require a
minimum amount of water and produce a minimum amount of
waste. The other type is conventional manual processing.
The film and print development systems of conventional pro-
cessing use relatively large amounts of hot water for the final
rinsing of film and prints. Since such a wide variety of equipment
exists, exact requirements must be obtained from the equipment
manufacturer and/or the client.
Black and white photo processing involves the use of warm
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 78F (20 to 26C) and
has a tolerance of 2. Color photo processing involves the use of
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 94F (20 to 34C), de-
pending on the film and the processing technique, and has a
tolerance of only 0.5. Developing and printing equipment is usu-
ally provided with sensitive and accurate integral mixing valves.

Ready-Mix Concrete
Hot water is used to make concrete when the air temperature falls
below 30F (1C). When the ambient temperature is between 0
and 30F (18 and 1C), hot water is used to bring the mixture to
a temperature of about 65F (18C). When the ambient tempera-
ture is below 0F (18C), it is used to bring the mixture to 70F
(21C). The higher temperatures are necessary to prevent the con-
crete from freezing before it sets and to allow proper hydration of
the mixture. The added heat also gives the concrete a greater early
strength. Hot water also serves to warm aggregate in cold weather
Industrial Facilities 199

to prevent it from freezing into chunks. Along with air tempera-


ture, the size of the aggregate used affects the desired temperature.
Be aware, though, that water that is too hot may produce flash
setting of the concrete.
The amount of water used to mix concrete is determined by
weight. A generally accepted rule is that half the weight of the
cement (not including sand or aggregate) should be water. That
is approximately 11 gal (41.64 L) of water per 90 lb (40.82 kg) of
cement or 30 gal (113.56 L) of water to make 1 yd3 (0.765 m3) of
cement. Aggregate also has some moisture in it, and accepted
practice allows 5 gal (18.93 L) for this moisture. This means that
an actual figure of 25 gal (94.64 L) of water is required to make 1
yd3 (0.765 m3) of concrete. Be aware that concrete trucks are
provided with water tanks with capacities of 150 gal (567.81 L)
to add water to the mix when required.
It is recommended practice to load trucks with about q of
the proper amount of water at the batch plant and to add the
rest of the water during the trip to the site. Once the water is
added, a maximum delivery time of 1 h is allowed. It is com-
mon practice to store hot water at 180F (82C), with individual
plants using their own methods for correctly proportioning the
hot and cold water for each batch to meet specific requirements.
As a guide, Table 10.1 gives storage tank sizes in relation to the
successive fast filling of trucks of various sizes. Table 10.2 gives
suggested recovery capacities for the water heating equipment of
trucks of different sizes at various filling intervals.

Table 10.1 Tank Size Selection Chart


Capacity of Trucks
6 yd3 8 yd3 l0 yd3 l2 yd3
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
No. of Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg.
Trucks Water Tank Water Tank Water Tank Water Tank
Filling in Required Size Required Size Required Size Required Size
Succession (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal)

1 300 350 350 400 400 500 450 500


2 600 (2)350 700 750 800 1000 900 1000
3 900 1000 1050 1000 1200 1500 1350 1500
4 1200 1500 1400 1500 1600 2000 1800 2000
5 1500 2000 1750 2000 2000 2000 2250 (2)1500
6 1800 2000 2100 2000 2400 2000a 2700 (2)1500

Source: Courtesy of A. O. Smith Water Products.


aWhere generating equipment is based on a 5-min truck load interval, use two 1,500-gal
storage tanks installed in parallel.
200 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 10.1(M) Tank Size Selection Chart


Capacity of Trucks
4.4 m3 6.3 m3 7.3 m3 8.8 m3
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
No. of Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg. Vol. of Sugg.
Trucks Water Tank Water Tank Water Tank Water Tank
Filling in Required Size Required Size Required Size Required Size
Succession (L) (L) (L) (L) (L) (L) (L) (L)

1 1200 1350 1350 1500 1500 2000 1 700 2000


2 2300 (2)1350 2700 3000 3000 4000 3 400 4000
3 3400 4000 4000 4000 4600 6000 5 100 6000
4 4500 6000 5300 6000 6100 8000 6 800 8000
5 5700 8000 6600 8000 8000 8000 8 500 (2)6000
6 6800 8000 8000 8000 9000 8000a 10 200 (2)6000

Source: Courtesy of A. O. Smith Water Products.


aWhere generating equipment is based on a 5min truck load interval, use two 6000L
storage tanks installed in parallel.

Table 10.2 Hot Water Requirements after Initial Loading


Truck Capacities
6 yd3
____________________
8 yd3 10 yd3 12 yd3
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
Time GPH ____________
Min. Input GPH ____________
Min. Input GPH Min. Input GPH ____________
Min. Input
Between ____________
Fills Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil
(min) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH)

10 1800 2,630,000 18.9 2100 3,060,000 22.0 2400 3,510,000 25.2 2700 3,940,000 28.4
20 900 1,315,000 9.4 1050 1,530,000 11.0 1200 1,750,000 12.6 1350 1,970,000 14.2
35 515 752,000 5.4 600 875,000 9.2 685 1,000,000 7.2 762 1,112,000 8.0
50 360 525,000 3.8 420 612,000 6.4 480 700,000 5.0 540 788,000 5.7

Source: Courtesy of A. O. Smith Water Products.


Note: If uninsulated storage tanks are in cold rooms, allowance in recovery capacity should
be made for standby loss.
a180F final temperature; cold water temperature assumed to be 40F with a 140F tem-
perature rise.
Industrial Facilities 201

Table 10.2(M) Hot Water Requirements after Initial Loading


Truck Capacities
4.4 m3 6.3 m3 7.3 m3 8.8 m3
____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
Time L/H ____________
Min. Input L/H Min. Input L/H Min. Input L/H ____________
Min. Input
Between ____________ ____________
Fills Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil Hot Gas Oil
(min) Watera (W) (L/h) Watera (W) (L/h) Watera (W) (L/h) Watera (W) (L/h)

10 6813 770 590 71.5 7949 896 580 83.3 9084 1 028 430 95.4 10 220 1 154 420 107.5
20 3407 385 295 35.6 3974 448 290 41.6 4542 512 750 47.7 5 110 577 210 53.8
35 1949 220 336 20.4 2271 256 375 34.8 2593 293 000 27.3 2 884 325 816 30.3
50 1363 153 825 14.4 1590 179 316 24.2 1817 205 100 18.9 2 044 230 884 21.6

Source: Courtesy of A. O. Smith Water Products.


Note: If uninsulated storage tanks are in cold rooms, allowance in recovery capacity should
be made for standby loss.
a82C final temperature; cold water temperature assumed to be 4C with a 78C tempera-
ture rise.
11
INTRODUCTION
SPORTS ARENAS
AND STADIUMS

This chapter is meant to guide the designer through the proce-


dures and methodology needed to perform the design of domestic
hot water systems and the decisionmaking for water heater se-
lections for sports arenas and stadiums. There are many functions
performed in sports arenas and stadiums that must be accounted
for in the design and selection process. Remember that no two
facilities will be alike.
Areas that may be encountered in sports arenas and stadi-
ums that require domestic hot water include the following:
Home team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Visitor team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Club house commercial laundries,
Home team laundry room,
Visitor team laundry room,
Concessionaires laundry room,
Concessions,
Grounds service area,
Janitors closets,
Private suites,
Kitchens,

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
204 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Public toilets,
Private toilets,
Administration areas,
Training rooms,
Stadium club bar,
First aid rooms,
Staff toilets for ticket booths,
Photo labs,
Emergency eyewash, and
Emergency showers.

GATHERING INFORMATION
Before proceeding with any design, the designer must go on a
fact finding mission to gather the information needed to perform
the design. Following are some sample questions that may need
to be asked. The designer needs to develop a list of questions for
each particular project.
1. What are the system demands for the restrooms, concession
areas, locker rooms, training areas, kitchen, dinning areas,
and laundry areas?
2. What water temperatures are desired or required for this
project120, 140, 160 or 180F (49, 60, 71, or 82C)?
3. What are the duration of peak demands and the length of
time between each peak for all fixtures requiring domestic
hot water?
4. How many showers are available? How many people will use
them? What are the estimated peak period of area operation,
the average shower time, the next peak hour demand after
the initial peak demand, the maximum gpm, and the deliv-
ered temperature at shower heads. It is important to remember
the potential of dump loads in some areas, such as the team
showers, where the players can be expected to shower as
quickly as possible after the game. Consideration must also
be given for multi-game play and events on the same day.
This presents the designer with a challenge to provide the
most cost-effective recovery-to-storage ratio.
5. In the training room areas, what kind of hot water using equip-
ment/fixtures will be used? How often will they be used and
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 205

what will be the peak operational time? Determine the num-


ber of fills per hour per equipment and the quantity of hot
water required for each piece of equipment.
6. In the kitchen and concession areas, what kinds of equip-
ment/fixtures will be used and what will be the total peak
operational period? Is normal operational time prior to, dur-
ing, and/or after game activities?
7. What are the local codes that apply on this project?
8. Are utilities, such as water and electricity, and fuels avail-
able for this project? What are their relative costs? Can they
be obtained on an uninterruptible basis?
9. Will the owner have a residence in the facility?
10. Will this facility have a building management system?
11. What is the projected facility usageyear-round, summer, or
months usedand what is the projected downtime between
events?
12. What is the temperature of the domestic water service into
the facility?
13. What are the special equipment needs, such as for ice resur-
facing (e.g., Zambonis)?

SYSTEM DESIGN

Design Considerations
Once the designer has gathered all the information and answered
all the necessary questions, and the owner has approved the floor
plans, the next step is to calculate the hot water demand and
evaluate the types of systems that would be appropriate for the
project. Following are other design considerations the designer
should consider:
1. It is very important to establish the entire pipe routing with
the approved floor plans.
2. Some energy codes restrict the use of hot water in certain
areas.
3. Consider using security type showerheads in the players home
and visitors shower rooms.
4. Mount shower heads at a minimum of 6 ft 6 in. in home and
visitors shower rooms.
5. Consider using metering or infrared faucets in public areas.
206 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

6. If the local health department requires hot water in public


areas, consider using tempered water.
7. Remember the shower and therapy loads are nearly always
the main criteria for sizing the hot water system.
8. Usually concession areas are located on the upper levels of
the facility and many times cannot be served economically
from the central system. The designer should consider that
the concession loads be designed as a separate system or
that an individual system be designed for each concession.
The characteristics of some systems are noted below.

Water Heating System Temperature

On a central hot water distribution system, the temperature


may be designed for 120 to 140F (49 to 60C).
For point-of-use applications, the temperature is set for 110
to 120F (43 to 49C).
Kitchens use 140F (60C) [use of a booster heater for the
dishwasher for 180F (82C) may be required].
Commercial laundries normally use 140 or 160F (60 or 71C).
Check with the owner or operator. Booster heaters may be
required to accomplish higher water temperatures.
Food service areas normally use 140F (60C). Booster heat-
ers maybe be required to accomplish higher water
temperatures. Check with the owner or operator.
Showers normally require 120F (49C) to the fixture (mini-
mum) if a pressure balancing or thermostatic mixing valve is
installed to provide an operating differential.
Note: When supplying lower temperature water, be sure
that the temperature is above the dew point of the flue gas
for fossil fuel systems to avoid condensation. This is a grow-
ing problem because of the higher equipment efficiencies
available.

Design Traps to Avoid

1. In the design of a hot water system, especially a central system


where there may be long runs of piping, the designer should
look for areas in the facility that will have expansion joints
connecting segments of the building structure. At these points
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 207

consider using some type of expansion joint in the piping sys-


tem to prevent the pipe from breaking due to building
movement. There may also be a need for intermediate expan-
sion joints for long runs of piping at other areas of the building.
2. Care should be taken to make sure that the hot water pipes
and water heaters are in areas that are accessible for service.
Too often, limited space is provided for equipment.
3. Do not run hot water piping in areas subject to freezing. If it
is absolutely necessary to do so, provide heat tape or some
other method of eliminating the freezing problem and slope
all affected piping to drain.
4. Consider that the usable storage capacity of a vertical stor-
age tank may be 75 to 80%. Check with the tank
manufacturer. For large tanks, installing a tank-circulating
pump to circulate the water continually can increase the per-
centage of usable storage capacity. Horizontal tank usable
storage capacity may be up to 10% less than that of a vertical
tank.
5. Insulate all the hot water piping supply and circulating pipes
in the system in accordance to local, state, and federal codes.
6. Make sure to coordinate with the appropriate discipline on
voltage and phase for electric water heaters and combustion
air requirements and flue routing for fossil-fuel fired water
heaters.
7. Check for seismic requirements.

Types of System
To meet diverse heating requirements, one or more of the follow-
ing system configurations may be considered.

Central hot water system

In the central hot water system, the designer can establish a


primary hot water piping loop of a 120 to 140F (49 to 60C)
throughout the facility. Through the use of mixing stations, the
temperature can be reduced to accommodate specific equipment
or fixtures to satisfy their hot water requirements. The central
system can serve the showers, concessions, kitchen, public
restrooms, training rooms, laundry rooms, and first aid rooms.
208 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Distributed hot water system

It may be advantageous in the design to provide several small hot


water systems throughout the facility, each with its own hot wa-
ter piping system and heater. This type of system may offer
flexibility and redundancy if one system goes down. It may be
desirable to connect these systems with valved crossover lines
that can be opened in the event that one system is down and it is
necessary to backfeed temporarily an inoperable system with an
operable system.

Point of use

In isolated areas, such as private bathrooms, ticket booths, and


private suites, the point-of-use electric type water heater could
be used. This installation may save on piping and insulation.

Special Considerations: Commercial Laundries


The laundry areas will have a significant amount of hot water
demand. They should be designed so that each has a separate
hot water system with its own water heater and storage tank.
Having the laundry on a separate hot water system allows flex-
ibility in the operation of the laundry and will not rob large
quantities of hot water from the central system, as it would if the
laundries were tied into that system.
Some central systems can include the laundry areas on the
system because the laundry rooms will not operate at the same
time as the showers and training rooms operate.
Note: With all systems, make sure there is a place to take
the discharge from the relief valve(s) that conforms to the
local codes.

Assumptions
On most projects, the designer will not get all the questions an-
swered and, therefore, will have to make some assumptions in
the design and piping layout. It is good practice to note all these
assumptions in a letter to the owner and architect for their re-
view and comments. Look for opportunities to find a central
location for the hot water heaters, keeping in mind accessibility
and simple piping layouts.
Design the showers for a 2.5 or 3.0 gpm (0.16 or 0.19 L/sec)
demand. Be aware of regulations affecting the selection of the
flow rate.
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 209

Table 11.1 represents most of the plumbing fixtures and equip-


ment for these types of facility that require hot water.

Table 11.1 Fixture/Equipment Table

Location Type of Hot Water Temp. Remarks


Fixture at the Fixture
F C
Private suites Lavatory 105 41
Bar sink 120 49
First aid rooms Lavatory 105 41
Sink 120 49
Staff ticket booth Lavatory 105 41
Training room Sink 120 49
Lavatory 105 41
Whirlpool 110 43
Hydrotherapy 110 43
Laundry Washing 140160 6071 Check with
machines operator
Sink 120 49
Shower roomsa Column showers/ 110 43
showers
Private toilets Lavatory 105 41
Fertilizers/pesticides Emergency 80 27
storage rooms eyewash
Public toilets Lavatory 105 41 Check with
local health
dept. for
requirements
Break rooms Sink 120 49
Concessions Sink 120 49
Kitchens Sinks /lavatories 120/105 49/41 Check with
Dishwasher 140180 6082 local health
dept. for
requirements
a Showers with pressure-balanced and/or thermostatic shower valves having
both hot and cold water connections should have a hot water temperature sup-
plying the valve that is hot enough to ensure proper operation of the valve.
Pressure-balanced/thermostatic valves offer a level of safety. It is recommended
that combination check stops be installed.
210 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

SYSTEM SIZING

Sizing Parameters
Before proceeding with examples, we must set some parameters
for domestic hot water loads (showers):
1. Determine the number of shower heads.
2. Determine the number of people showering.
3. Allow a minimum of 5 min/shower.
4. Determine the expected length of time for showers to oper-
ate, as follows:
(11.1) no. of people min/shower = total expected time
no. of shower heads of shower operation if
all people shower
during peak period.
5. Determine total gpm (L/sec) flow rate for showers, as follows:
(11.2) no. of shower heads gpm flow rate = total gpm flow rate
for showers
6. Determine the temperature of water, F (C), to be used at the
shower head.
7. Determine the gallons (liters) of hot water demand for show-
ers at the required temperature and time of operation, as
follows:
(11.3) total shower total shower = gal (L) required at desired
time gpm (L/sec) temperature, F (C), for
showering peak demand of
determined minutes
8. Estimate turnaround time. Be sure to add turnaround time
when determining the total time during which hot water is
used.
Note: Add a little time in for turnaround. Use a diversity factor
where applicable. Evaluate the system to determine if there
will be a dump load, with most of the demand being utilized in
a fraction of an hour. If this is the case, be sure to calculate
recovery on the basis of gallons per hour (liters/hour). For
example, if the system requires 200 gal (757 L) in 30 min, the
recovery rate will be 400 gph (1514 L/h).
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 211

Example 11.1 Football Stadium


The facility is a professional football stadium, and the following
information is given to the designer:
1. 150 lavatories.
2. 40 shower heads. (Assume 2.50 gpm [0.16 L/sec] per shower
head, 5 min/shower, 100 people to shower, 110F [43C] water
at shower head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature,
and 140F [60C] stored water.)
3. 6 service sinks.
4. 2 kitchen sinks.
5. 6 sinks.
6. 2 laundry tubs.
7. 4 hydrotherapy tubs.
8. 2 whirlpools.
9. 4 commercial washing machines.
10. 1 commercial dishwasher.
The first step is to determine the demand for the information
given, in gph.
A table showing all the fixtures that require hot water with
their demands, in gph, should be developed. Some of the gph for
the fixtures shown in the table below are taken from Chapters 1,
4, 6, and 8, and from equipment manufacturers.

Hot Water Demand Table (Example 11.1)


Quantity Fixture Type GPH L/H Total GPH (L/H)
150 Lavatories 4 15 600 (2,271)
40 Showers heads 150b 681 6000 or 1250
gals for 12.5 min.c
6 Service sinks 20 76 120 (454)
1 Kitchen sinks 60 227 60 (227)
(double comp.)
6 Bar sinks 30 113.6 180 (681)
2 Laundry tubs 20 76 40 (151)
4 Hydrotherapy tubs 100a 378.5 400 (1514)
2 Whirlpools 100a 378.5 200 (757)
4 Commercial washing 80a 303 320 (1211)
machines
1 Commercial dishwasher 50a 189 50 (189)
10 Bradley wash fountains 10 38 100 (378.5)
a Information obtained from manufacturer of equipment.
b 2.5 gpm (167 L/sec) 60 min.
c 40 heads 2.5 gpm = 100 gpm; 12.5 min peak load 100 gpm = 1250 gal at
110F required in 12.5 min peak load (40 heads 0.19 L/sec = 7.6 L/sec; 12.5
min 7.6 L/sec 60 sec/min = 5678 L at 43C required in 12.5 min peak load)
212 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The system is designed to be a central system with a primary


loop set for a temperature of 140F (60C), and the following re-
quirements are needed.

Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, hydro-


therapy tubs, and whirlpools)
100 people
= 2.5 people/head
40 shower heads
2.5 people/head 5 min/person = 12.5 min minimum for
shower peak demand
40 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 100 gpm
12.5 min 100 gpm = 1250 gal of 110F water required to
be available in 12.5 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to
be hour after hour.
(40 shower heads 0.19 L/sec = 7.6 L/sec
12.5 min 7.6 L/sec = 5678 L of 43C water required to be
available in 12.5 min at the shower
heads. Shower demand to be hour
after hour.)
Total gph (L/h) for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools
equals 600 gph (2271 L/h) (from hot water demand table).
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 12.5 min in this example is
the bare minimum, based on a 5-min average shower. The
designer needs to find out as much as possible about
expected use.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools. For
this example, the demands will be met by storage. Should
2 fills/h be required, the designer must have the total
gph (L/h) recovery of hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools
2 to meet the second fill within 30 min.
How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combina-
tion of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. For example, if we de-
cide to meet the total demand with storage: 1250 gal (5678 L)
at 110F (43C) at the shower head, 600 gal (2271 L) at 110F
(43C) for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools, stored water
temperature at 140F (60C). Using the mixed water tempera-
ture formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 213

110 40F 70F


= = 0.7
140 40F 100F

( 60
43 4.4C = 38.6C
4.4C 55.6C
= 0.7 )
Therefore,

1850 gal 0.7 = 1295 gal of 140F water


(7949 L 0.7 = 5564.5 L of 60C water)

This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering


stations for the showers and hydrotherapy tubs and whirl-
pools.

Storage tank size (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs, and


whirlpools)
To determine the tank size required, divide 1295 gal (5564.5 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent of usable storage. If we
assume 80% usable storage, then we should select a tank
with a capacity of approximately 1619 gal (6954 L).
Note: The percent usable storage capacities of tanks vary.
Contact your local tank manufacturer for specific information.

Recovery requirements (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs,


and whirlpools)
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements.

energy output = 1295 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)


= 970,862 Btu/h
[energy output = 5564.5 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 309 386 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then input
must be 1,213,577 Btu/h (386 733 kJ/h) if 1295 gph
(5564.5 L) are used each hour.

Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for


shower operation):

recovery = 1295 gph (5564.5 L/h) at


40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
214 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

storage = 1619 gal (6954 L)


Notes:
1. Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may
choose to increase or decrease storage or recovery, bal-
ancing the two as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective
system that will fit into the space available.
2. If showers are required hour after hour, then the mini-
mum recovery must be the shower load demand recovered
over a period of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but
the third hour is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If
neither the second nor the third hour is required, then
the recovery can be 33% of shower and additional equip-
ment load requirements.

Example 11.2 Baseball Stadium


The following information is given to the designer. The facility is a
baseball stadium that is to be designed to have separate domestic
hot water systems for the home team and the visiting team.

Loop no. 1 (home team)

1. 9 showers heads. (Assume 2.5 gpm/shower head, 5 min/


shower, 45 people to shower, 110F [43C] water at shower
head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature and 140F
[60C] stored water.)
2. 7 lavatories.
3. 1 whirlpool.
4. 1 arm tub.
5. 2 washers.
6. 1 laundry sink.
7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 3 service sinks
9. 10 wash fountains.
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 215

Hot Water Demand Table (Example 11.2)


Quantity Fixture Type GPH L/H Total GPH (L/H)
9 Lavatories 4 15 36 (136)
9 Showers heads 150b 681 1350 or 500 gals (5110
or 1893 L)
for 25 minc
3 Service sinks 10 38 30 (113.6)
1 Kitchen sinks 60 227 60 (227)
(double comp.)
1 Pantry sinks 6 23 6 (23)
1 Laundry sinks 8 30 8 (30)
1 Arm tubs 35a 132.5 35 (132.5)
1 Whirlpools 100a 378.5 100 (378.5)
2 Commercial washing 120a 454 240 (908.5)
machines
6 Wash fountains 10 38 60 (227)
a Information obtained from manufacture of equipment.
b 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) 60 min
c 9 heads 2.5 gpm = 22.5 gpm; 25 min peak load 22.5 gpm = 562.5 gal at
110F required in a 25 min peak load (9 heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.42 L/sec; 25 min
peak load 1.42 L/sec 60 sec/min = 2129 L at 43C required in a 25 min peak
load)

The system is designed to be a central system with a primary


loop set for a temperature of 140F (60C), and the following re-
quirements are needed.

Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, arm tub,


and whirlpool)

45 people
= 5 people/head
9 shower heads
5 people/head 5 min/person = 25 min minimum for
shower peak demand
9 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 22.5 gpm
25 min 22.5 gpm = 562.5 gal of 110F water required
to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to
be hour after hour.
(9 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.4 L/sec
25 min 1.4 L/sec 60 sec/min = 2129 L of 43C
water required to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to be hour after
hour.)
216 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

total gph (L/h) for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph
(511 L/h) (from the hot water demand table)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 25 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for arm tubs and whirlpools for this ex-
ample. The demand will be met by storage. Should 2 fills/
h be required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h)
recovery of arm tubs and whirlpools 2 to meet the sec-
ond fill within 30 min.
How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combina-
tion of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. If we decide to meet
total demand with storage: 562.5 gal (2129 L) at 110F (43C)
at the shower head and 135 gal (511 L) at 110F (43C) for
arm tubs and whirlpool, stored water temperature at 140F
(60C). Using the mixed water temperature formula in Chap-
ter 1 (Equation 1.7):

110 40F = 70F = 0.7


140 40F 100F

( 60
43 4.4C
4.4C
=
38.6C
55.6C
= 0.7 )
Therefore,

697.5 gal 0.7 = 488.25 gal of 140F water


(2640 L 0.7 = 1848 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the temper-
ing stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.
To determine the tank size required, divide 488.25 gal
(1848 L) of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage
capacity. If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we
should select a tank with a capacity of approximately 610 gal
(2309 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.

Recovery requirements
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements. If
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 217

showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recovery


must be the shower load demand recovered over a period of 1
h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour is, the
recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second nor the
third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33% of shower
and additional equipment load requirements.

energy output = 488.25 gph 8.33 lb/gal


(140 40F)
= 406,712.25 Btu/h
[energy output = 1848 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 102 749 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then the input
must be 508,390.3 Btu/h (128 436 kJ/h) if 488.25 gph (1848
L/h) are used each hour.

Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for


shower operation)

recovery = 488.25 gph at 40 to 140F


(1848 L/h at 4.4 to 60C)
storage = 610 gal (2309 L)
Note: Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may choose
to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two
as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective system that will fit
into the space available.

Loop no. 2 (visiting team)

1. 10 showers heads. (Assume 2.5 gpm/shower head, 5 min/


shower, 40 people to shower, 110F [43C] water at shower
head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature, and 140F
[60C] stored water.)
2. 12 lavatories.
3. 1 whirlpool.
4. 1 arm tub.
5. 1 washer.
6. 1 laundry sink.
218 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 2 service sinks.
9. 6 wash fountains.

Hot Water Demand Table (Example 11.2)


Quantity Fixture Type GPH L/H Total GPH (L/H)
12 Lavatories 5 19 60 (227)
10 Showers heads 150b 568 1500 or 500 gal (5678
or 1893 L) for 20 minc
2 Service sinks 10 38 20 (76)
1 Laundry sinks 8 30 8 (30)
1 Commercial washing 120a 454 240 (454)
machines
1 Whirlpool 100a 378.5 100 (378.5)
6 Wash fountains 10 38 60 (227)
1 Arm tub 35a 132.5 35 (132.5)
a Information obtained from manufacture of equipment.
b 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) 60 min
c 10 heads 2.5 gpm = 25 gpm; 20 min peak load 25 gpm = 500 gal at 110F
required in a 25 min peak load (10 heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.6 L/sec ; 20 min peak
load 1.6 L/sec 60 sec/min = 1893 L at 43C required in a 25 min peak load)

The system is designed to be a central system with a primary


loop set for a temperature of 140F (60C), and the following re-
quirements are needed.

Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, arm tub,


and whirlpool)

40 people
= 4 people/head
10 shower heads
4 people/head 5 min/person = 20 min minimum for
shower peak demand
10 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 25 gpm
(10 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.6 L/sec)
20 min 25 gpm = 500 gal of 110F water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads
(20 min 1.6 L/sec = 1893 L of 43C water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads)
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 219

total gph for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph


(total L/h for arm tub and whirlpool = 511 L/h)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 20 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for the arm tub and whirlpool in this ex-
ample. Meet the demands by storage. Should 2 fills/h be
required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h) re-
covery of the arm tub and whirlpool 2 to meet the second
fill within 30 min.

How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combina-


tion of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for the percent usable storage capacity of the tank.
If we decide to meet the total demand with storage: 500
gal (1893 L) at 110F (43C) at the shower head and 135 gal
(511 L) at 110F (43C) for arm tub and whirlpool stored wa-
ter temperature at 140F (60C). Using the mixed water
temperature formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):

110 40F 70F


= = 0.7
140 40F 100F

(60
43 4.4C
4.4C
=
38.6C
55.6C
= 0.7)
Therefore,

635 gal 0.7 = 444.5 gal of 140F water


(2404 L 0.7 = 1683 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the temper-
ing stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.

Storage tank size


To determine the tank size required, divide 435 gal (1647 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage capacity.
If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we should
select a tank with approximately 543.75 gal (2058 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.
220 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Recovery requirements
This is determined based on the frequency and duration of
the showers plus additional equipment load requirements. If
showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recov-
ery must be the shower load demand recovered over a period
of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour
is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second
nor the third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33%
of shower and additional equipment load requirements.

energy output = 435 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)


= 362,355 Btu/h output
[energy output = 1647 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 91 573 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then the input
must be 452,944 Btu/h (114 467 kJ/h) if 488.25 gph (1848
L/h) are used each hour.

Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for


shower operation)

recovery = 435 gph (1647 L/h) at


40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
storage = 544 gal (2059 L)
Note: Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may choose
to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two
as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective system that will fit
into the space available.
Laundries 221

12
INTRODUCTION
LAUNDRIES

The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer through


the procedure of designing a domestic water heating system
for a commercial/institutional/industrial laundry.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables and
calculating the demand affecting such a system. The procedure
presented here will help predict the amount of hot water required
to meet both the hourly demand and momentary peak demands
of a laundry. Before completing the final design, the designer
should verify the laundry equipment requirements with the equip-
ment manufacturers.

SYSTEM DESIGN QUESTIONS


1. Will the laundry hot water system be separate from or
combined with other systems?
2. Will the laundry demand occur at the same time as other
demands for hot water?
3. What will the laundrys hot water usage be (gallons per hour
[liters per hour] and gallons per pound [liters per kilogram] of
laundry)?
4. How many washers will there be and what is the pound (kilo-
gram) capacity of each?
5. What is the maximum flow rate per machine (gallons per
minute [liters per second])?

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
222 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

6. What is the average cycle time of each washer?


7. How many cycles will there be per hour?
8. What hot water temperature is required?
9. What hours does the owner expect to operate the laundry?
10. What fuels are available?
11. What is the minimum temperature of the supply water?
12. Is there a heat recovery system available to preheat the water
for the laundry?

STORAGE
Unless otherwise directed by the owner, assume that all the wash-
ers will operate simultaneously. Provide an amount of hot water
storage equivalent to 50 to 75% of the hourly demand. Evaluate
the operating characteristics of the washers before deciding on
the amount of storage.

RECOVERY
The water heating system should be designed for full recovery of
the hourly demand.

EXAMPLE 12.1
A hospital laundry has three 135-lb (61-kg) and two 75-lb (34-
kg) washers which use 160F (71C) water for sanitation and blood
removal. The washer manufacturers data indicate that all wash-
ers require 2 gal (7.57 L) of hot water per hour per pound (kilogram).

(3 135 lb) + (2 75 lb) = 555 lb total capacity

[(3 61 kg) + (2 34 kg) = 251 kg total capacity]

555 lb 2 gph/lb = 1110 gph of 160F water

(251 kg 7.6 L/h = 1907.6 L/h of 71C water)

The laundry equipment manufacturer suggests usable storage of


between 50 and 75% of hourly demand. For this example, well
choose 60%.

60% 1110 gal = 666 gal


Laundries 223

(60% 1907.6 L = 1145 L)

A tank with a percent usable storage volume of 75% is selected.

666 gal
= 888 gal
75%

(1145
75%
L
= 1527 L)

Select the nearest standard size tank, giving consideration to the


space allotted for the tank.
Miscellaneous Facilities 225

13
RELIGIOUS FACILITIES
MISCELLANEOUS
FACILITIES

Kitchen
Many religious facilities have assembly areas, usually with adja-
cent kitchens. These kitchens range from full, commercial type
facilities to minimal rooms where general food warming and prepa-
ration will occur.
If there will be a dishwasher in the kitchen, it may be a major
determinant of the size of the water heater. If there will be a
commercial dishwasher and it has a hot water rinse cycle (in lieu
of a chemical rinse), a booster heater may be required to provide
the sanitizing temperature (180F [82C]) required (residential
and some institutional type dishwashers have a built-in heater).
If the capacity of the dishwasher is not available, the hot water
requirements for the dishwasher can be estimated from Chapter
4, Table 4.5.
If the kitchen will have a utensil cleaning sink (sometimes
called a pots and pan sink) and a hand washing sink, Table 4.4
in Chapter 4 can be used to determine the kitchen demand.

Baptistries
Baptismal fonts that range in size from 400 to 1200 gal (1514 to
4543 L) are required to be maintained at near skin temperature,
between 94 and 105F (34 and 41C); use 100F (38C) for design
purposes. Depending on the use of the font, the water will either
be maintained in the font or filled and drained for each use.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
226 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

When the water is maintained in the font, the application is


similar to a small swimming pool. The water is circulated be-
tween the font and the heater by a small pump. The size of the
water heater is dependent on the time required to raise the water
to the desired temperature; due to heat loss, the water heater
will also have to maintain the temperature.
When the font is drained and filled for each use, the applica-
tion is similar to the filling of a large tub. The hot water can be
provided by the buildings domestic water heating system or a
dedicated water heating system. A dedicated system can have a
variety of designs, such as an instantaneous heater, a storage
tank combination or a dedicated tank. The critical element is the
recovery capacity required to meet temperature requirements and
fill rate.
When one water heater is used for kitchen use and the bap-
tismal font, the recovery rate for these functions may not be
concurrent. These functions normally happen at different times;
therefore, the higher of the two recovery rates can be used to
select the water heater.

Toilet Rooms
The toilet room usage can be sporadic but will produce intermit-
tent heavy loads. Depending on the size and location of the toilet
room, hot water can be supplied by the buildings domestic wa-
ter heating system or from a point-of-use heater.

Other Considerations
The designer needs to evaluate additional hot water usage, such
as gymnasiums, pools, activity rooms, meeting rooms, classrooms,
day-care facilities, residences, and administrative offices.

GROCERY AND CONVENIENCE STORES


There are many sizes and types of grocery and convenience store.
Grocery stores are defined to include a selection of the following
departments: bakery; deli; meat; produce; and specialty areas,
such as floral or food service.
The designer, working with the owner or architect, must iden-
tify all the potential uses of hot water. Grocery and convenience
Miscellaneous Facilities 227

stores have the usual facilities, such as kitchens, toilets, and


cleaning areas. Some special areas the designer should be aware
of include:
Food preparation,
Utensil cleaning,
Thawing of food,
Tray cleaning,
Can wash,
Cleanup,
Hand washing,
Wash down, and
Sanitizing of food preparation areas.
The cleaning process is usually done in the late afternoon or
evening and must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc.
Each food preparation department will usually have at least one
hot water hose bibb or mixing faucet to use for wash down. Be-
cause the wash down hot water load is significant, it is important
to obtain the specifications for the wash down equipment (e. g.,
water hose, mixing faucet, flow rate, and pressure) and the wash
down procedures. The hot water demand load for wash down
and cleanup is generally not concurrent with the other hot water
demand loads in the building. Based on the location and layout
of the different departments, consideration should be given to
using smaller water heaters for each department.

Toilet Rooms
Many times toilet rooms are located in remote areas of the gro-
cery story, away from the food preparation areas. Consideration
should be given to providing a point-of-use water heater.

Other Considerations
Due to the quantity of refrigeration equipment in this type of
facility, the designer should consider the opportunity for heat
reclamation. This is a common method of preheating water in a
grocery store and can be a substantial energy saving factor.
228 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

RETAIL CENTERS
There are two primary considerations for retail centers or shop-
ping malls: the large anchor or department store and the smaller
general retail establishments. For determining hot water demand
in large anchor stores, the designer needs to consider the inclu-
sion of a restaurant, administrative offices, and general facilities.
Concepts for many of these areas can be found throughout this
manual.
For the general retail establishment, hot water is primarily
for use in toilet rooms and demand is driven by hand washing.
The number and type of plumbing fixtures, including those us-
ing hot water, are governed by local building codes. Each tenant
will usually have, and be responsible for, his/her own domestic
hot water system. For general public use toilet rooms, a point-of-
use water heater may be appropriate.

FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS


The designer is encouraged to consult the owner to determine
the exact hot water requirements.
There are usually one or two 3-compartment stainless steel
sinks for either food preparation or utensil cleaning. Many times
the 3-compartment stainless steel sinks are used for both food
preparation and utensil cleaning. Often the utensil cleaning sink
has special size bowls to allow cleaning of the large trays. The
size of the bowl and the size of each stainless steel sink vary
greatly. Most health departments require one or two hand wash-
ing sinks, one in the customer service area and one in the food
preparation area.
There are many sizes and types of fast food establishment.
These establishments have the usual requirements, such as kitch-
ens, toilets, and cleaning areas. Areas the designer should be
aware of include:
Food preparation,
Utensil cleaning,
Thawing of food,
Cleanup, and
Hand washing.
The cleaning process is conducted after business hours and
Miscellaneous Facilities 229

must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc. The food prepa-
ration area usually has at least one hot water hose bibb or mixing
faucet to use for wash down and cleanup. The hot water demand
load for wash down and cleanup is generally not concurrent with
the other hot water demands.

Toilet Rooms
Typically all hot water demands are met by a single heater. How-
ever, a point-of-use water heater should be considered for the
public toilet rooms in fast food establishments.

OFFICE BUILDINGS
The number and type of plumbing fixtures required for an office
building are governed by local building codes. Hot water demand
is usually determined by the quantity of hand washing fixtures.
Based on the location and size of loads in a building, a single
water heater can serve an individual fixture, a toilet room, mul-
tiple toilet rooms, or the entire building.
Special tenant requirements (e.g., mini health clubs, food ser-
vice, day care, cleaning, retail shops, medical and/or dental offices)
should be considered individually. In many instances, the tenant
is responsible for his or her own domestic hot water system.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numer-
ous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit in-
formation from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers re-
sponded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.

Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, docu-


ments, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as ap-
propriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a com-
plete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 233

14
INTRODUCTION
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS

It has been determined through field studies that the correct


sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriate-
ness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selec-
tion criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.

BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers deci-
sion was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
234 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

be circulated. However, this recommendation is subjective, and,


unfortunately, some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft
(30.48-m) criterion as the maximum length for all uncirculated,
uninsulated, dead-end hot water branches to fixtures in order to
cut the cost of hot water distribution piping. These long,
uninsulated, dead-end branches to fixtures create considerable
problems, such as a lack of hot water at fixtures, inadequately
sized water heater assemblies, and thermal temperature escala-
tion in showers.
The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973
after the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the
paramount concern and water conservation was given little con-
sideration. Since the circulation of hot water causes a loss of energy
due to radiation and convection in the circulated system and such
energy losses have to be continually replaced by water heaters,
the engineering community compromised between energy loss and
construction costs and developed the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum
length criterion.

LENGTH AND TIME CRITERIA


Recently, due to concern about not only energy conservation but
also the extreme water shortages in parts of the country, the 100-
ft (30.48-m) length criteria has changed. Water wastage caused by
the long delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures has become as
critical an issue as the energy losses caused by hot water tem-
perature maintenance systems. To reduce the wasting of cooled
hot water significantly, the engineering community has reevalu-
ated the permissible distances for uncirculated, dead-end branches
to periodically used plumbing fixtures. The new allowable distances
for uncirculated, dead-end branches represent a trade-off between
the energy utilized by the hot water maintenance system and the
cost of the insulation, on the one hand, and the cost of energy to
heat the excess cold water makeup, the cost of wasted potable
water, and extra sewer surcharges, on the other hand. Further-
more, engineers should be aware that various codes now limit the
length between the hot water maintenance system and plumbing
fixtures. They also should be aware of the potential for liability if
an owner questions the adequacy of their hot water system de-
sign.
What are reasonable delays in obtaining hot water at a fix-
ture? For anything beside very infrequently used fixtures (such as
those in industrial facilities or certain fixtures in office buildings),
a delay of 0 to 10 sec is normally considered acceptable for most
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 235

residential occupancies and public fixtures in office buildings. A


delay of 11 to 30 sec is marginal but possibly acceptable, and a
time delay longer than 31 sec is normally considered unaccept-
able and a significant waste of water and energy. Therefore, when
designing hot water systems, it is prudent for the designer to
provide some means of getting hot water to the fixtures within
these acceptable time limits. Normally this means that there
should be a maximum distance of approximately 25 ft (7.6 m)
between the hot water maintenance system and each of the plumb-
ing fixtures requiring hot water, the distance depending on the
water flow rate of the plumbing fixture at the end of the line and
the size of the line. (See Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.) The plumb-
ing designer may want to stay under this length limitation because
the actual installation in the field may differ slightly from the
engineer's design, and additional delays may be caused by either
the routing of the pipe or other problems. Furthermore, with the
low fixture discharge rates now mandated by national and local
laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water from non-
temperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the past,
when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lava-
tory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum
discharge rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain
hot water from 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot
water piping. (See Table 14.3.) This table gives conservative ap-
proximations of the amount of time it takes to obtain hot water
at a fixture. The times are based on the size of the line, the fix-
ture flow rate, and the times required to replace the cooled off
hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection energy
lost by the insulated hot water line.

Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube or


Piping per Linear Foot
Copper Copper Steel Pipe CPVC Pipe
Nominal Pipe Pipe Schedule Schedule
Diameter Type L Type M 40 40
Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt.
(in.)a (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft)
0.012 0.285 0.013 0.204 0.016 0.860 0.016 0.210
0.025 0.445 0.027 0.328 0.028 1.140 0.028 0.290
1 0.043 0.655 0.045 0.465 0.045 1.680 0.045 0.420
1 0.065 0.884 0.068 0.682 0.077 2.280 0.078 0.590
1 0.093 1.14 0.100 0.940 0.106 2.720 0.106 0.710
aPipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing.
236 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or


Piping per Meter
Copper Copper Steel Pipe CPVC Pipe
Nominal Pipe Pipe Schedule Schedule
Diameter Type L Type M 40 40
Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt.
(mm)a (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg)

DN15 0.045 0.129 0.049 0.204 0.061 0.390 0.061 0.099


DN20 0.095 0.202 0.102 0.328 0.106 0.517 0.106 0.132
DN25 0.163 0.297 0.170 0.465 0.170 0.762 0.170 0.191
DN32 0.246 0.401 0.257 0.682 0.291 1.034 0.295 0.268
DN40 0.352 0.517 0.379 0.940 0.401 1.233 0.401 0.322
aPipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing.

Table 14.2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance


Water Flow Rates
Maximum Flow Ratesa
Fittings GPM L/Sec
Lavatory faucet 2.0 1.3
Public non-metering 0.5 0.03
Public metering 0.25 gal/cycle 0.946 L/cycle
Sink faucet 2.5 0.16
Shower head 2.5 0.16
Bathtub faucets
Single-handle 2.4 minimum 0.15 minimum
Two-handle 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Service sink faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Laundry tray faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Residential dishwasher 1.87 aver 0.12 aver
Residential washing machine 7.5 aver 0.47 aver
aUnless otherwise noted.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 237

Table 14.3 Approximate Time Required to Get


Hot Water to a Fixture
Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow 0.5 1.5 2.5 4.0
Rate (gpm)
Piping 10 25 10 25 10 25 10 25
Length (ft)
Copper in. 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8
Pipe in. 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15
Steel Pipe in. 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20
Sched. 40 in. 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28
CPVC Pipe in. 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20
Sched. 40 in. 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30

Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.

Table 14.3(M) Approximate Time Required to Get


Hot Water to a Fixture
Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow 0.03 0.10 0.16 0.25
Rate (L/sec)
Piping 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6
Length (m)
Copper DN15 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8
Pipe DN22 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15
Steel Pipe DN15 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20
Sched. 40 DN20 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28
CPVC Pipe DN15 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20
Sched. 40 DN20 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30

Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
238 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

RESULTS OF DELAYS IN DELIVERING


HOT WATER TO FIXTURES
As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining
hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable
water as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down
the drain unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned
about total system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted,
previously heated water must include: the original cost for ob-
taining potable water, the cost of previously heating the water,
the final cost of the waste treatment of this excess potable water,
which results in larger sewer surcharges (source of supply to end
disposal point), and the cost of heating the new cold water to
bring it up to the required temperature. Furthermore, if there is
a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixtures, the faucets
are turned on for long periods of time to bring the hot water
supply at the fixture up to the desired temperature. This can
cause the water heating system to run out of hot water and make
the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable to
heat all the extra cold water brought into the system through the
wastage of the water discharged down the drain. In addition, this
extra cold water entering the hot water system reduces the hot
water supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of in-
sufficient hot water because to get a proper blended temperature
more lower temperature hot water will be used to achieve the
final mixed water temperature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Addi-
tionally, this accelerates the downward spiral of the temperature
of the hot water system.
Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot
water to the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than
expected periods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water demand
is greater than the demand normally designed for.
Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water
piping distribution system, the designer should be aware that
the lack of a proper hot water maintenance system can seriously
impact the required heater size.

METHODS OF DELIVERING REASONABLY


PROMPT HOT WATER SUPPLY
Hot water maintenance systems are as varied as the imagina-
tions of the plumbing engineers who create them. They can be
grouped into three basic categories, though any actual installa-
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 239

tion may be a combination of more than one of these types of


system. The three basic categories are
1. Circulation systems.
2. Self-regulating heat trace systems.
3. Point-of-use water heaters (include booster water heaters).

Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial, and


Large Residential Projects
A circulation system is a system of hot water supply pipes and
hot water return pipes with appropriate shutoff valves, balanc-
ing valves, circulating pumps, and a method of controlling the
circulating pump. The diagrams for six basic circulating systems
are shown in Figures 14.1 through 14.6.

Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Bottom of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
240 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Top of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Bottom of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 241

Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Top of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System


with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed
systems shown in Figures 14.1 and 14.3.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
242 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System


with Heater at Top of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the downfeed
systems shown in Figures 14.2 and 14.4.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Self-Regulating Heat Trace


Over approximately the last 20 years, self-regulating heat trace
has come into its own because of the problems of balancing cir-
culated hot water systems and energy loss in the return piping.
For further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 15.

Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The point-
of-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long dis-
tance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 243

plumbing engineer must remember, however, that when a water


heater is installed there are various code and installation require-
ments that must be complied with, such as those pertaining to T
& P relief valve discharge.

Instantaneous electric heaters used in point-of-use applica-


tions can require a considerable amount of power, and may require
240 or 480 V service.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN CIRCULATED HOT


WATER MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
The following are some of the potential problems with circulated
hot water maintenance systems that must be addressed by the
plumbing designer.

Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water Heater


Piping Diagram.
Source: Courtesy of Chronomite Laboratories, Inc.
244 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems


For copper piping systems, it is very important that the circu-
lated hot water supply piping and especially the hot water return
piping be sized so that the water is moving at a controlled veloc-
ity. High velocities in these systems can cause pinhole leaks in
the copper piping in as short a period as six months or less.

Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various indi-
vidual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Further-
more, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate fac-
tory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is in-
cluded. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjust-
ment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.

Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems


It is extremely important in circulated systems that shutoff valves
be provided to isolate an entire circulated loop. This is done so
that if individual fixtures need modification, their piping loop can
be isolated from the system so the entire hot water system does
not have to be shut off and drained. The location of these shutoff
valves should be given considerable thought. The shutoff valves
should be accessible at all times, so they should not be located in
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 245

such places as the ceilings of locked offices or condominiums.

Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems


To ensure that a balanced hot water system remains balanced
after the shutoff valves have been utilized, the hot water return
system must be provided with a separate balancing valve in ad-
dition to the shutoff valve or, if the balancing valve is also used
as the shutoff valve, the balancing valve must have a memory
stop. (See the discussion of "balancing valves with memory stops"
below.) With a memory stop on the valve, plumbers can return a
system to its balanced position after working on it rather than
have the whole piping system remain unbalanced, which would
result in serious problems.

Providing Check Valves at the Ends of


Hot Water Loops
The designer should provide a check valve on each hot water re-
turn line where it joins other hot water return lines. This is done
to ensure that a plumbing fixture does not draw hot return water
instead of hot supply water, which could unbalance the hot water
system and cause delays in obtaining hot water at some fixtures.

A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at Dead-End Lines


Keep the delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures to within the
time (and branch length) parameters given previously to avoid
unhappy users of the hot water system and to prevent lawsuits.

FLOW BALANCING DEVICES


The following are the more common types of balancing device.

Fixed Orifices and Venturis


These can be obtained for specific flow rates and simply inserted
into the hot water return piping system. (See Figure 14.8.) How-
ever, extreme care should be taken to locate these devices so they
can be removed and cleaned out, as they may become clogged
with the debris in the water. It is recommended, therefore, that a
strainer with a blowdown valve be placed ahead of each of these
246 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters.


Source: Courtesy of Gerand Engineering Co.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 247

devices. Additionally, a strainer with a fine mesh screen can be


installed on the main water line coming into the building to help
prevent debris buildup in the individual strainers. Also, a shutoff
valve should be installed before and after these devices so that an
entire loop does not have to be drained in order to service a strainer
or balancing device.

Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves


The same admonition about strainers and valves given for "fixed
orifices and venturis" above applies to the installation and loca-
tion of these devices. (See Figure 14.9.)

Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control Cartridge.


Source: Courtesy of Griswold Controls.
248 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Flow Regulating Valves


These valves can be used to determine the flow rate by reading
the pressure drop across the valve. They are available from vari-
ous manufacturers. (See Figure 14.10.)

Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve.


Source: ITT Industries. Used with permission.

Balancing Valves with Memory Stops


These valves can be adjusted to the proper setting by installing
insertable pressure measuring devices (Petes Plugs, etc.) in the
piping system, which indicate the flow rate in the pipe line. (See
Figure 14.11.)
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 249

Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with Memory Stop.


Source: Courtesy of Milwaukee Valve Co.

SIZING HOT WATER RETURN PIPING SYSTEMS


AND RECIRCULATING PUMPS
The method for selecting the proper size of the hot water return
piping system and the recirculating pump is fairly easy, but it
does require engineering judgment. First, the plumbing engineer
has to design the hot water supply and hot water return piping
systems, keeping in mind the parameters for total developed
length,1 prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures, and velocities in
pipe lines. The plumbing engineer has to make assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return piping.
After the hot water supply and hot water return systems are
designed, the designer should make a piping diagram of the hot

1See American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2000, Cold-water systems, Chap-


ter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, for piping sizing methods.
250 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

water supply system and the assumed return system showing


piping sizing and approximate lengths. From this piping diagram
the hourly heat loss occurring in the circulated portion of the hot
water supply and return systems can be determined. (See Table
14.4 for minimum required insulation thickness and Table 14.5
for approximate piping heat loss.)

Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping

Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness


Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (in.)
Runouts
2 in. or 1 in. or Less 12 in. 24 in. 5 & 6 in. 8 in. or
Lessa Larger
1 1 1 1 1

Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.

Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness


Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm)
Runouts
DN32 or DN25 or DN32DN50 DN65DN100 DN125 & DN150 DN200 or
Lessa Less Larger
13 25 25 40 40 40

Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 251

Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss


and Surface Temperature
Nominal Insulation Heat Loss Surface
Pipe Size Thickness (Btu/h/ Temperature
(in.) (in.) linear ft) (F)
1 8 68
1 10 69
1 1 10 69
1 1 13 70
1 1 13 69
2 or less a 24 or less 74
2 1 16 70
2 1 12 67
3 1 16 68
4 1 19 69
6 1 27 69
8 1 32 69
10 1 38 69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.

Table 14.5(M) Approximate Insulated Piping Heat


Loss and Surface Temperature
Nominal Insulation Heat Loss Surface
Pipe Size Thickness (W/m) Temperature
(mm) (mm) (C)
DN15 25 7.7 20
DN20 25 9.6 21
DN25 25 9.6 21
DN32 25 12.5 21
DN40 25 12.5 21
DN50 or less 13a 23.1 or less 23
DN50 25 15.4 21
DN65 38 11.5 19
DN80 38 15.4 20
DN100 38 18.3 21
DN150 38 26.0 21
DN200 38 30.8 21
DN250 38 36.5 21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
252 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 14.6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks


with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
(in.) (gal) Water Temperature
140F (Btu/h)a
1 50 468
1 100 736
2 250 759
3 500 759
3 1000 1273
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.

Table 14.6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks


with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
(mm) (L) Water Temperature
60C (W)a
25.4 200 137
25.4 400 216
50.8 1000 222
76.2 2000 222
76.2 4000 373
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.

system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.

(14.1) q = 60rwcT

[q = 3600rwcT]
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 253

where
60 = min/h
3600 = sec/h
q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T = change in heated water temperature (tempera-
ture of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
q = c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]

system heat loss (Btu/h)


(14.2) gpm
500 F temperature drop

[ L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)
]
15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should
note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recom-
mended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply tempera-
ture provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
254 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

bution systems, it is recommended that the recirculation system


for each temperature distribution system be extended back to
the water heating system separately and have its own pump.
Using Equation 14.2, we determine that, if there is a 5F (3C)
temperature drop across the hot water system, the number to
divide into the hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to ob-
tain the minimum required hot water return circulation rate in
gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (500 5F), (45 213 [15 071 3C]).
For a 10F (6C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from
Equation 14.2, 500 10F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 14.2,
15 071 6C = 90 426]). However, this 10F (6C) temperature
drop may produce hot water supply temperatures that are lower
than desired.
After Equation 14.2 is used to establish the required hot wa-
ter return flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can
size the hot water return piping system based on piping flow rate
velocities and the available pump heads. It is quite common that
a plumbing designer will make wrong initial assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return lines to establish the initial heat
loss figure (q). If that is the case, the plumbing engineer will have
to correct the hot water return pipe sizes, redo the calculations
using the new data based on the correct pipe sizing, and verify
that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.

EXAMPLE 14.1CALCULATION TO DETERMINE


REQUIRED CIRCULATION RATE

1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses

(244 m 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses)


2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN20)
pipe. From Table 14.5 determine the heat loss per linear foot
(meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 255

(30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss)


1000 Btu/h piping loss
100 ft 10 Btu/h/ft =
1800 Btu/h piping loss

( 30.5 m 9.6 W/m =


293 W piping loss
528 W piping loss )
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by total-
ing the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses 10,400 Btu/h
B. Hot water return piping losses 1,800 Btu/h
C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h
Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h
[A. Hot water supply piping losses 3050 W
B. Hot water return piping losses 527 W
C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W
Total system heat losses 3799 W
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3577 W]
From Equation 14.2, using a system piping loss of
12,200 Btu/h (3577 W) and a 5F (3C) temperature
drop,
12,200 Btu/h
= 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm)
5F temperature difference 500 required hot water
return circulation rate

[ 3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec
required hot water
]
return circulation rate

Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses

1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
256 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h piping loss

(244 m 12.5 W/m = 3050 W piping loss)


2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
25 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 250 Btu/h piping loss
75 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 750 Btu/h piping loss
1800 Btu/h piping loss

[30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss


7.6 m 9.6 W/m = 73 W piping loss
22.9 m 9.6 W/m = 220 W piping loss
528 W piping loss]
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses 10,400 Btu/h
B. Hot water return losses 1,800 Btu/h
C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h
Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply losses 3050 W


B. Hot water return losses 528 W
C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W

Total system heat losses 3800 W

Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3578 W]


Note: The recalculation determined that the hot water system
heat losses remained unchanged and that 4.88 (say 5) gpm (0.29
[say 0.3] L/sec) is the flow rate that is required to maintain the 5F
(3C) temperature drop across the hot water supply system.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 257

It should be stated that engineers use numerous rules of


thumb to size hot water return systems. These rules of thumb
are all based on assumptions, however, and are not recommended.
It is recommended that the engineer perform the calculations for
each project to establish the required flow rates because, with all
the various capacities of the pumps available today, exact sizing
is possible, and any extra circulated flow caused by the plumb-
ing engineer using a rule of thumb equates to higher energy costs,
to the detriment of the client.

ESTABLISHING THE HEAD CAPACITY OF THE


HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMP
The hot water return circulating pump is selected based on the
required hot water return flow rate (in gpm [L/sec]), calculated
using Equation 14.2, and the systems pump head. The pump
head is normally determined by the friction losses through only
the hot water return piping loops and any losses through balanc-
ing valves. The hot water return piping friction losses usually do
not include the friction losses that occur in the hot water supply
piping. The reason for this is that the hot water return circulation
flow is needed only to keep the hot water supply system up to the
desired temperature when there is no flow in the hot water supply
piping. When people use the hot water at the fixtures, there is
usually sufficient flow in the hot water supply piping to keep the
system hot water supply piping up to the desired temperature
without help from the flow in the hot water return piping.
The only exception to the rule of ignoring the friction losses
in the hot water supply piping is a situation where a hot water
return pipe is connected to a relatively small hot water supply
line. "Relatively small" here means any hot water supply line that
is less than one pipe size larger than the hot water return line.
The problems created by this condition are that the hot water
supply line will add additional friction to the head of the hot
water circulating pump, and the hot water circulating pump flow
rate can deprive the last plumbing fixture on this hot water sup-
ply line from obtaining its required flow. It is recommended,
therefore, that in such a situation the hot water supply line sup-
plying each hot water return piping connection point be increased
to prevent these potential problems, i.e., use in. (DN22) hot
water supply piping and in. (DN15) hot water return piping, or
1 in. (DN28) hot water supply piping and in. (DN22) hot water
return piping, etc.
258 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

When selecting the hot water circulating pumps head, the


designer should be sure to calculate only the restrictions en-
countered by the circulating pump. A domestic hot water system
is normally considered an open system (i.e., open to the atmo-
sphere). When the hot water circulating pump is operating,
however, it is assumed that the piping is a closed system. There-
fore, the designer should not include static heads where none
exists. For example, in Figure 14.1, the hot water circulating
pump has to overcome only the friction in the hot water return
piping not the loss of the static head pumping the water up to
the fixtures because in a closed system the static head loss is
offset by the static head gain in the hot water return piping.

HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMPS


Most hot water circulating pumps are of the centrifugal type and
are available as either in-line units for small systems or base-
mounted units for large systems. Because of the corrosiveness of
hot water systems, the pumps should be bronze, bronze fitted,
or stainless steel. Conventional, iron bodied pumps, which are
not bronze fitted, are not recommended.

CONTROL FOR HOT WATER CIRCULATING


PUMPS
There are three major methods commonly used for controlling
hot water circulating pumps: manual, thermostatic (aquastat),
and time clock control. Sometimes more than one of these meth-
ods are used on a system.
1. A manual control runs the hot water circulating pump con-
tinuously when the power is turned on. A manual control
should be used only when hot water is needed all the time,
24 h a day, or during all the periods of a building's operation.
Otherwise, it is not a cost-effective means of controlling the
circulating pump because it will waste energy.
Note: The method for applying the on demand concept for
controlling the hot water circulating pump is a manual control.
It can be used very successfully for residential and commercial
applications.
2. A thermostatic aquastat is a device that is inserted into the
hot water return line. When the water in the hot water return
system reaches the distribution temperature, it shuts off the
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 259

circulating pump until the hot water return system tempera-


ture drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumb-
ing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.

AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fix-
tures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give con-
sideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.

INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and con-
traction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of some-
one getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
260 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

It is recommended that all hot water supply and return pip-


ing be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insula-
tion thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wast-
ing energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insula-
tion. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insu-
lation thickness may be reduced as follows:

4.6 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
Actual R

( 0.032 Table 14.4 thickness


Actual R
= New minimum thickness
)
2. For materials with thermal resistivity less than 4.0 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.028 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insula-
tion thickness shall be increased as follows:

4.0 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
Actual R

( 0.028 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
)
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 261

Actual R

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Hand-
book.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applica-
tions Handbook.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential build-
ings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fit-
tings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water sys-
tems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.
Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on
hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.


12. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Insulation. Chap-
ter 12 in ASPE Data Book.
13. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Pumps. Chapter
11 in ASPE Data Book.
14. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Energy conserva-
tion in plumbing systems. Chapter 7 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 1.
15. American Water Works Association. 1985. Internal corrosion of
water distribution systems. Research Foundation cooperative re-
search report.
16. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1978. Copper for
hot and cold potable water systems. Heating/Piping/Air Condition-
ing Magazine. May.
17. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1993. Historical
perspective of corrosion by potable waters in building systems.
Paper no. 509 presented at the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers Annual Conference.
18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Handbook.
19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
1985. Uniform Plumbing Code Illustrated Training Manual.
20. Konen, Thomas P. 1984. An experimental study of competing sys-
tems for maintaining service water temperature in residential
buildings. In ASPE 1984 Convention Proceedings.
21. Konen, Thomas P. 1994. Impact of water conservation on interior
plumbing. In Technical Proceedings of the 1994 ASPE Convention.
22. Saltzberg, Edward. 1988. The plumbing engineer as a forensic en-
gineer. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
23. Saltzberg, Edward. 1993. To combine or not to combine: An in
depth review of standard and combined hydronic heating systems
and their various pitfalls. Paper presented at the American Society
of Plumbing Engineers Symposium, October 2223.
24. Saltzberg, Edward. 1996. The effects of hot water circulation sys-
tems on hot water heater sizing and piping systems. Technical
presentation given at the American Society of Plumbing Engineers
convention, November 36.
25. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. New methods for analyzing hot
water systems. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
26. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. Prompt delivery of hot water at
fixtures. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
27. Sealine, David A., Tod Windsor, Al Fehrm, and Greg Wilcox. 1988.
Mixing valves and hot water temperature. In Technical Proceedings
of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 263

28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Associa-


tion. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water sys-
tems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numer-
ous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit in-
formation from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers re-
sponded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.

Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, docu-


ments, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as ap-
propriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a com-
plete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 233

14
INTRODUCTION
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS

It has been determined through field studies that the correct


sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriate-
ness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selec-
tion criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.

BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers deci-
sion was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
234 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

be circulated. However, this recommendation is subjective, and,


unfortunately, some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft
(30.48-m) criterion as the maximum length for all uncirculated,
uninsulated, dead-end hot water branches to fixtures in order to
cut the cost of hot water distribution piping. These long,
uninsulated, dead-end branches to fixtures create considerable
problems, such as a lack of hot water at fixtures, inadequately
sized water heater assemblies, and thermal temperature escala-
tion in showers.
The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973
after the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the
paramount concern and water conservation was given little con-
sideration. Since the circulation of hot water causes a loss of energy
due to radiation and convection in the circulated system and such
energy losses have to be continually replaced by water heaters,
the engineering community compromised between energy loss and
construction costs and developed the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum
length criterion.

LENGTH AND TIME CRITERIA


Recently, due to concern about not only energy conservation but
also the extreme water shortages in parts of the country, the 100-
ft (30.48-m) length criteria has changed. Water wastage caused by
the long delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures has become as
critical an issue as the energy losses caused by hot water tem-
perature maintenance systems. To reduce the wasting of cooled
hot water significantly, the engineering community has reevalu-
ated the permissible distances for uncirculated, dead-end branches
to periodically used plumbing fixtures. The new allowable distances
for uncirculated, dead-end branches represent a trade-off between
the energy utilized by the hot water maintenance system and the
cost of the insulation, on the one hand, and the cost of energy to
heat the excess cold water makeup, the cost of wasted potable
water, and extra sewer surcharges, on the other hand. Further-
more, engineers should be aware that various codes now limit the
length between the hot water maintenance system and plumbing
fixtures. They also should be aware of the potential for liability if
an owner questions the adequacy of their hot water system de-
sign.
What are reasonable delays in obtaining hot water at a fix-
ture? For anything beside very infrequently used fixtures (such as
those in industrial facilities or certain fixtures in office buildings),
a delay of 0 to 10 sec is normally considered acceptable for most
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 235

residential occupancies and public fixtures in office buildings. A


delay of 11 to 30 sec is marginal but possibly acceptable, and a
time delay longer than 31 sec is normally considered unaccept-
able and a significant waste of water and energy. Therefore, when
designing hot water systems, it is prudent for the designer to
provide some means of getting hot water to the fixtures within
these acceptable time limits. Normally this means that there
should be a maximum distance of approximately 25 ft (7.6 m)
between the hot water maintenance system and each of the plumb-
ing fixtures requiring hot water, the distance depending on the
water flow rate of the plumbing fixture at the end of the line and
the size of the line. (See Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.) The plumb-
ing designer may want to stay under this length limitation because
the actual installation in the field may differ slightly from the
engineer's design, and additional delays may be caused by either
the routing of the pipe or other problems. Furthermore, with the
low fixture discharge rates now mandated by national and local
laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water from non-
temperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the past,
when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lava-
tory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum
discharge rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain
hot water from 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot
water piping. (See Table 14.3.) This table gives conservative ap-
proximations of the amount of time it takes to obtain hot water
at a fixture. The times are based on the size of the line, the fix-
ture flow rate, and the times required to replace the cooled off
hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection energy
lost by the insulated hot water line.

Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube or


Piping per Linear Foot
Copper Copper Steel Pipe CPVC Pipe
Nominal Pipe Pipe Schedule Schedule
Diameter Type L Type M 40 40
Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt.
(in.)a (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft) (gal/ft) (lb/ft)
0.012 0.285 0.013 0.204 0.016 0.860 0.016 0.210
0.025 0.445 0.027 0.328 0.028 1.140 0.028 0.290
1 0.043 0.655 0.045 0.465 0.045 1.680 0.045 0.420
1 0.065 0.884 0.068 0.682 0.077 2.280 0.078 0.590
1 0.093 1.14 0.100 0.940 0.106 2.720 0.106 0.710
aPipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing.
236 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or


Piping per Meter
Copper Copper Steel Pipe CPVC Pipe
Nominal Pipe Pipe Schedule Schedule
Diameter Type L Type M 40 40
Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt. Water Wgt.
(mm)a (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg) (L) (kg)

DN15 0.045 0.129 0.049 0.204 0.061 0.390 0.061 0.099


DN20 0.095 0.202 0.102 0.328 0.106 0.517 0.106 0.132
DN25 0.163 0.297 0.170 0.465 0.170 0.762 0.170 0.191
DN32 0.246 0.401 0.257 0.682 0.291 1.034 0.295 0.268
DN40 0.352 0.517 0.379 0.940 0.401 1.233 0.401 0.322
aPipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing.

Table 14.2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance


Water Flow Rates
Maximum Flow Ratesa
Fittings GPM L/Sec
Lavatory faucet 2.0 1.3
Public non-metering 0.5 0.03
Public metering 0.25 gal/cycle 0.946 L/cycle
Sink faucet 2.5 0.16
Shower head 2.5 0.16
Bathtub faucets
Single-handle 2.4 minimum 0.15 minimum
Two-handle 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Service sink faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Laundry tray faucet 4.0 minimum 0.25 minimum
Residential dishwasher 1.87 aver 0.12 aver
Residential washing machine 7.5 aver 0.47 aver
aUnless otherwise noted.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 237

Table 14.3 Approximate Time Required to Get


Hot Water to a Fixture
Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow 0.5 1.5 2.5 4.0
Rate (gpm)
Piping 10 25 10 25 10 25 10 25
Length (ft)
Copper in. 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8
Pipe in. 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15
Steel Pipe in. 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20
Sched. 40 in. 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28
CPVC Pipe in. 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20
Sched. 40 in. 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30

Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.

Table 14.3(M) Approximate Time Required to Get


Hot Water to a Fixture
Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow 0.03 0.10 0.16 0.25
Rate (L/sec)
Piping 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6 3.1 7.6
Length (m)
Copper DN15 25 63a 8 21 5 13 3 8
Pipe DN22 48a 119a 16 40a 10 24 6 15
Steel Pipe DN15 63a 157a 21 52a 13 31a 8 20
Sched. 40 DN20 91a 228a 30 76a 18 46a 11 28
CPVC Pipe DN15 64a 159a 21 53a 13 32a 8 20
Sched. 40 DN20 95a 238a 32 79a 19 48a 12 30

Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
238 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

RESULTS OF DELAYS IN DELIVERING


HOT WATER TO FIXTURES
As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining
hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable
water as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down
the drain unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned
about total system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted,
previously heated water must include: the original cost for ob-
taining potable water, the cost of previously heating the water,
the final cost of the waste treatment of this excess potable water,
which results in larger sewer surcharges (source of supply to end
disposal point), and the cost of heating the new cold water to
bring it up to the required temperature. Furthermore, if there is
a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixtures, the faucets
are turned on for long periods of time to bring the hot water
supply at the fixture up to the desired temperature. This can
cause the water heating system to run out of hot water and make
the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable to
heat all the extra cold water brought into the system through the
wastage of the water discharged down the drain. In addition, this
extra cold water entering the hot water system reduces the hot
water supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of in-
sufficient hot water because to get a proper blended temperature
more lower temperature hot water will be used to achieve the
final mixed water temperature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Addi-
tionally, this accelerates the downward spiral of the temperature
of the hot water system.
Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot
water to the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than
expected periods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water demand
is greater than the demand normally designed for.
Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water
piping distribution system, the designer should be aware that
the lack of a proper hot water maintenance system can seriously
impact the required heater size.

METHODS OF DELIVERING REASONABLY


PROMPT HOT WATER SUPPLY
Hot water maintenance systems are as varied as the imagina-
tions of the plumbing engineers who create them. They can be
grouped into three basic categories, though any actual installa-
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 239

tion may be a combination of more than one of these types of


system. The three basic categories are
1. Circulation systems.
2. Self-regulating heat trace systems.
3. Point-of-use water heaters (include booster water heaters).

Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial, and


Large Residential Projects
A circulation system is a system of hot water supply pipes and
hot water return pipes with appropriate shutoff valves, balanc-
ing valves, circulating pumps, and a method of controlling the
circulating pump. The diagrams for six basic circulating systems
are shown in Figures 14.1 through 14.6.

Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Bottom of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
240 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Top of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Bottom of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 241

Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at


Top of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System


with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed
systems shown in Figures 14.1 and 14.3.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
242 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System


with Heater at Top of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the downfeed
systems shown in Figures 14.2 and 14.4.
* See text for requirements for strainers.

Self-Regulating Heat Trace


Over approximately the last 20 years, self-regulating heat trace
has come into its own because of the problems of balancing cir-
culated hot water systems and energy loss in the return piping.
For further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 15.

Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The point-
of-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long dis-
tance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 243

plumbing engineer must remember, however, that when a water


heater is installed there are various code and installation require-
ments that must be complied with, such as those pertaining to T
& P relief valve discharge.

Instantaneous electric heaters used in point-of-use applica-


tions can require a considerable amount of power, and may require
240 or 480 V service.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN CIRCULATED HOT


WATER MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
The following are some of the potential problems with circulated
hot water maintenance systems that must be addressed by the
plumbing designer.

Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water Heater


Piping Diagram.
Source: Courtesy of Chronomite Laboratories, Inc.
244 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems


For copper piping systems, it is very important that the circu-
lated hot water supply piping and especially the hot water return
piping be sized so that the water is moving at a controlled veloc-
ity. High velocities in these systems can cause pinhole leaks in
the copper piping in as short a period as six months or less.

Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various indi-
vidual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Further-
more, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate fac-
tory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is in-
cluded. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjust-
ment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.

Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems


It is extremely important in circulated systems that shutoff valves
be provided to isolate an entire circulated loop. This is done so
that if individual fixtures need modification, their piping loop can
be isolated from the system so the entire hot water system does
not have to be shut off and drained. The location of these shutoff
valves should be given considerable thought. The shutoff valves
should be accessible at all times, so they should not be located in
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 245

such places as the ceilings of locked offices or condominiums.

Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems


To ensure that a balanced hot water system remains balanced
after the shutoff valves have been utilized, the hot water return
system must be provided with a separate balancing valve in ad-
dition to the shutoff valve or, if the balancing valve is also used
as the shutoff valve, the balancing valve must have a memory
stop. (See the discussion of "balancing valves with memory stops"
below.) With a memory stop on the valve, plumbers can return a
system to its balanced position after working on it rather than
have the whole piping system remain unbalanced, which would
result in serious problems.

Providing Check Valves at the Ends of


Hot Water Loops
The designer should provide a check valve on each hot water re-
turn line where it joins other hot water return lines. This is done
to ensure that a plumbing fixture does not draw hot return water
instead of hot supply water, which could unbalance the hot water
system and cause delays in obtaining hot water at some fixtures.

A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at Dead-End Lines


Keep the delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures to within the
time (and branch length) parameters given previously to avoid
unhappy users of the hot water system and to prevent lawsuits.

FLOW BALANCING DEVICES


The following are the more common types of balancing device.

Fixed Orifices and Venturis


These can be obtained for specific flow rates and simply inserted
into the hot water return piping system. (See Figure 14.8.) How-
ever, extreme care should be taken to locate these devices so they
can be removed and cleaned out, as they may become clogged
with the debris in the water. It is recommended, therefore, that a
strainer with a blowdown valve be placed ahead of each of these
246 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters.


Source: Courtesy of Gerand Engineering Co.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 247

devices. Additionally, a strainer with a fine mesh screen can be


installed on the main water line coming into the building to help
prevent debris buildup in the individual strainers. Also, a shutoff
valve should be installed before and after these devices so that an
entire loop does not have to be drained in order to service a strainer
or balancing device.

Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves


The same admonition about strainers and valves given for "fixed
orifices and venturis" above applies to the installation and loca-
tion of these devices. (See Figure 14.9.)

Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control Cartridge.


Source: Courtesy of Griswold Controls.
248 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Flow Regulating Valves


These valves can be used to determine the flow rate by reading
the pressure drop across the valve. They are available from vari-
ous manufacturers. (See Figure 14.10.)

Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve.


Source: ITT Industries. Used with permission.

Balancing Valves with Memory Stops


These valves can be adjusted to the proper setting by installing
insertable pressure measuring devices (Petes Plugs, etc.) in the
piping system, which indicate the flow rate in the pipe line. (See
Figure 14.11.)
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 249

Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with Memory Stop.


Source: Courtesy of Milwaukee Valve Co.

SIZING HOT WATER RETURN PIPING SYSTEMS


AND RECIRCULATING PUMPS
The method for selecting the proper size of the hot water return
piping system and the recirculating pump is fairly easy, but it
does require engineering judgment. First, the plumbing engineer
has to design the hot water supply and hot water return piping
systems, keeping in mind the parameters for total developed
length,1 prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures, and velocities in
pipe lines. The plumbing engineer has to make assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return piping.
After the hot water supply and hot water return systems are
designed, the designer should make a piping diagram of the hot

1See American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2000, Cold-water systems, Chap-


ter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, for piping sizing methods.
250 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

water supply system and the assumed return system showing


piping sizing and approximate lengths. From this piping diagram
the hourly heat loss occurring in the circulated portion of the hot
water supply and return systems can be determined. (See Table
14.4 for minimum required insulation thickness and Table 14.5
for approximate piping heat loss.)

Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping

Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness


Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (in.)
Runouts
2 in. or 1 in. or Less 12 in. 24 in. 5 & 6 in. 8 in. or
Lessa Larger
1 1 1 1 1

Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.

Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness


Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm)
Runouts
DN32 or DN25 or DN32DN50 DN65DN100 DN125 & DN150 DN200 or
Lessa Less Larger
13 25 25 40 40 40

Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 251

Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss


and Surface Temperature
Nominal Insulation Heat Loss Surface
Pipe Size Thickness (Btu/h/ Temperature
(in.) (in.) linear ft) (F)
1 8 68
1 10 69
1 1 10 69
1 1 13 70
1 1 13 69
2 or less a 24 or less 74
2 1 16 70
2 1 12 67
3 1 16 68
4 1 19 69
6 1 27 69
8 1 32 69
10 1 38 69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.

Table 14.5(M) Approximate Insulated Piping Heat


Loss and Surface Temperature
Nominal Insulation Heat Loss Surface
Pipe Size Thickness (W/m) Temperature
(mm) (mm) (C)
DN15 25 7.7 20
DN20 25 9.6 21
DN25 25 9.6 21
DN32 25 12.5 21
DN40 25 12.5 21
DN50 or less 13a 23.1 or less 23
DN50 25 15.4 21
DN65 38 11.5 19
DN80 38 15.4 20
DN100 38 18.3 21
DN150 38 26.0 21
DN200 38 30.8 21
DN250 38 36.5 21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
252 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 14.6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks


with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
(in.) (gal) Water Temperature
140F (Btu/h)a
1 50 468
1 100 736
2 250 759
3 500 759
3 1000 1273
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.

Table 14.6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks


with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Insulation Tank Approx. Energy Loss
Thickness Size from Tank at Hot
(mm) (L) Water Temperature
60C (W)a
25.4 200 137
25.4 400 216
50.8 1000 222
76.2 2000 222
76.2 4000 373
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.

system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.

(14.1) q = 60rwcT

[q = 3600rwcT]
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 253

where
60 = min/h
3600 = sec/h
q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T = change in heated water temperature (tempera-
ture of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
q = c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]

system heat loss (Btu/h)


(14.2) gpm
500 F temperature drop

[ L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)
]
15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should
note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recom-
mended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply tempera-
ture provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
254 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

bution systems, it is recommended that the recirculation system


for each temperature distribution system be extended back to
the water heating system separately and have its own pump.
Using Equation 14.2, we determine that, if there is a 5F (3C)
temperature drop across the hot water system, the number to
divide into the hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to ob-
tain the minimum required hot water return circulation rate in
gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (500 5F), (45 213 [15 071 3C]).
For a 10F (6C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from
Equation 14.2, 500 10F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 14.2,
15 071 6C = 90 426]). However, this 10F (6C) temperature
drop may produce hot water supply temperatures that are lower
than desired.
After Equation 14.2 is used to establish the required hot wa-
ter return flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can
size the hot water return piping system based on piping flow rate
velocities and the available pump heads. It is quite common that
a plumbing designer will make wrong initial assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return lines to establish the initial heat
loss figure (q). If that is the case, the plumbing engineer will have
to correct the hot water return pipe sizes, redo the calculations
using the new data based on the correct pipe sizing, and verify
that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.

EXAMPLE 14.1CALCULATION TO DETERMINE


REQUIRED CIRCULATION RATE

1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses

(244 m 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses)


2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN20)
pipe. From Table 14.5 determine the heat loss per linear foot
(meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
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(30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss)


1000 Btu/h piping loss
100 ft 10 Btu/h/ft =
1800 Btu/h piping loss

( 30.5 m 9.6 W/m =


293 W piping loss
528 W piping loss )
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by total-
ing the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses 10,400 Btu/h
B. Hot water return piping losses 1,800 Btu/h
C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h
Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h
[A. Hot water supply piping losses 3050 W
B. Hot water return piping losses 527 W
C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W
Total system heat losses 3799 W
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3577 W]
From Equation 14.2, using a system piping loss of
12,200 Btu/h (3577 W) and a 5F (3C) temperature
drop,
12,200 Btu/h
= 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm)
5F temperature difference 500 required hot water
return circulation rate

[ 3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec
required hot water
]
return circulation rate

Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses

1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
256 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h piping loss

(244 m 12.5 W/m = 3050 W piping loss)


2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
25 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 250 Btu/h piping loss
75 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 750 Btu/h piping loss
1800 Btu/h piping loss

[30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss


7.6 m 9.6 W/m = 73 W piping loss
22.9 m 9.6 W/m = 220 W piping loss
528 W piping loss]
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses 10,400 Btu/h
B. Hot water return losses 1,800 Btu/h
C. Hot water storage tank losses 759 Btu/h
Total system heat losses 12,959 Btu/h
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply losses 3050 W


B. Hot water return losses 528 W
C. Hot water storage tank losses 222 W

Total system heat losses 3800 W

Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3578 W]


Note: The recalculation determined that the hot water system
heat losses remained unchanged and that 4.88 (say 5) gpm (0.29
[say 0.3] L/sec) is the flow rate that is required to maintain the 5F
(3C) temperature drop across the hot water supply system.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 257

It should be stated that engineers use numerous rules of


thumb to size hot water return systems. These rules of thumb
are all based on assumptions, however, and are not recommended.
It is recommended that the engineer perform the calculations for
each project to establish the required flow rates because, with all
the various capacities of the pumps available today, exact sizing
is possible, and any extra circulated flow caused by the plumb-
ing engineer using a rule of thumb equates to higher energy costs,
to the detriment of the client.

ESTABLISHING THE HEAD CAPACITY OF THE


HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMP
The hot water return circulating pump is selected based on the
required hot water return flow rate (in gpm [L/sec]), calculated
using Equation 14.2, and the systems pump head. The pump
head is normally determined by the friction losses through only
the hot water return piping loops and any losses through balanc-
ing valves. The hot water return piping friction losses usually do
not include the friction losses that occur in the hot water supply
piping. The reason for this is that the hot water return circulation
flow is needed only to keep the hot water supply system up to the
desired temperature when there is no flow in the hot water supply
piping. When people use the hot water at the fixtures, there is
usually sufficient flow in the hot water supply piping to keep the
system hot water supply piping up to the desired temperature
without help from the flow in the hot water return piping.
The only exception to the rule of ignoring the friction losses
in the hot water supply piping is a situation where a hot water
return pipe is connected to a relatively small hot water supply
line. "Relatively small" here means any hot water supply line that
is less than one pipe size larger than the hot water return line.
The problems created by this condition are that the hot water
supply line will add additional friction to the head of the hot
water circulating pump, and the hot water circulating pump flow
rate can deprive the last plumbing fixture on this hot water sup-
ply line from obtaining its required flow. It is recommended,
therefore, that in such a situation the hot water supply line sup-
plying each hot water return piping connection point be increased
to prevent these potential problems, i.e., use in. (DN22) hot
water supply piping and in. (DN15) hot water return piping, or
1 in. (DN28) hot water supply piping and in. (DN22) hot water
return piping, etc.
258 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

When selecting the hot water circulating pumps head, the


designer should be sure to calculate only the restrictions en-
countered by the circulating pump. A domestic hot water system
is normally considered an open system (i.e., open to the atmo-
sphere). When the hot water circulating pump is operating,
however, it is assumed that the piping is a closed system. There-
fore, the designer should not include static heads where none
exists. For example, in Figure 14.1, the hot water circulating
pump has to overcome only the friction in the hot water return
piping not the loss of the static head pumping the water up to
the fixtures because in a closed system the static head loss is
offset by the static head gain in the hot water return piping.

HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMPS


Most hot water circulating pumps are of the centrifugal type and
are available as either in-line units for small systems or base-
mounted units for large systems. Because of the corrosiveness of
hot water systems, the pumps should be bronze, bronze fitted,
or stainless steel. Conventional, iron bodied pumps, which are
not bronze fitted, are not recommended.

CONTROL FOR HOT WATER CIRCULATING


PUMPS
There are three major methods commonly used for controlling
hot water circulating pumps: manual, thermostatic (aquastat),
and time clock control. Sometimes more than one of these meth-
ods are used on a system.
1. A manual control runs the hot water circulating pump con-
tinuously when the power is turned on. A manual control
should be used only when hot water is needed all the time,
24 h a day, or during all the periods of a building's operation.
Otherwise, it is not a cost-effective means of controlling the
circulating pump because it will waste energy.
Note: The method for applying the on demand concept for
controlling the hot water circulating pump is a manual control.
It can be used very successfully for residential and commercial
applications.
2. A thermostatic aquastat is a device that is inserted into the
hot water return line. When the water in the hot water return
system reaches the distribution temperature, it shuts off the
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 259

circulating pump until the hot water return system tempera-


ture drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumb-
ing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.

AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fix-
tures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give con-
sideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.

INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and con-
traction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of some-
one getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
260 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

It is recommended that all hot water supply and return pip-


ing be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insula-
tion thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wast-
ing energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insula-
tion. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insu-
lation thickness may be reduced as follows:

4.6 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
Actual R

( 0.032 Table 14.4 thickness


Actual R
= New minimum thickness
)
2. For materials with thermal resistivity less than 4.0 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.028 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insula-
tion thickness shall be increased as follows:

4.0 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
Actual R

( 0.028 Table 14.4 thickness


= New minimum thickness
)
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 261

Actual R

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Hand-
book.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applica-
tions Handbook.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential build-
ings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fit-
tings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water sys-
tems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.
Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on
hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.


12. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Insulation. Chap-
ter 12 in ASPE Data Book.
13. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Pumps. Chapter
11 in ASPE Data Book.
14. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Energy conserva-
tion in plumbing systems. Chapter 7 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 1.
15. American Water Works Association. 1985. Internal corrosion of
water distribution systems. Research Foundation cooperative re-
search report.
16. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1978. Copper for
hot and cold potable water systems. Heating/Piping/Air Condition-
ing Magazine. May.
17. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1993. Historical
perspective of corrosion by potable waters in building systems.
Paper no. 509 presented at the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers Annual Conference.
18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Handbook.
19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
1985. Uniform Plumbing Code Illustrated Training Manual.
20. Konen, Thomas P. 1984. An experimental study of competing sys-
tems for maintaining service water temperature in residential
buildings. In ASPE 1984 Convention Proceedings.
21. Konen, Thomas P. 1994. Impact of water conservation on interior
plumbing. In Technical Proceedings of the 1994 ASPE Convention.
22. Saltzberg, Edward. 1988. The plumbing engineer as a forensic en-
gineer. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
23. Saltzberg, Edward. 1993. To combine or not to combine: An in
depth review of standard and combined hydronic heating systems
and their various pitfalls. Paper presented at the American Society
of Plumbing Engineers Symposium, October 2223.
24. Saltzberg, Edward. 1996. The effects of hot water circulation sys-
tems on hot water heater sizing and piping systems. Technical
presentation given at the American Society of Plumbing Engineers
convention, November 36.
25. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. New methods for analyzing hot
water systems. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
26. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. Prompt delivery of hot water at
fixtures. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
27. Sealine, David A., Tod Windsor, Al Fehrm, and Greg Wilcox. 1988.
Mixing valves and hot water temperature. In Technical Proceedings
of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 263

28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Associa-


tion. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water sys-
tems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 265

15
INTRODUCTION
SELF-REGULATING
HEAT TRACE
SYSTEMS

A hot water self-regulating heat trace system can be used for


prompt delivery of hot water at the fixtures. A heating cable sys-
tem is one of several accepted methods of providing prompt
delivery of hot water. (See Chapter 14.)
Todays buildings are more architecturally complex than those
built a decade ago and make ever increasing demands on the in-
terstitial space occupied by HVAC ductwork, mechanical piping,
communication wiring, and electrical conduits. This, combined
with the need to conserve energy and water, challenge engineers
to provide cost-effective, energy-efficient domestic hot water sys-
tems. Maintaining the temperature of a domestic hot water system
may entail establishing a means to continuously recirculate the
water via pumps, valves, and additional piping. An alternative
method is to use self-regulating heat trace systems.
Water conservation has become a major concern in the past
few years. The need to conserve water has led to requirements
for the use of low-flow fixtures, including faucets, showers, and
water closets. The water wastage that occurs when cooled water
is dumped down the drain while the user is waiting for hot water
to flow can no longer be tolerated. In addition to wasting a pre-
cious resource, this practice incurs extra energy costs to heat
the water and waste treatment costs to process the wasted wa-
ter. The ability to keep a pipe warm close to the point of use is of
particular interest with the low-flow fixtures used today.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
266 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Variables affecting the performance of a heat trace system


include: the system temperature range, time to tap, water wast-
age, and energy efficiency. Designers should consider these factors
along with installation and life-cycle costs when selecting the
proper hot water self-regulating heat trace system for a particu-
lar building.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Electric heat tracing systems replace heat lost through the ther-
mal insulation on hot water supply piping to maintain the water
at desired nominal temperatures, eliminating the need for insu-
lated recirculation lines, pumps, and balancing valves. Preventing
the hot water from cooling also ensures that hot water is readily
available when it is needed.
An electrical heat tracing system is not a substitute for a
complete, efficient domestic hot water system. It does not elimi-
nate the need for an efficient water heater. What a heat tracing
system does is provide another approach to the design and in-
stallation of a hot water system. It does this by simplifying the
hot water distribution system, thereby minimizing the amount of
piping required. Items such as additional piping and balancing
valves are unnecessary.
In a heat trace system, a self-regulating heating cable is at-
tached directly to the hot water supply piping and insulated. A
self-regulating heating cable adjusts its power at each point along
its length to maintain nominal temperature throughout the pip-
ing system. Electrical energy input is controlled by the cables
construction to maintain the required water temperature at the
fixtures. No return piping or circulation pump is required.
Successful installation of a heat tracing system requires
coordination among the various tradespeople involved. Plumbers
and electrical and insulation contractors must be made aware of
the specific requirements affecting each others work.
The information in this chapter will help the designer under-
stand electric heat tracing as it applies to hot water systems.
With this information, a designer should be able to:
1. Compare the merits of heat tracing and a recirculation sys-
tem based on the requirements of a specific project.
2. Identify the extent of piping requiring heat tracing.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 267

3. Understand the role of thermal insulation in hot water heat


tracing.
4. In coordination with an electrical engineer, determine the cir-
cuit breaker/power requirements based on the estimated heat
tracing circuit lengths.
5. Translate the design requirements into a complete design for
a project.
All examples and descriptions in this chapter are based on
copper water piping with fiberglass thermal insulation and
other typical design conditions. While design parameters may
differ and pipe and insulation materials other than those dis-
cussed can be and frequently are equipped with heat tracing,
such jobs should be undertaken with the design assistance of a
qualified manufacturers representative.

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Only Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., listed electric heat tracing
systems for hot water temperature maintenance should be used.
(Note: Thirty mA ground fault equipment protection is to be used
for all hot water heat tracing circuits.) These tested and approved
systems are based on self-regulating heating cables that are spe-
cifically designed for hot water temperature maintenance. (See
Figure 15.1.) Heat is delivered through a carbon matrix heating
element that responds to temperature changes. Whenever the
temperature in the heat traced piping begins to rise, the cable
automatically reduces its heat output. Conversely, when the water
temperature begins to drop the cable reacts by increasing its
heat output. This self-regulating feature occurs along the entire
length of a heat tracing circuit to ensure that each point receives
the amount of heat necessary to maintain thermal equilibrium.
Heating cables, self-regulating or otherwise, intended for pipe
freeze protection or general temperature maintenance should not
be used for hot water temperature maintenance, since their per-
formance has not been matched to the requirements of hot water
applications.
268 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable for


Hot Water Temperature Maintenance.
Source: Courtesy of Raychem Corporation.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 269

SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A hot water temperature maintenance system (such as the one
shown in Figure 15.2) typically includes the following components:
1. Self-regulating heating cable.
2. Power connection kit.1
3. Tee/inline splice kit (permits 2 or 3 cables to be spliced to-
gether).
4. Cable end termination.
5. Attachment tape (secures cable to pipe, use at 12 to 24 in.
[305 to 610 mm] intervals).
6. Electric heat tracing label (peel and stick label that attaches
to insulation vapor barrier at 10 ft [3.05 m] intervals, or as
required by code or specification).
7. Fiberglass thermal insulation and vapor barrier.2

Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature


Maintenance System.
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
Note: See System Components, above, for identification of numbered parts.

1Power connection kits do not include electrical junction boxes.


2All heat traced lines are to be thermally insulated with fiberglass. Refer to the
manufacturers insulation schedule for insulation information.
270 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

IDENTIFYING THE PIPING REQUIRING HEAT


TRACING
Typically, main and branch lines that are inch (DN22) and
larger are the primary locations for the application of a hot water
heat tracing system. A heat traced line can maintain hot water to
every point of use. Systems with different pressure or tempera-
ture zones can easily be accommodated in the design and layout
of heating circuits.
Deciding how close to the point of use the heat tracing should
be installed depends on the following conditions:
1. The gallons per minute (liters per second) of the fixture.
2. The diameter of the runout line.
3. The number of times per day the fixture will be used.
4. The acceptable period of time to wait for hot water.
5. The acceptable level of water waste per fixture per use.
6. Any special requirements at the point of use.
Most new facilities require fixtures that limit the gpm (L/sec)
used by lavatories and showers. As a result, the length of uncir-
culated, non-heat traced piping has become increasingly
important. Table 15.1 shows the correlation of time to get hot
water (in seconds), to fixture flow rate, to length of in. (DN22)
diameter runout piping that is not temperature maintained.

Table 15.1 Time for Hot Water to Reach Fixture (sec)


Fixture Distance from End of Heat Tracing Circuit to
Flow Rate Point of Use (ft)
(gpm) 15 20 25 30 40
1 23 30 38 45 60
1.5 15 20 25 30 40
2 11 15 19 23 30
2.5 9 12 15 18 24
3 8 10 13 15 20
3.5 6 9 11 13 17
4 6 8 9 11 15

Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.


Note: Numbers based on use of in. nominal diameter type L copper tubing.
Calculations are based on the heat loss from the piping and do not include the
amount of heat required to heat the piping or the water in the piping. See Chapter
14 for these values.

Table 15.1(M) Time for Hot Water


Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 271

to Reach Fixture (sec)

Fixture Distance from End of Heat Tracing Circuit to


Flow Rate Point of Use (m)
(L/sec) 4.6 6.1 7.6 9.1 12.2
0.06 23 30 38 45 60
0.1 15 20 25 30 40
0.13 11 15 19 23 30
0.16 9 12 15 18 24
0.19 8 10 13 15 20
0.22 6 9 11 13 17
0.25 6 8 9 11 15

Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.


Note: Numbers based on use of DN22 nominal diameter type L copper tubing.
Calculations are based on the heat loss from the piping and do not include the
amount of heat required to heat the piping or the water in the piping. See Chapter
14 for these values.

While considering the time factor may be important for the


purposes of keeping users satisfied, there is a more critical is-
sue. Even with low-flow fixtures, the amount of water wasted by
dumping water until the desired temperature is reached can be
significant. (See Table 15.2.)

Table 15.2 Water Wasted While Waiting for Hot Water


to Reach Fixture (oz)
Nom. Diam. Distance from End of Temperature Maintenance
Type L to Point of Use (ft)
Copper (in.) 15 20 25 30 40
48 64 80 97 129

Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.

Notes:
1. Remember to add up all the fixtures in a facility and to multiply by both the
waste number shown and the expected number of usages per day.
2. Numbers based on line diameter and distance from end of temperature
maintenance.
272 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Table 15.2(M) Water Wasted While Waiting for Hot


Water to Reach Fixture (mL)
Nom. Diam. Distance from End of Temperature Maintenance
Type L to Point of Use (m)
Copper 4.6 6.1 7.6 9.1 12.2

DN22 1420 1895 2365 2870 3815

Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.


Notes:
1. Remember to add up all the fixtures in a facility and to multiply by both the
waste number shown and the expected number of usages per day.
2. Numbers based on line diameter and distance from end of temperature
maintenance.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Heating cable systems do not require system balancing. Often
they are used in buildings with significant lengths of return pip-
ing relative to the lengths of supply piping or in hot water systems
requiring multiple circulation loops.
Heating cable systems may not be economical in buildings
with doughnut configurations and small amounts of return pip-
ing. Such systems still may be selected, however, if the designer
wishes to eliminate flow balancing.

Multiple Temperature Systems


For systems requiring multiple temperatures, heating cable can
be installed on the supply piping after the mixing valve to main-
tain the different temperatures independently.

Remodels and Additions


For buildings with existing return systems, heating cable sys-
tems can be installed in the additions so that hot water
temperature is maintained in the new piping without affecting
the performance of the existing hot water systems.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 273

COORDINATING DESIGN INFORMATION


To get the most from each heat tracing circuit, the designer should
establish the maximum circuit length based on the number of
circuit breakers available for the project. (Note: Maximum circuit
lengths vary according to the voltage and temperature selection.)
Regardless of a buildings shape and size, it is recommended that
the heat tracing circuits be organized to follow the layout of the
cable. For ease of identification during the layout process and for
effective communication, the designer should identify the piping
requiring heat tracing on the plumbing drawings. While indica-
tion of the heating cable, power connection, end termination,
and tee splice kits is given on the plumbing drawings, only the
power connection points need to be referenced on the electrical
drawings.
The symbols shown in Figure 15.3 are routinely used to indi-
cate components of a heat traced hot water supply system.

Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components of a


Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System.
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
Note: The numerals inside the symbols refer to circuit numbers.
274 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

DETERMINING THE TEMPERATURE TO


MAINTAIN
The desired temperatures for most applications are given in Table
15.3 along with the ambient temperature ranges of the space
surrounding the insulated pipe. The appropriate self-regulating
cable is chosen based on the desired maintenance temperature.
If temperatures differ from those shown, contact the manufac-
turer.

Table 15.3 Nominal Maintenance Temperatures, F (C)


Ambient Hospitals, Hospitals, Kitchens,
Range, Nursing Homes, Hotels, Condos, Laundries
F (C) Prisons Prisons, Schools

7580 105 (42)


(2427)
7280 120 (49) 140 (60)
(2227)
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.

CHOOSING THE RIGHT CABLE


After determining the extent of the hot water supply piping to be
heat traced, the designer should decide the lengths to be main-
tained at 105, 120, and/or 140F (42, 49, and/or 60C). At this
point, the total length of each type of heating cable can be deter-
mined. Using the manufacturers published maximum circuit
length for the desired temperature cable, the designer can figure
the required number of circuits. These maximum circuit lengths
should not be exceeded; otherwise, there will be excessive elec-
trical currents in the bus wires of the heating cable. The maximum
circuit length is the total length of cable that can be fed from a
single power connection point, inclusive of all splices, including
tees. Note that circuit lengths that are longer than these maxi-
mum lengths may require larger circuit breakers. The designer
must be sure to check with the electrical engineer the available
amperages of the branch circuit breakers supplying power to the
heat tracing. After the required number of circuits is determined,
that information should also be checked with the electrical engi-
neer. This will ensure that the proper number of circuits has
been allotted in the power distribution system.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 275

THERMAL INSULATION
While frequently overlooked, thermal insulation plays a critical
role in ensuring that hot water is available at the point of use.
This is true for both recirculation and heat traced hot water
systems.
The standard design for heat traced piping (the design that
manufacturers design guides are based on) utilizes fiberglass ther-
mal insulation with a kraft paper vapor barrier. Thicknesses range
from 1 to 2 in. (25.4 to 50.8 mm) based on line diameter. If a heat
traced hot water system is designed to use only one cable for each
temperature range, the thickness of the insulation will vary.
Manufacturers of hot water heat tracing systems have estab-
lished insulation schedules that outline the thicknesses required
to keep the heat loss within the desired range. Note that in these
schedules the insulation on piping 1 in. (DN35) in diameter and
smaller is oversized to allow space for the heating cable.
After the installation of the heating cable and thermal insula-
tion is completed, the piping is identified with stick-on labels to
note the presence of electric heat tracing. This labeling gives no-
tice to facility maintenance workers that heating cable has been
installed under the insulation should any pipe maintenance or
renovations be required.

HEAT TRACING HOT WATER PIPING


The design of a heat tracing temperature maintenance system
for mains and branch lines can be done on the plumbing draw-
ings. (See Figure 15.4.) By referring to the manufacturers heating
cable selection chart for the desired maintenance temperature,
the designer can determine the maximum heating cable circuit
length for circuit breakers of different sizes. Taking this informa-
tion into account when laying out the hot water lines will ensure
optimum use of the circuit lengths.
Note, in Figure 15.4, that the main and branch lines are heat
traced and insulated while the short runouts are only insulated.
(Runouts that feed individual points of use typically contain less
than gal [1.89 L] of water. If the faucet flow rate is above 1
gpm [0.1 L/sec], hot water will reach the point of use within 10
sec.) If the distance between the branch line and the point of use
is much longer than 40 ft (12.19 m) or the flow rate is lower, the
potential for water wastage and the time required for hot water to
276 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of Hospitals,


Correctional Facilities, and Hotels.
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.

reach the point of use may be beyond the levels considered ac-
ceptable for the facility. To remedy this situation, simply heat
trace closer to the point of use.

COMBINING HORIZONTAL MAINS WITH


SUPPLY RISERS
Designers of multilevel facilities often duplicate floor plans over
several levels, which simplifies the layout of electrical, HVAC,
and mechanical equipment. This practice also simplifies the layout
of hot water supply lines, unless there is a maze of recirculation
piping and balancing valves are required. Figure 15.5 shows a
layout typical of two to four-story facilities, such as hospitals,
research labs, correctional facilities, and campus dormitories.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 277

In this example, the supply main is located in the interstitial


space between the first-story ceiling and the second-story floor.
Because each story has roughly the same layout and water use
points are stacked, a riser and drop are used to supply water at
each plumbing location. Electric heat tracing is installed on the
horizontal mains and the risers. Since the distance between the
horizontal piping and the first-story runouts is minimal (less than
15 ft [4.57 m]), heating cable is not required beyond the horizontal
line connecting the main to the riser.
Since this example is of a four-story facility, it is recommended
that heating cable be installed up to the feed point for the third
story. The line feeding from level three to level four again is less

Figure 15.5 Typical Layout for 2 to 4-Story Hospitals, Research


Labs, Correctional Facilities, and Dormitories.
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
278 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

than 15 ft (4.57 m), and under most conditions a line of this


length does not require heat tracing. Untraced lines should be
installed so as to prevent rapid heat loss between uses.
While this example is somewhat simplistic, the design princi-
ples it demonstrates can be applied to a project of any size.

HOT WATER HEAT TRACING TERMS


The following terms apply to all hot water heat tracing systems
and may aid in the selection of the appropriate system for each
project.
1. System temperature range. For a return system, this is the
allowable temperature drop to the end of the system plus any
additional variability caused by improper system balancing.
With return systems, there is a trade-off between desired sys-
tem performance and the life-cycle cost of the system. For a
heating cable system, the system temperature range is the
range around the nominal maintenance temperature.
2. Unheated distance. This is the distance in feet (meters) be-
tween the last maintained leg of hot water piping and the
point of use. For example, if hot water temperature is main-
tained only for the main run, the distance from the main to
the point of use is the unheated distance.
3. Time to tap. This is the time required for hot water to reach
the fixture when the fixture is turned on. If the hot water
temperature is not maintained all the way to the fixture, the
cold water in the pipe must be drawn out before the user gets
hot water. The length of the wait is called time to tap. It is a
function of the unheated distance, the gpm (L/sec) flow rate,
and the diameter of the pipe.
Heat Exchangers 279

16
INTRODUCTION
HEAT
EXCHANGERS

The basic process behind the heating of water is heat exchange,


whereby heat from a hot substance (the heating medium) is given
to a colder substance or medium, in this case water. This heat
exchange between a heating medium and water usually takes
place in a piece of equipment called a heat exchanger that is
specifically designed and manufactured to efficiently and cost-
effectively transfer heat from one medium to another.
This section discusses the basic construction, operation, con-
figuration, and selection of various types of heat exchanger and
offers insights into their advantages, disadvantages, and appli-
cation.

CODES AND STANDARDS

Plumbing Codes
Over the last few years, some plumbing codes have been revised
to require double-wall protection in potable water systems. These
revisions address concern over the contamination of potable wa-
ter during normal use or as a result of excess pressure by any
fluid that is flooded in a tank or heat exchanger. The possibility
of such contamination has led to the introduction of double-wall
heat exchangers to generate domestic hot water.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
280 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association


The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA), of
Tarrytown, New York, has established heat exchanger standards
and nomenclature for industrial applications. It has assigned every
shell and tube device a three-letter designation, the letters refer-
ring to the specific type of stationary head at the front end, the
shell type, and the rear end head type, in that order. (A fully
illustrated description of all the shell and tube devices can be
found in the TEMA standards).

DEFINITIONS

Heating Medium
A heating medium is any substance used to heat another sub-
stance to a higher temperature. In the case of heat exchangers
used to heat domestic hot water, the heating mediums are gener-
ally fluids or fuels. There are exceptions to this rule, however,
such as electrical energy, which is used to heat a solid wire, or
element, which then directly transfers heat to the water by con-
tact. Examples of heating mediums include:
1. Steam.
2. Water.
3. Gas.
4. Oil.
5. Electricity.
6. Solar energy.
7. Geothermal energy.
8. Refrigerants.

Approach
The term approach is used to describe how close the outlet
temperature of the water to be heated comes to (or approaches)
the inlet temperature of a fluid heating medium.

Heat Exchanger
This term refers to a device specifically designed and constructed
to efficiently transfer heat energy from a hot substance to a colder
one.
Heat Exchangers 281

Countercurrent
This term is used to describe a situation where the liquid heating
medium in a heat exchanger flows in a direction opposite to that
of the fluid to be heated.

Temperature Cross
A temperature cross occurs when the liquid being heated has
an outlet temperature that falls between the inlet and outlet tem-
peratures of the heating medium; this is possible only when flows
are 100% countercurrent.

TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER


Heat exchangers have been used to heat water for domestic and
other purposes in commercial and industrial facilities for years.
In fact, the ever-increasing cost of energy has led to the increased
use of heat exchangers to extract and conserve energy that previ-
ously was wasted.
Commonly used types of heat exchanger include: plate type,
shell and tube, tube-in-tube, and tube-on-tube. However, only
the plate type and the shell and tube are discussed below.
Operating conditions, ease of access for inspection and main-
tenance, and compatibility with heating medium are some of the
variables engineers must consider when assessing heat exchanger
options. Others include:
1. Maximum pressure and temperature.
2. Heating or cooling applications.
3. Compatibility of the material with process fluids.
4. Cleanliness of the streams.
5. Approach temperature.
Certain exchangers operate better than others at different
temperature approaches. Plate and frame exchangers, for ex-
ample, work well at a very close approach, in the order of 2F
(1C). For shell and tube exchangers, however, the lowest pos-
sible approach is in the order of 10F (5.5C).
As for cleanliness, shell and tube exchangers have tube di-
ameters that can accommodate a certain amount of particulate
matter with very little clogging or fouling. Plate and frame ex-
changers, however, have narrow passageways, making them more
susceptible to damage from precipitation or particulate fouling.
282 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The most common type of heat exchanger, the shell and tube,
can be found in almost every type of application. In recent years,
the plate and frame has emerged as a viable alternative to the
shell and tube.

Shell and Tube


Mechanically simple in design and relatively unchanged for more
than 60 years, the shell and tube offers a low-cost method of
heat exchange. The shell and tube heat exchanger has the fol-
lowing advantages:
1. The greatest flexibility of design and configuration.
2. A large choice of shell and tube materials.
3. High temperature and pressure characteristics.
4. Ability to handle large amounts of particulate material.

U-tube, removable bundle

The U-tube heat exchanger is made by bending straight tubes


into the shape of a U, hence the name. The U-shaped tubes are
then mechanically rolled into a common header or tubesheet.
Depending on the fluid outside the tubes, this bundle is fitted
with either tube supports or flow baffles along its length. The
tubesheet, tubes, and tube supports/flow baffles make up the
bundle assembly. The bundle assembly is then placed in a shell
(a length of pipe that contains inlet and outlet connections and a
pipe sized flange at one end for insertion of the tube bundle; and
a cap at the other end), which will contain the fluid heating me-
dium outside the tube bundle. A head assembly (usually a casting
that contains inlet and outlet connections for directing a fluid
into the tube bundle) is then bolted to the shell flange to com-
plete the heat exchanger.
The head assembly contains one or more pass partitions for
controlling tube velocity, hence the tube side heat transfer coef-
ficient and pressure drop.
If a condensing vapor (such as steam) is to be the heating
medium, the tube bundle will have supports designed to support
the tubes along their length and provide for the proper flow and
drainage of the condensate from the shell. If a liquid is to be
circulated outside the tube bundle, flow baffles will be used to
support the tubes and direct the flow across the bundle. In such
a case, the number and spacing of the flow baffles will control
the shell side heat transfer coefficient and its pressure drop.
Heat Exchangers 283

The U-tube heat exchanger is well suited for large domestic


water heating applications that use either boiler water or steam
as the heating medium. It is in the nature of the U-tube con-
struction to allow for large temperature differences between the
tube side and shell side fluids because the U-tubes expand and
contract independently of the shell assembly. In addition, the
tube bundle assembly is removable, allowing for easy and eco-
nomical replacement of the heat transfer surface should a failure
or leak develop in the bundle.
The U-tube design does, however, have its limitations. First,
because of the U-bends, the tube side fluid must make multiple
passes down the length of the unit. This makes it less economical
to use the U-tube for close temperature approaches and elimi-
nates the possibility of its use (i.e., a single U-tube unit) for
temperature-cross applications such as those found in energy rec-
lamation projects. Also, because of the U-bend, the unit cannot be
completely cleaned by mechanical means, which could be a prob-
lem if the tube side fluid is dirty or prone to scaling/fouling.
The basic U-tube design can be modified to meet a number
of special applications.

Tank heater

Replacing the shell assembly of a U-tube heat exchanger with a


tank mounting collar will allow the exchanger to function as a
storage heater for large domestic water systems. In such an ap-
plication, the tank heater uses hot water as a heating medium.
The hot water is pumped through the tubes, thus maintaining
the tank system water at a set temperature. Steam can also be
used as the heating medium if a special head assembly that al-
lows for proper condensate drainage of the unit is installed.
The tank heater uses natural convection as the means for
transferring heat to the tank side system. Most heat exchangers
use forced convection. This is a significant difference in that natu-
ral convection produces much lower rates of heat transfer.
Consequently, for a given capacity, tank heaters require more
heat transfer surface area than heat exchangers utilizing forced
convection. In addition, it is very important for proper natural
convection that the relationship between the size of the tank heater
and the size of the tank be within specific limits. The guideline
for this relationship is to have the tube bundle extend into the
tank for a distance of from 50 to 75% of the tube bundles length
for a horizontal tank and a distance nearly equal to its full diam-
eter for a tank that is to be installed vertically.
284 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

A steel tank for a domestic water system requires a lining.


Consequently, the manufacturer of the tank heater must take
care to ensure that the tube bundle fits inside the tank mounting
collar. Finally, every tank heater should have adequate support
inside the tank to eliminate stress on the tube-tubesheet rolled
joint. Inadequate support can lead to leaks of the tube bundle in
this area.

Double-wall heat exchanger

The purpose of double-wall protection is to warn of a tube failure


before cross-contamination between the tube-side and shell-side
fluids can occur. Such cross-contamination could occur, for in-
stance, where treated water from a boiler in a closed loop system
is utilized to produce heat. A number of manufacturers now pro-
duce double-wall units in a U-tube design. Although some of the
design features of these units may differ, the basic design is fairly
common among double-wall manufacturers.
The double-wall U-tube unit has a tube-within-a-tube design.
Fins or grooves are used on one of the tubes to create a leak path
between the tubes when they are mechanically bonded to enhance
heat transfer. The outside tube is machined back at each end,
bent into the U-tube, and either mechanically rolled or brazed into
a double-tubesheet arrangement. Should either of the tubes fail,
its fluid would be channeled through the leak path between the
tubes to the space between the tubesheets. The appearance of
fluid between the tubesheets is evidence of tube failure.
While the double-wall design is very expensive compared to
the single-wall unit, its use is increasing, due in large part to
revisions to local plumbing codes. Double-wall exchangers are
used for applications where a failed tube bundle would result in
a health hazard.
A disadvantage of the double-wall design is the loss of effi-
ciency in transferring heat from the heating medium to the water.

Plate Type Heat Exchanger


In recent years, the plate type heat exchanger has emerged as an
alternative to the shell and tube. With its ability to optimize ther-
mal performance, the plate type exchanger has made possible a
number of close approach and temperature-cross applications that
would not have been economical or practical with a shell and tube
exchanger. A plate type unit is efficient, easy to maintain, and less
susceptible to fouling, and it takes up little space.
Heat Exchangers 285

A plate type heat exchanger is characterized by having heat


transfer occur via metal, plastic, glass, or ceramic barriers be-
tween fluids. One stream heats the other by means of conduction
(or radiation) through the barrier. Inside the heat exchanger, the
fluids are heated by convection.
There are two types of plate type unit: prime surface and
plate and frame.
In general, the prime surface units are best suited to small
heat loads and batch operations and the plate and frame are most
efficient when used for large heat loads and continuous duty.

Prime surface heat exchanger

A prime surface heat exchanger is fabricated from two die-formed


sheets, which are welded together. One or both of the sheets are
die or pressure formed (cold formed) to create a series of well-
defined passages through which the heating medium flows. Any
common metal that can be cold worked and resistance welded
could be used, the most typically used being carbon steel, stain-
less steel, monel, titanium, and hastelloy. A prime surface heat
exchanger has a single circuit design and can be used as a shelf
or immersed, clamped on, or built into a tank or used otherwise
where a plate and frame exchanger would not be suitableeven
given the same media. Maximum operating parameters are gen-
erally a temperature of 650F (343C) and a pressure of 500 psig
(3450 kPa).

Plate and frame heat exchanger

A plate and frame unit is fabricated from a series of channel


plates, which are pressed together to form a plate pack, with the
holes at the corners of the plates forming a continuous passage
or manifold. This manifold distributes the heat transfer media
from the inlet of the heat exchanger into the plate pack for each
fluid. The media are then distributed into the narrow channels
formed by the plates. The gasket arrangement on each plate dis-
tributes the hot and cold media into alternating flow channels
throughout the plate pack. In all cases, hot and cold media flow
countercurrent to each other.
The most common plate and frame type heat exchanger is the
gasketed plate unit, in which a series of channel plates are mounted
on a frame and clamped together. Each plate is made from pressable
materials, such as stainless steel, and is corrugated. The most
common pattern of corrugation is the herringbone or chevron. In-
286 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

cluded with each plate is an elastomer gasket. This gasket is used


for sealing purposes and for the proper distribution of fluids in
the plate heat exchanger. The spaces between adjacent plates form
flow channels for the hot and cold fluids.
A corrugated herringbone or chevron pattern is pressed into
each plate to produce highly turbulent fluid flows. The high de-
gree of turbulence results in high heat transfer coefficients and
keeps fouling to a minimum. In addition, the corrugations add
rigidity to each channel plate. This allows the use of thinner plate
material and improves heat transfer.
The basic design of the gasketed plate exchanger allows for
the opening of the frame to add or remove channel plates to opti-
mize heat exchanger performance or to service and maintain the
channel plates, all with a minimum of downtime.
The benefits of a plate and frame heat exchanger (100% coun-
tercurrent flow, high turbulence, and thin plate material) make
it a highly efficient device that typically yields heat transfer rates
three to five times greater than those of other types of heat ex-
changer. Because of these high heat transfer rates, it is possible
to use a plate and frame exchanger that is compact relative to
other types of heat exchanger for a given application. Ideal oper-
ating conditions include temperature crosses and close approach
temperatures for the hot and cold media.
While a gasketed plate and frame heat exchanger can be used
in almost any application, it has limitations, which must be con-
sidered. These limitations have to do primarily with the units
design pressures and temperatures. Practical design pressures
are limited to 800 psig (5516 kPa), while design temperatures
are a function of the gasket material used in the exchanger. The
most popular and widely used gasket material is nitrile rubber
(NR), which has a temperature limit of 280F (138C). NR is fol-
lowed in popularity by ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM),
which has a temperature limit of 820F (438C). EPDM gaskets
can be used to substitute for NR gaskets (for higher temperature
ratings) on all applications except those involving oil heating or
cooling, since EPDM swells in the presence of most oils. Other
gasket materials, such as hypalon and viton, are also available.
These gasket materials are more prevalent in industrial applica-
tions.
Gasketed exchangers have benefited from improvements in
the quality and diversity of elastomer materials and gasket de-
signs. The use of exchangers with welded connections, rather
than gaskets, reduces the likelihood of process fluid escape.
Heat Exchangers 287

Other limitations of the gasketed plate and frame exchanger


are due to the narrow channels between adjacent plates. If a
fluid that will enter the plate heat exchanger has suspended sol-
ids or is likely to deposit large amounts of scale on the plate
surfaces, careful consideration should be given to the free chan-
nel space between the plates. Also, the narrow channels and
resultant high turbulence of the fluid flows produce high pres-
sure drops, making the plate exchanger incompatible with
low-pressure applications.
Until recently, a major limitation to the gasketed plate and
frame heat exchanger was caused by the method of attaching the
gaskets to the channel plates. In the past, gaskets were glued to
the channel plates. Since gaskets are a replaceable part, this
made removing old gaskets and installing new ones a very time-
consuming and labor-intensive procedure. Most manufacturers
now use a glueless gasket design. Clip and snap are the two most
common types of glueless gasket. Both simplify the re-gasketing
procedure, making on-site service possible and thus reducing
downtime.
Recent advances in plate design and technology have pro-
duced two variations to gasketed plate and frame heat exchangers:
double-wall and welded plate.

Double-wall plate and frame exchanger

In a double-wall plate and frame exchanger, two standard chan-


nel plates are welded together at the four corner ports to form
one assembly. An air space or leak path is created between the
plates for the passage of a fluid should a plate fail. The appear-
ance of this fluid is evidence of plate failure.
The purpose of the double-wall plate and frame exchanger,
like that of the double-wall shell and tube heat exchanger (dis-
cussed earlier in this chapter), is to warn of a plate failure before
cross-contamination can occur between the heating medium and
potable water.

Welded plate and frame exchanger

In welded plate and frame exchangers, two standard channel


plates are welded together at their peripheries. These welded plates
(usually called a cassette) form a flow channel where the elas-
tomer gasket has been replaced by the welded joint. This
configuration may be necessary if there is no elastomer gasket
compatible with the fluid or if more positive containment is re-
288 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

quired. Typical applications include refrigerant evaporators/con-


densers, ammonia refrigeration, and cases where aggressive or
corrosive fluids are present.

SELECTING HEAT EXCHANGERS


When it comes to selecting a type of heat exchanger for a particu-
lar application, one of the questions asked most frequently is,
Which is bestshell and tube or plate type? Assuming that the
application is within the pressure and temperature limits of both
designs, the issues come down to initial cost, maintenance costs,
and future operating conditions.
The initial cost is usually dictated by the approach tempera-
tures of the application. Close approach temperatures and
temperature crosses favor the plate heat exchanger while wide
temperature approaches favor the shell and tube. Construction
materials can influence initial cost too, especially if the applica-
tion requires the use of stainless steel. With the computerized
selection programs now used extensively, little effort is required
to obtain prices for each type of unit for the quick comparison of
initial costs.
With respect to maintenance costs, much depends on the
properties of the fluids involved. If the fluids have a tendency to
foul, the plate heat exchanger may be a better choice, since it
offers somewhat easier and more direct access to the heat trans-
fer surface for the purpose of cleaning. In addition, because of
the high turbulence in plate units, they tend to scale or foul less
than shell and tube exchangers.
If the plate and frame heat exchanger has a weakness com-
pared to the shell and tube, it is the amount of gasketing in the
unit. Compared to the shell and tube, the plate and frame has a
much greater amount of gasketing, and therefore a much higher
potential for leakage. In addition, since the gaskets are elastomers,
they have a service life. On average, the life of a gasket on a plate
and frame heat exchanger is approximately 6 to 7 years, with
operating temperatures having a significant effect on actual per-
formance. Units operating close to the temperature limit of the
gasket will experience shorter gasket life. There is one other as-
pect of an elastomer gasket that must be considered: the
phenomenon of cold leakage. Cold leakage is caused by the cool-
ing down of a plate heat exchanger from high operating
temperatures when there is a pressure differential between the
Heat Exchangers 289

hot and cold media in the unit. The plate and frame unit has a
tendency to weep through the gasket interface. The weeping nor-
mally stops after the gaskets reset or the unit is brought back up
to operating temperatures. Basically, if the application requires
a low probability of leakage, the better choice is a prime surface
or shell and tube design rather than a plate and frame.
While gaskets may be a weakness in a plate and frame unit,
being able to expand its thermal capacity merely by adding chan-
nel plates to an existing unit is one of its major strengths. If it is
known that a particular application will be expanded in the fu-
ture, a plate unit is by far the easiest and most economical design
to use.
Indirect Fired Water Heaters
Water 291

17
INTRODUCTION
INDIRECT FIRED
WATER HEATERS

An indirect water heater is a fluid-to-fluid heat exchanger that


uses one hot fluid to heat a second colder fluid. The hot fluid can
be anything, such as freon or ammonia from an air conditioning
compressor, but most often is water heated by a boiler or a direct
fired unit. In homes and offices, the liquid heated is usually po-
table domestic cold water, but indirect water heaters can also be
used to heat pool water or melt snow. Since they do not contain
a firebox or electrical element for heating, they have no need of a
separate flue or fuel line, which reduces related installation and
construction costs.

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
There are two basic types of indirect water heater on the market
today, which are distinguished primarily by the location of the
boiler water.

Storage Tank Type Indirect Water Heaters


The first kind of indirect water heater to appear in the market-
place, the storage tank type is very similar to its direct fired cousins
in that its tank contains potable domestic water to be heated by
boiler water flowing through a single coil. (See Figure 17.1.)
The advantage of this type of indirect water heater is its ability
to deliver a large amount of heated water. However, as hot water is
delivered, the tank must constantly be refilled with incoming cold

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
292 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 17.1 Indirect Water Heater Designs.


Source: Courtesy of Group Thermo, Inc.

water, which reduces the temperature of the remaining stored


water. This type of indirect water heater needs sufficient time to
recover (reheat) its contents once they are cooled. Therefore, its
capacity to deliver hot water during short intervals of high de-
mand may be limited. In such instances as a residential application
requiring large amounts of hot water within 5 to 10 min, for the
purposes of filling a large spa or a whirlpool bathtub or the con-
current operation of several appliances needing hot water,
installation of a commercial size storage indirect water heater tank
of at least 80 to 100 gal (303 to 379 L) would be necessary. This
tactic would meet the demand for the availability of more hot wa-
ter but would significantly increase the cost to the consumer.
Another kind of storage tank type indirect water heater is the
double-tank or tank-within-a-tank design. The potable domes-
tic water is held in an inner tank while the boiler water circulates
around it.
Indirect Fired Water Heaters
Water 293

This design innovation has led to considerably improved per-


formance and faster recovery due to the larger heat transfer
surface. However, the same dump limitation applies. Early mod-
els of this type of water heater were prone to corrosion at the top
of the tank due to oxygen accumulation, but current versions
are vented to prevent this problem. Nevertheless, the constant
refilling of the tank with fresh water makes all storage indirect
water heaters susceptible to two other major causes of tank fail-
urethermal stress and scaling.
Thermal stress results because the 90 to 100F (32 to 38C)
temperature fluctuations that occur on a daily basis cause tank
linings and dissimilar metals to expand and contract at different
rates. This expansion and contraction eventually leads to crack-
ing. Over time, oxygen contained in the fresh water attacks these
cracks and corrodes the tank. Fresh water also contains mineral
salts, which precipitate out as the water is heated and attach
themselves to the hottest surface available. Regardless of whether
the hottest surface is the coil containing the boiler water or a por-
tion of the tank wall, scale buildup steadily erodes heat transfer
efficiency.
The chart in Figure 17.2 illustrates how dramatically the rate
of scale formation increases as temperatures rise above 140F
(60C). At this temperature in residential use, their average
lifespan ranges anywhere from 7 to 12 years, depending on wa-
ter conditions. For water heaters in commercial use, the life
expectancy is considerably shorter.
In summary, while both of these storage tank designs are
capable of delivering water at high temperatures, their consis-
tent operation at temperatures above 140F (60C) will result in
significantly faster scale formation, rapidly deteriorating heat
transfer efficiency, and much shorter life expectancies.

Instantaneous Indirect Water Heaters


The second type is the instantaneous indirect water heater. Its
tank is filled with boiler water that heats potable domestic water
that passes through multiple, small diameter coils as it is needed.
Provided that the boiler continues to produce enough heat, the
instantaneous indirect water heater will provide an unending
supply of hot water for as long as it is needed. This type of water
heater needs no recovery time.
294 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The instantaneous indirect water heater is a descendant of the


well-known instantaneous coil in a boiler water heater. Several
simple design innovations make the modern version better.

Figure 17.2 Purdue Bulletin 74 Chart, Showing the Relationship


Between Lime Deposits and Water Temperature.
Source: Chart developed by Purdue University. Reprinted courtesy of Group Thermo, Inc.
Notes:
1. Chart is based on 10 grains of hardness. For any other hardness, multiply the
pounds of lime deposited per year data by the new grain hardness converted by a
multiple of 10. For example, 20 grain hardness = 2 times the data. (1 grain hardness =
17.1 ppm hardness.)
2. A very important fact demonstrated by this figure is that almost 7 times more lime is
deposited when the water temperature is 180F (82C) as opposed to 140F (60C). The
factor of 7 translates into a very short life expectancy for tank type heaters in services
that require sanitizing (180F [82C]) water temperatures.
Indirect Fired Water Heaters
Water 295

First, the potential for scaling and corrosion in the boiler wa-
ter tank has been virtually eliminated because it is filled with
dead boiler water circulating in a closed loop. Once the loop is
filled, the small amount of makeup water added over time is not
enough to cause problems, provided the loop is properly vented.
Scaling inside the coils is prevented by the accelerated flow of the
potable water whenever hot water is drawn. By using several
coils of relatively small diameter, high output levels are possible
with little pressure drop. Since this type of indirect water heater
does not develop scale, even at higher temperatures, it is often
used in applications where 180F (82C) water is needed for sani-
tizing (e.g., automatic dishwashers, hospital laundries, and food
processing equipment).
Second, a tankless coil typically used a single, finned coil
immersed in the boiler water. Since both sides of each fin or rib
on the coil were considered part of the available heat transfer
surface, efficiency was expected to be high. In reality, the fins
and ribs trapped pockets of static water which acted like a layer
of insulation and hindered the heat transfer process. Scale col-
lected in the valleys, compounding the problem. Wherever coils
were tightly wrapped or touching, heat transfer surfaces were
either unavailable or starved of boiler water. In comparison, the
new instantaneous water heater design makes use of multiple
smooth coils in loosely overlapping bundles to maximize the
amount of available heat transfer surface. The addition of turbu-
lent flows inside and outside the coil boosts the heat transfer
efficiency into the high 90% range and raises the overall operat-
ing efficiency to new levels. The turbulence also scrubs the coils
clean of any scale buildup. As a result, instantaneous indirect
water heaters are projected to last 20 or more years.

WATER CONDITIONS
Obviously, the quality and condition of the potable water supply
will affect the performance of a water heater, direct or indirect. In
general, if the water supply has a pH value close to 7, neither
highly acidic nor heavily alkaline, any indirect water heater will
function properly. However, when high acidity is encountered and
cannot be modified using water treatment equipment, indirect water
heaters with copper coils may be adversely affected. Conversely,
very alkaline water will cause storage tank type indirect water heat-
ers to accumulate scale much more rapidly. Particulate matter in
suspension or otherwise contained in the potable water supply
296 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

should be filtered out before the water enters either type of indi-
rect water heater. Sediment will quickly accumulate in and clog
up the storage tank type or sandblast the coils of the instanta-
neous indirect water heater, causing damage.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 297

18
ELECTRIC WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE AND
BOOSTER

INTRODUCTION
An electric water heater is an appliance for heating water that is
to be used for purposes other than space or central heating (for
instance, cooking, dish and cooking utensil washing, clothes
washing, lavatories, baths, and showers).

PRINCIPAL TYPES OF ELECTRIC WATER HEATER


Water heaters are classified as residential or commercial, based
on their size as well as their intended use.
Residential water heaters that meet UL Standard 174 gener-
ally include those with inputs of 600 volts (V) or fewer, no more
than 12 kW, and with tanks at capacities of between 1 and 120
gal (3.79 and 454 L).
Commercial storage tank water heaters and electric booster
water heaters that meet UL Standard 1453 are those that have
inputs of 600 V or fewer and satisfy at least one of the following
conditions:
1. Have a capacity of more than 120 gal (454 L).
2. Are rated over 12 kW.
3. Are equipped with one or more temperature regulating con-
trols permitting a water temperature higher than 185F (85C).
For medium and heavy-duty commercial applications, hot
water with temperatures of 180F (82C) and above generally must
be available to meet the dish and utensil washing requirements
of restaurant installations. For equipment to be classified as a

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
298 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

water heater instead of a boiler, it must have provisions that


guard against water temperatures exceeding 210F (99C).

COMPONENTS
Other than controls, the following are the principal components
of an electric water heater.

The Tank
In electric tank type water heaters, the tank serves the purpose
of hot water storage.
Linings are generally used in steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. (Tank materials other than steel are also
available.) An additional means of protecting a tank against cor-
rosion is the use of a sacrificial anode. With the insertion of a
sacrificial anode, such as an aluminum or magnesium rod in the
tank, the primary electrolytic reaction occurs between the anode
and the other exposed dissimilar metals within the tank. The
anode is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. The anode
should be replaced as it approaches decomposition to ensure
continued protection of the tank.

Tank Fittings
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections normally are threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe
inlet and outlet connections. A fitting that enables the replace-
ment of the sacrificial anode also is usually provided. In addition
to the inlet and outlet fittings, there are threaded nipples for
the insertion of immersion type elements, thermostats, tempera-
ture-pressure relief valves, and high limits. Residential and
light-duty commercial tanks have brackets on the outside for
surface-mounted thermostats and high limits.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is required on all
domestic and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drain-
age of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom.
Figure 18.1 illustrates a typical residential or commercial
electric water heater and shows the location of some of
the fittings on the tank.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 299

Figure 18.1 A Typical Electric Water Heater.


Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
Note: Cover of electric water heater shown removed to reveal fittings at tank top.
300 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Dip Tube
A dip tube is used with all tank water heaters that have the cold
water inlet located at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent excessive
mixing of cold and hot water as the hot water is used. The rela-
tionship between the length of the dip tube and the height of the
tank determines the amount of usable hot water that can be
drawn from the tank at any one time (the tank draw efficiency). A
dip tube that is too short will cause excessive mixing of cold
water at the top of the tank, which can cause the hot water to be
delivered at a lower than desired temperature. In the past, dip
tubes were made of metal, but presently most dip tubes are made
of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature pre-
vents the tank from being siphoned in case the cold water supply
is cut off. In such a situation, the tank would be siphoned only to
the level of the anti-siphon hole, where the siphoning action would
be stopped.

Elements
Electric water heating technology has been through only minor
changes since its inception. That is because immersion elements
are considered 100% efficient. Only the wattage of the elements
has been increased over the years to shorten recovery times.
Two types of elementwraparound and immersionhave been
used, with immersion type elements representing the overwhelm-
ing majority. Wraparound elements, as their name implies, wrap
around the outside of the tank in a channel. This type of element
heats from the outside and is used primarily in high lime areas to
prevent scaling and premature element failure. Immersion ele-
ments, as their names implies, are immersed in the water and are
made in several styles: blade, single-loop, and multi-loop. (Figure
18.2 shows the types of electric water heater element.)

Element construction

Element construction is essentially the same, regardless of watt-


age or sheath surface area. As Figure 18.3 illustrates, the principle
components of an element are the electrical terminals, flanges,
sheath, magnesium oxide, and resistance wire.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 301

Figure 18.2 Electric Water Heater Element Types.


Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.

Figure 18.3 Electric Water Heater Element Construction.


Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.

The magnesium oxide is used as an electrical insulator be-


tween the resistance wire and sheath as well as a conductor of heat.
The resistance wire is made of nichrome (nickle chrome) and
is of an appropriate length and diameter (ohm rating) to draw a
certain wattage (producing a predictable amount of heat) at a
given voltage. (Table 18.1 charts the relationship among the watt-
302 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

age, voltage, and resistance of an element.)

Table 18.1 Resistance of Element (in ohms) ( 7.5%)


Rated Wattage
Rated
Voltage 600 750 1000 1250 1500 2000 2500

120 23.2 18.6 13.9 11.1 9.28 6.96 5.57


208 72.1 57.7 43.3 34.6 28.6 21.6 17.3
240 92.8 74.3 55.7 44.6 37.1 27.8 22.3
277 128 102 76.7 61.4 51.2 38.4 30.7
Rated Wattage
Rated
Voltage 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000

120 4.64
208 14.4 12.4 10.8 9.61 8.65 7.85 7.2
240 18.6 15.9 13.9 12.4 11.1 10.1 9.28
277 25.6 21.9 19.2 17.1 15.3 14.0 12.8
480 76.8 65.7 57.5 51.1 45.7 41.8 38.4
Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.

Element operation

In an electric element, thermal energy is produced when voltage


is applied to the nichrome wire. The heat energy produced is
conducted through the magnesium oxide and copper or incoloy
sheath into the water. Once the thermal energy enters the water,
it is distributed throughout the tank by convection.
Residential electric water heaters are normally furnished with
dual elements that are wired for non-simultaneous operation (only
one element operates at a time; the upper element operates first
on a cold start). Electric water heaters may be specified with the
elements wired for simultaneous operation (both elements oper-
ate at the same time). The designer should be sure to check the
total connected load with the electrical engineer.
Most electric water heaters currently produced use immer-
sion type electric elements, which are considered 100% efficient.
There are two kinds of such element, distinguished by the mate-
rial used in their sheathing.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 303

Copper sheathed element


This consists of a nichrome resistance wire surrounded by
magnesium oxide and sleeved in a copper sheath. Standard
equipment on residential models, this element features:
1. High to medium watt density.
2. UL listing.
3. Zinc plating for corrosion protection.
Note: Copper sheathed elements must be immersed in
water when energized or they will dry fire (melt down). The
dry firing of water heaters usually occurs during initial in-
stallation when the heaters are not completely filled with water
and the power is switched on.

Incoloy sheathed element


This consists of a nichrome resistance wire surrounded by
magnesium oxide and sleeved in an incoloy iron-based super
alloy sheath. Standard equipment on top-of-the-line residen-
tial models, this element features:
1. Low to medium watt density.
2. UL listing.

CONTROLS FOR RESIDENTIAL AND LIGHT-DUTY,


COMMERCIAL ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Thermostat
This regulates the temperature of the water in the tank. Usually
one snap-action, surface-mounted thermostat is used per ele-
ment. Temperatures are adjustable from 110 to 170F, 10F
(43 to 77C, 6C). (See Figure 18.4 for location.)

High Limit
This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 190F, 5F (88C, 3C).
304 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 18.4 Location of ControlsResidential and


Light-Duty, Commercial Electric Water Heaters.
Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 305

CONTROLS FOR MEDIUM-DUTY, COMMERCIAL


ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Surface-Mounted Controls

Thermostat

This regulates the temperature of the water in the tank.


Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted thermostat is used
per element. Temperatures generally are adjustable from
approximately 120 to 180F (49 to 82C). Surface-mounted ther-
mostats have a differential of between 8 and 15F (4 and 7C).

High limit

This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the


tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manu-
ally adjusted to open.

Wiring circuits

Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing.

Immersion Controls

Thermostat

An immersion well, remote bulb thermostat is used to regulate


the temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures
generally are adjustable from approximately 120 to 180F (49 to
82C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C)
and are excellent units to use when precise temperatures are
important. Multiple thermostats may be used.

High limit

This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the


tank. Usually an immersion well, remote bulb high limit is used.
It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually adjusted to
open.
306 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Wiring circuits

Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).

CONTROLS FOR HEAVY-DUTY, COMMERCIAL


ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the tem-
perature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 95 to 180F (35 to 82C). Immer-
sion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C) and are excellent
units to use when precise temperatures are important. The control
of groups of elements is done by the use of multiple thermostats,
time-delay sequencers, or a solid-state progressive sequencer.
(See Figure 18.5.)

Immersion High Limit


This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit is used
per thermostat. An immersion well, remote bulb high limit may
be used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually
reset to open at 180F (82C).

Wiring Circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many of
the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).

Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.

CONTROLS FOR BOOSTER TYPE, COMMERCIAL


ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
These heaters typically are low storage type heaters, with capaci-
ties generally ranging from 6 to 20 gal (23 to 76 L).
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 307

Figure 18.5 Location of ControlsCommercial Electric


Water Heaters.
Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
308 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the
temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 140 to 185F (60 to 85C). Im-
mersion thermostats have a differential of 2F (1C) and are
excellent units to use when precise temperatures are important.
(See Figure 18.6.)

Immersion High Limit


This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit is used
per thermostat. An immersion well, remote bulb high limit may
be used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually
reset to open at 180F (82C).

Wiring Circuits
Circuits are convertible between single and three-phase voltages.
Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors to link
control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).

Ratings
All heaters shall be rated according to the following standards:
1. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 309

Figure 18.6 Location of ControlsBooster Type, Commercial


Electric Water Heaters.
Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
Ga
Gass Water Heater
Water HeaterInstantaneous With Separate TTank
ank 311

GAS WATER

19 HEATERS
INSTANTANEOUS
WITH
SEPARATE TANK

The direct or indirect, instantaneous water heater coupled with a


separate hot water storage tank, which can be of various vol-
umes, is a water heating system that is well suited for many
applications. (For the purposes of this chapter, an instantaneous
water heater will be defined as a gas fired heating device with no
storage.) Because of its ability to handle a high peak water heat-
ing load, this type of system is used in a variety of applications. It
is frequently found in such facilities as hotels, motels, restau-
rants, food processing plants, laundries, garment manufacturing
and dye houses, and chemical processing facilities.
In this type of system, a gas fired water heater is used to heat
the domestic water, and a pump moves this water through the
water heater and transfers it to the storage tank. The pump cir-
culates the water between the tank and the heater when there is
a demand for heat, thereby keeping the tank at a relatively uni-
form temperature. With some systems this pump can be turned
off during periods of no demand. The storage tank is sized to
meet the demands of a particular application.
The criteria that need to be evaluated in order to select the
size of the heater, the circulating pump, and the storage tank
vary from application to application. Please refer to Section I of
this manual for information on sizing domestic water heating
systems. The more that is known about the exact operation of a
facility, the more intelligently the designer can match the input
of the heater (Btu [W]) to the storage tank volume.
In this type of system, cold water is introduced to the sys-
tem per the manufacturers recommendations, and hot water is
drawn from the storage tank. This type of system has the flex-

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
312 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

ibility to allow the designer to balance the heater recovery with


the storage tank.
The size, flow rate (gpm [L/sec]), and head of the pump to be
utilized depend upon the total dynamic head of the system loop.
It is important that the designer consult the manufacturer to
select a pump that will maintain the proper velocity in the heater
tubes, which will reduce the effects of scaling and overheating
the water as it is routed through the heater. When this type of
water heater is used in areas with hard water, softening the water or
selecting a heat exchanger material other than copper (such as
cupro-nickel) will increase the longevity of the heater and sys-
tem components.
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 313

20
TYPES OF GAS WATER HEATERS
GAS WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE

Water heaters are classified as residential (domestic) or commer-


cial based on their size as well as their intended use. Residential
water heaters are generally considered to include those with in-
put rates up to and including 75,000 Btu/h (21 975 W), and
commercial water heaters are those with input rates over
75,000 Btu/h (21 975 W).
The most common type of gas water heater is the storage
(tank) type heater in which a single tank is used for both heating
and storing the water. The heaters most commonly used for resi-
dential purposes are those with 30, 40, and 50-gal (115, 150,
and 190-L) tanks. Large heaters have capacities ranging from
120 up to as many as several thousand gallons (455 up to as
many as several thousand liters).

FLUES AND HEAT EXCHANGERS


Storage type heaters are classified according to the placement of
the gas flue. With respect to this classification, types include the
internal (center) flue, the external channel flue, the floating tank
external flue, and the multiple flue. (See Figure 20.1.)
The internal (center) flue type has the most economical con-
struction. The external channel flue increases the bottom heating
surface and tends to promote heating from the bottom, which
improves efficiency. The floater has the greatest heat transfer
area of the three types, with the whole bottom and the full surface
of the tank available for heat transfer.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
314 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The internal (center) flue tends to be smaller in diameter than


the external and floating type flues for the same capacity tank.
Flues serve as the primary means for disposing of the products
of combustion and also as heat exchangers. Because commercial
water heaters have higher gas inputs and need even greater heat
transfer areas than residential heaters, many are constructed
with multiple flues to both increase the heat transfer area and
provide a cross-sectional flue area sufficient for properly dispos-
ing of the products of combustion. (Figure 20.1 illustrates a
multiple flue commercial water heater.)

TANKS
As previously explained, the tank in a tank type water heater serves
the dual purposes of heat exchange and hot water storage. Also, it
must be able to withstand water pressure in compliance with the
codes and regulations of whatever authority has jurisdiction.
The storage of hot water in the tank accelerates corrosion.
Linings are generally used with steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. Tank materials other than steel are also
available.
A second method of protecting the tank is the sacrificial anode.
When a sacrificial anode such as a magnesium rod is inserted in
the tank, corrosive action occurs between the anode and
any exposed metals in the tank. The anode, being higher on the
galvanic scale, is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. In
some instances, anode rods are not installed because they have
a detrimental effect on the tank lining. Figure 20.2 illustrates a
residential gas water heater containing one type of sacrificial
anode. An anode such as this should be replaced as it approaches
decomposition to ensure continued protection of the tank.
One disadvantage of the underfired tank is its propensity for
depositing sediment on the bottom of the tank. The harder the
water, the greater the potential for this problem.

TANK FITTINGS
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections are normally threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe inlet
and outlet connections. A fitting enabling the replacement of the
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 315

sacrificial anode is also normally provided. In addition, most tanks


are provided with one or more threaded nipples for the insertion
of immersion type thermostats, temperature-pressure relief valves,
and automatic gas shut-off devices.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is found on most
residential and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drain-
age of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom. Although infrequently done in practice, the
periodic draining of tanks is highly recommended (the frequency
depending on water conditions in the area) because the removal
of foreign matter improves heat transfer, provides for cleaner hot
water, and eliminates any noises caused by the accumu-
lated foreign matter. Commercial tanks have, or can be fitted
with, a handhole cleanout. ASME rated tanks over a certain size
require a manhole.
See Figure 20.3 for possible locations of some of the residen-
tial and commercial water heater fittings described. These are
examples only; many variations of location and gas water heater
are encountered.

DIP TUBES
A dip tube is used on all tank water heaters in which the cold
water inlet is at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
incoming cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent the
mixing of cold and hot water. In all tank water heaters, the water
at the top of the tank, under cycling and intermittent standby
conditions, attains a higher temperature than water at the bot-
tom of the tank. The variation between the two temperatures
depends on heater design and dip tube length. A dip tube that is
too short will cause excessive mixing of the cold and hot water,
which will reduce the tank draw efficiency.
In the past, dip tubes were made of metal, but presently most
dip tubes are made of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-
density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature pre-
vents the tank from being siphoned. Figure 20.4 shows the
operation of the dip tube under normal operating conditions and
under conditionssuch as occur when the cold water supply is
shut off or a line breaksnecessitating anti-siphoning action.
316 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(A)

(B)
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 317

(C)

(D)

Figure 20.1 Location and Types of Flue:


(A) Internal Flue Tank, (B) External Channel Flue Tank,
(C) Floating TankExternal Flue, (D) Multiple Flue
Multiple Burner, Commercial Water Heater.

Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.


318 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 20.2 Sacrificial Anode Installation in a Residential


Gas Water Heater Tank.
Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.

Figure 20.3 Example of Water Heater Fittings.


Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 319

Figure 20.4 The Principle of Operation of the Dip Tube.


Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.

BURNERS
Burner assemblies are designed to ensure that gas and air are
properly mixed for combustion. Burners vary greatly in design
and construction, but all have:
1. An inlet air orifice. Varies with the type of gas and the normal
range of gas pressure.
2. A means of controlling air intake. For primary air burners, air
intake control may be fixed or variable (air shutter).
3. A mixing tube or mixing area. Allows gas and air to mix before
or during burning.
4. Ports. Control the gas flame pattern to improve burning char-
acteristics and distribute the flame in relation to the tank
and/or heat exchanger area.
A few of the more common types of burner found in gas water
heaters are illustrated in Figure 20.5.
320 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Figure 20.5 Types of Gas Burner.

Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.

Issues to consider when selecting a burner design include


the overall physical dimensions of the burner, type of burner
head and port, and flame pattern.
A burners gas input rating governs its orifice and total port
areas. Ports that are too large encourage flashback of the flame
to the burner orifice. Ports that are too small encourage the blow-
ing of flames. The number and size of the ports necessary to give
the proper flame characteristics can be calculated. Ports must be
properly spaced for good flame travel and ignition. Flame charac-
teristics are affected by:
1. The form of the ports (slotted, drilled, ribbon, raised, or
flush).
2. Port size, depth, and spacing.
3. Type of burner head.
4. Air-gas mixture temperatures.
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 321

Air inlets must cover a range wide enough to allow the air-
gas mixture to be properly adjusted for different gas, pressure,
and altitude conditions. Note: Designers should be sure to con-
sult the manufacturers recommendations for derating burners
as necessitated by high altitudes.

VENTING SYSTEMS
A venting system is required to transfer the products of combustion to
the outside. The venting system of a water heater consists of:
1. Water heater flues.
2. A draft diverter or draft regulator.
3. Vent pipe connections to the outside or chimney.
4. Vent caps.
Proper venting generally is covered by local codes. Improper
venting results from a lack of understanding of how and why a
venting system functions. The basic principle behind venting
appliances is that flue gases rise because they are lighter than
the surrounding ambient air. It is the heat content of the gases
that lightens them and causes them to rise. A venting system
that uses the natural tendency of hot gases to rise could be
essentially a vertical path.
Other considerations include using:
1. Vents of a diameter sufficient to carry the gases.
2. Controlled mixtures of flue gases with dilution air from the
draft diverter to prevent excessive cooling of the gases.
3. Insulation on the vent pipe to maintain sufficient flue gas
temperatures in excessively long or high vents (to avoid con-
densation and maintain draft).
4. Mechanical draft inducers with a double-acting barometric
damper.

Draft Hoods
A draft hood is used with almost every water heater not equipped
with a draft regulator or power vent (positive pressure) system.
The draft hood is designed to minimize the effects of:
1. Updrafts. It prevents excessive updrafts through the burner
compartment.
322 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

2. Downdrafts. It prevents a downdraft from blowing out the


pilot flame or causing it to flash back.
3. Blocked flues. If the vent becomes blocked, it minimizes the
concentration of carbon monoxide by diluting the spilling flue
gases.
4. Spillage. It ensures that flue gases do not spill from the
bottom of the diverter if the water heater is installed with a
minimum amount of venting.
Some of the draft hoods commonly used on gas water heaters
are shown in Figure 20.6.

Figure 20.6 Commonly Used Draft Hoods.

Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.


Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 323

The operation of a vertical draft hood under downdraft condi-


tions is illustrated in Figure 20.7.

Vent Connections
The ideal venting system has vent pipe connections that rise
vertically from the draft hood through the roof to the outside and
terminate in a vent cap, which protects the vent from stoppage
and minimizes the effects of downdraft.

Figure 20.7 Downdraft Conditions in a Vertical Draft Hood.

Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.


324 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Where lateral runs are required to connect with chim-


ney installations, the lateral runs should be kept to the minimum
required length. They should slant upward, at a minimum of
in./linear ft (a 2% angle), in the direction of normal flue gas flow.
The connection of a vent to a chimney should be smooth on the
interior surface. The vent pipe should not project into the chim-
ney interior. Consult local codes or National Fuel Gas Code NFPA
54 for details. (See Figure 20.8.)

Figure 20.8 Vent Connection to a Chimney.

Source: Courtesy of UniLine North America, Robertshaw.


Heat Pump Water Heaters
Water 325

21
INTRODUCTION
HEAT PUMP
WATER HEATERS

The heat pump water heater uses modern refrigeration technol-


ogy. In both residential and commercial applications, this type of
water heater can heat water more efficiently and thus is more
cost-effective than an electrical resistance heater. In the right
commercial applications, the energy savings can be significant. A
residential heat pump water heater has a refrigeration system
much like that of a refrigerator. The heat pump water heater
uses this system to transfer heat from a warm airstream to wa-
ter. A typical residential heat pump water heater can heat water
to a temperature of 130F (54C). A typical commercial heat pump
water heater can heat water to a temperature of 160F (71C).
Heat pump water heaters operate on the principle of recovering
heat from an air source. For this type of water heater to operate,
there must be a warm air source (35F [1.7C] or higher). The
heat pump water heater consists of two heat exchangers and a
refrigeration compressor. The first heat exchanger is usually lo-
cated in the airstream with the waste heat and acts to recover
this wasted heat. The compressor pumps the recovered heat from
the airstream to the other heat exchanger, which is associated
with a storage tank, for the heating or preheating of domestic hot
water. This is where the heater gets its nameheat is pumped
from one location to another. The refrigeration compressor uses
the refrigeration systems hot gas for pumping. In the right loca-
tions, a heat pump system can provide simultaneous water
heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
Heat pump water heaters use a vapor compression cycle
similar to that of a refrigerator to remove heat from an airstream

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
326 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

flowing through the evaporator and transfer it to water. Hot, high-


pressure refrigerant gas is routed from the compressor to the
heat exchanger associated with the storage tank. This exchanger
is either one that the entering cold water flows through (remote
type) or one at the water storage tank to which entering cold
water is piped (integral type).
The temperature of the hot gas in commercial refrigeration
systems is usually around 200F (93C) or higher and is ideal for
heating domestic water. There are several combined heat ex-
changer and tank designs. Some have less of a pressure drop
through the heat exchanger than others. Some have coils im-
mersed in the tank while others have coils that wrap around the
tank, and one has a heat exchanger plate that surrounds the
water storage tank.
The refrigerant is cooled and condensed when it heats the
water. The refrigerant liquid then passes through capillary tub-
ing (an expansion device), which causes the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant to drop. The refrigerant gas then
enters the evaporator coil where it absorbs heat from the air pass-
ing through the coil and evaporates. The compressor evacuates
the cool, evaporated refrigerant gas and compresses it to a high
pressure and temperature to repeat the process.

TYPES OF HEAT PUMP WATER HEATER


There are two main types of heat pump water heater. In the inte-
gral type, the heat pump and water storage tank are assembled
together. In the remote type, the heat pump is located at a dis-
tance from the water storage tank and connected by tubes or
piping. Integral type heat pump water heaters are available in
residential and small commercial sizes (approximately 8000 to
60,000 Btu/h [2345 to 17 580 W]) with storage tank sizes rang-
ing from 50 to 120 gal (190 to 455 L). Remote type heat pump
water heaters are available in these same sizes, as well as in
much larger sizes for commercial and industrial applications (ap-
proximately 8000 to 180,000 Btu/h [2345 to 52 740 W]). With a
remote type heat pump water heater a separate storage tank must
be added to complete the water heating system.

Integral Heat Pump Water Heaters


Integral heat pump water heaters are assembled with the main
refrigeration components attached to the hot water storage tank.
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Water 327

The water storage tank of this type of water heater is essentially


an electric resistance hot water heater. It has electric resistance
heating elements to provide additional heating capability for pe-
riods of peak hot water usage. Some integral heat pump water
heaters are available with remote evaporators, which can be lo-
cated near specific heat sources to provide spot cooling. Remote
evaporators are often used in areas such as a hot kitchen and
the space above an ice machine to remove heat directly.

Remote Heat Pump Water Heaters


Remote type heat pump water heaters are separate from water
storage tanks and can be located at a distance from them. In
most residential and small commercial remote heat pump water
heater installations, an electric resistance water heater is used
for the storage tank. In large commercial remote heat pump wa-
ter heater installations, a heat pump water heater is used in
combination with a gas or electric resistance water heater to pro-
vide enough heating capability for periods of peak hot water usage,
and all the water heaters are connected to a large storage tank.
Remote heat pump water heaters are located inside or outside a
structure depending on available space and whether or not there
is an application for the heat pumps space cooling ability.

ENERGY SOURCES
Electricity is the primary source of energy for the refrigeration
system components of a heat pump water heater, for instance,
the compressor, pumps, and fans. Air is the heat source for the
heat pump water heater. All integral type and most remote type
heat pump water heaters use a water storage tank equipped with
backup electric resistance elements to meet peak hot water de-
mand. If electricity rates are excessive, the tank can be ahead of
a gas fired water heater.
Heat pump water heaters remove heat from an airstream and
put it, along with heat from the electrical power they consume,
into water. A heat pump water heater can produce the same
amount of hot water as an electric resistance water heater using
only one quarter to one half the electrical power. The heat pump
water heater also provides space cooling and dehumidification
as a result of the water heating, a result that is often beneficial to
the customer.
328 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

BENEFITS OF THE HEAT PUMP WATER HEATER


The main benefit of the heat pump water heater is its efficiency.
It is much more efficient than an electric resistance water heater
and may be cheaper to operate than a gas water heater, depend-
ing on local costs for gas and electricity.
Also the heat pump water heater provides cool, dehumidified
air as a byproduct of water heating. If there is a need for space
cooling or the existing air conditioning system is inefficient, the
space cooling effect of the heat pump water heater should be
taken into account in an economics analysis.
Another benefit of the heat pump water heater is that it allows
the user to reduce the peak water heating load by spreading it
over a long period of time. With adequate storage, a heat pump
water heater with electric backup enables a large part of the water
heating load to be shifted to off-peak hours for electricity usage,
thereby providing additional savings. Because of this, heat pump
water heaters may qualify users for utility rebates or tax credits.
Heat pump water heaters have lower instantaneous electricity de-
mands than electric resistance water heaters do. If a heat pump
water heater cannot meet peak hot water demand, the backup
electric resistance elements in the storage tank will be energized
until the demand is met. When the backup electric resistance ele-
ments are energized, the heat pump water heater has a higher
rate of recovery, but it also has the high electric power demand of
an electric resistance water heater. The combination of a heat pump
water heater and electric resistance heating elements offers re-
dundancy so that hot water heating ability will be maintained in
the case of partial equipment failure.

DRAWBACKS OF THE HEAT PUMP WATER


HEATER
The heat pump water heater may be more expensive than a con-
ventional water heater. A heat pump water heater has a slower
rate of recovery than a conventional water heater. It may require
the engineering and field installation of additional plumbing or
refrigeration piping. If the space cooling is to be distributed,
ductwork may need to be field installed. An air source heat pump
water heater will not operate if the temperature of the evaporator
falls below freezing. Also if the evaporator temperature falls be-
low freezing, the airstream can become blocked as ice forms on
the evaporator coil.
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Water 329

If a heat pump is used for supplemental cooling, the building


must be able to handle the space cooling year-round. The engi-
neer should not have to supply additional ambient heat during
the cold season in order for the heat pump water heater to con-
tinue operatingunless it can be supplied in a cost-efficient
manner.
Heat pump water heaters are not as widely available as con-
ventional electric or gas water heaters. Also, heat pump water
heaters are available in only a limited number of capacities and
sizes, so the designer may have to compromise or manifold units
when sizing a heat pump water heater for a particular applica-
tion. Heat pump water heaters require maintenance and service
technicians who have an understanding of heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning systems as well as the conventional plumb-
ing systems associated with water heaters.

HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS


Some engineers use heat pump water heater technology in an
engineered system referred to as a heat recovery system. Basi-
cally this type of system is similar to a heat pump water heater
system except that its refrigeration compressor is usually part of
the refrigeration system and is used to pump hot gas to the heat
exchangers in the storage tanks. Heat recovery systems may or
may not have electric heating elements. Sometimes a separate
gas water heater is provided downstream of the heat recovery
water heaters.
Heat recovery systems are used in supermarkets, restaurants,
convenience stores, dairy farms, and indoor ice rinks. Such build-
ings have large demands for warm water for washing down food
preparation, meat processing, dairy, and other areas from hot
and cold hose stations. They also have large refrigeration rooms
full of compressors to keep refrigerator/freezer systems cold. The
waste heat produced by such applications is ideal for a heat re-
covery water heater. In a study done in a supermarket in Michigan,
the waste heat from the refrigeration equipment heated the do-
mestic water stored in three 120-gal (455-L) storage tanks, then
the preheated water passed through a gas fired water heater be-
fore being distributed to the domestic hot water system. A meter
on the gas line serving the water heater showed that over an
extended period of time the water heater burner was never turned
on.
330 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

For supermarket applications, engineers sometimes use a


large single-circuit heat recovery unit that can accommodate high
refrigerant flow rates with low pressure drops. Sometimes mul-
tiple heat recovery units are installed in parallel or in series (a
two-stage system) for a single application.
Note: Caution should be used when working with heat recov-
ery units. A separate condenser still must be installed with the
refrigeration system. When manifolding heat recovery units for
large refrigeration systems, the designer must take care to lay
out the piping for the units in such a way that, during periods of
low refrigeration demand, condensed liquid refrigerant is pre-
vented from forming a trap and blocking the flow of refrigerant
gas through the units. Some manufacturers have designed spe-
cial refrigerant drain tubes on their units to prevent this from
happening.

APPLICATIONS
The heat pump is an excellent choice for a water heater when
certain conditions are met. The building should have a use for
simultaneous water heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
The concurrence of the water heating and space cooling loads is
important. In a good heat pump water heater application, the
water heating load occurs over a long period of time, giving the
heat pump water heater an extended run time. There should be
a use for the space cooling or refrigeration load throughout the
year, and the temperature of the heat pump water heaters evapo-
rator must be maintained above freezing.
If natural gas is expensive or unavailable locally, the heat
pump water heater may be the most cost-efficient choice for heat-
ing water. A heat pump water heater makes the most economic
sense when natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), oil, and elec-
tric resistance heat are expensive.
A poor heat pump water heater application is one in which
all or some of the above conditions are not met. The customer
has no use or only limited use for the space cooling byproduct.
The building has a water heating load that occurs over a short
period of time, giving the heat pump water heater a limited run
time and requiring that the backup electric elements be ener-
gized during most of the run time. When the backup electric
resistance elements are energized most of the time, the advan-
tages of a heat pump water heater are limited. Also, if low-cost
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Water 331

natural gas, LPG, oil, or electric resistance heat are readily avail-
able, the heat pump water heater loses its relative cost-efficiency.
Possible commercial heat pump/heat recovery water heater
applications are restaurants, grocery stores, and other buildings
with large refrigeration loads and high demands for hot water.
The commercial refrigeration units of such buildings usually have
condensing units, located on the roof or beside the building, that
reject the heat produced by the refrigeration process. In a com-
mercial heat recovery application, the refrigeration hot gas line
has a bypass valve that sends the refrigeration hot gas to the
double-wall heat exchanger in the water storage tank. When the
thermostat in the water storage tank indicates that the water
has reached its set point, the bypass valve sends the hot gas to
the condenser on the roof where the excess heat is rejected.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING HEAT PUMP


WATER HEATERS
If a natural gas or electric water heater is being replaced, the
designer should take into account the efficiency of the old water
heater or the heat pump water heater will be oversized. If space
cooling is desired, the heat pump water heater should be slightly
undersized to allow maximum run time and prevent overcooling
of the conditioned space. The designer can contact the water
heaters manufacturer or the office of the local utility for engi-
neering assistance for a particular application.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HEAT PUMP


WATER HEATERS
The installation procedures for a heat pump water heater are the
same as the those for a conventional electric resistance water
heater with some additions. A drain must be provided to remove
condensate from the evaporator. Installation of ductwork for the
evaporator to direct the conditioned air may be desired. The in-
staller must connect refrigeration or additional water lines between
the heat pump water heater and the storage tank if a remote type
heat pump water heater is being installed. Remote type heat pump
water heaters also should have unions, strainers, and isolation
valves installed on the water lines. Integral type heat pump water
heaters require a greater height clearance than conventional wa-
ter heaters if the refrigeration components are mounted on top of
the storage tank.
332 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

The maintenance procedures for a heat pump water heater


are the same as those for a conventional water heater with a few
additions. The anodes and backup electric elements of integral
type water heaters should be checked regularly. The scaling of
the heat exchanger and the accumulation of sediment are con-
cerns and should be dealt with using the same procedures used
for a conventional water heater. The strainers on remote heat
pump water heater piping should be checked regularly.
Additionally, heat pump water heaters require regular main-
tenance of the refrigeration system. The pump or fan motors may
need lubrication. The air filter on the evaporator should be regu-
larly cleaned or replaced, and the evaporator coil may need to be
cleaned for the heat pump water heater to operate at a high effi-
ciency. The evaporator condensate drain must remain open and
should not have any biological growth in it if the conditioned air
is supplied to an inhabited space. Finally, the refrigeration sys-
tem should be checked to ensure that it is operating efficiently.

INCOMING WATER QUALITY


Heat pump water heaters have the same requirements for in-
coming water quality as conventional residential and commercial
water heaters. Special heat exchangers can be used to accommo-
date extremely poor quality incoming water. Scale and sediment
have the same effect on the heat exchangers of heat pump water
heaters that they have on conventional water heaters and should
be handled with the same procedures. In hard water areas water
softeners should be installed ahead of the water heating system.

SAFETY CONTROLS AND DEVICES


Heat pump water heaters use the same safety controls as con-
ventional electric or gas water heaters, such as temperature/
pressure relief valves and thermostats with manual reset over-
loads. Heat pump water heaters also use the same safety controls
as HVAC systems, such as refrigeration pressure and tempera-
ture controls. Heat pump water heaters with remote components
should have fuses or circuit breakers for remote components on
branch circuits.
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 333

22
INTRODUCTION
STEAM WATER
HEATERS

Instantaneous Water Heaters


A steam, instantaneous water heater is a device that utilizes steam
to heat water to a specific temperature. It is able to supply this
tempered water without delay in volumes up to the water heaters
maximum capacity. Because of its ability to supply hot water
instantly, storage tanks usually are not required with this type of
water heater, providing the water heater is sized to handle the
maximum demand.
A steam, instantaneous water heater can be used for any ap-
plication that requires domestic or process hot water and has steam
as an available energy source. Such applications include: shower
rooms, washrooms, dishwashing areas, laundries, and food pro-
cessing plants. The types of facility these applications are found in
include: industrial plants, petrochemical plants, schools, univer-
sities, apartments, hotels, motels, and restaurants.
Generally speaking, there are two main types of steam, in-
stantaneous water heater available today: the feedback unit and
the feed-forward unit.

Storage Water Heaters


The storage heater is a type of water heater in which heat is
transferred to water through tubes or coils. The hot water is then
held, ready to supply demand, in a tank. The heating assembly
can be either separate from or incorporated with the tank.

Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
334 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

A storage type water heating system requires more floor space


than an instantaneous system to accommodate the storage tank.
Also there must be adequate floor support to hold the weight of
the water stored in the tank.
Water hardness can be a problem with a storage type system.
Scale from hard water can have a degrading effect on any heater,
unless the unit is designed to remove scale buildup. Some heat-
ers reduce scale buildup by expanding and contracting metal
parts, others by properly scouring with high water velocities. If
there is any hardness in the water, a heater that is designed to
counter scale formation and can be easily maintained should be
selected. Systems with welded plates or other similarly sealed
assemblies are best reserved for use with scale-free water.
Storage heaters can generate hot water over a period of time
and hold it, ready for use, in large volumes. Because of this,
boilers with relatively small capacities can be used and the peak
demands for fuel are reduced. Storage heaters can meet high
demands for such things as periodic showers without increasing
peak energy demands.
With a steam, storage water heating system, water is heated
either in the tank or at a remotely located heater. The tanks of
storage heating systems are large, maybe holding thousands of
gallons (liters) of water. Energy is supplied to a storage system at
a rate determined by the design of the system. In a steam, stor-
age system, heat exchangers are used in conjunction with storage
tanks. Temperature controls located on the storage tanks main-
tain uniform outlet temperatures.
A steam system is operated by boiler- or district-supplied
steam. A steam boiler is operated by oil, gas, or another fuel
source. Electricity is often available for generating steam or di-
rectly heating water but is usually a costly source of energy.
District-supplied steam refers to overseas use, where steam is
created in a central location then distributed to the buildings in
a district.

FEEDBACK UNITS
A feedback unit is a water heater that controls hot water tem-
perature by sensing hot water in either a tank or exit piping and
feeding back a signal to the steam control device. Such units are
reactive, depending on a change in water temperature for their
control. This need to react to change causes a lag in the control
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 335

of the temperature. Lag time is greatly affected by the quality of a


units controls. Another way of thinking of the term feedback is
that control of the unit is accomplished behind or in back of the
operation of the heat exchanger.
There are generally two types of feedback system:
1. Storage tank feedback system.
2. Tankless, instantaneous feedback system.
Storage tank feedback systems are used more often than
tankless systems. The following are the main components of the
storage tank feedback system:
1. Bayonet type U-tube heat exchanger.
2. Temperature controlled steam valve.
3. Storage tank.
4. Recirculation pump.
The U-tube heat exchanger is located in the bottom portion
of the storage tank, and the steam flowing to it is controlled by
the temperature controlled steam valve. A gas or liquid-filled tem-
perature sensing bulb is located in the midsection of the tank
and is connected via a capillary to the temperature controlled
steam valve, which modulates the flow of steam to the heat ex-
changer based on the temperature of the water in the tank. The
function of a recirculation pump (in a large tank) is to keep the
water in the tank turbulent to prevent stratification and to allow
for more accurate temperature readings by the sensing bulb.
A storage tank feedback system is capable of supplying a
large volume of water (the volume depending on the size of the
storage tank). It is not an instantaneous system, however, so its
recovery rate can be slow. Also because the storage tank can be
very large, it may require a large floor space. Because these units
are usually located in a basement or mechanical room, replacing
the storage tank is impossible without either making major modi-
fications to the building or replacing the large tank with multiple
smaller tanks.
The tankless, instantaneous feedback system operates ex-
actly the way the storage tank feedback system does. Because
there is no tank, however, the temperature sensing bulb is
mounted in the outlet water line. Because of the bulb location
and the slow response time associated with self-contained tem-
perature regulators, inaccurate control is a characteristic of this
type of unit when hot water demand fluctuates the way it does in
a domestic hot water system. In the transition from low to heavy
336 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

load, there is a lag time before the temperature regulator reacts,


which causes a temperature drop in the water. Conversely, when
demand changes from heavy to low load the lag time causes over-
heating of the outlet water.
Another shortcoming of this type of feedback system is the
thermostatic capillary system. Domestic hot water systems usu-
ally have demands from 10 to 20% of the time. The other 80 to
90% of the time they stand idle. Under no load conditions, the
water radiates heat, thus cooling down. As this happens, the
temperature regulator opens and allows steam into the heat ex-
changer, elevating the water temperature, which in turn causes
the temperature regulator to close. While the system is idle, this
cycling goes on continuously. Such cycling can cause the bel-
lows of the thermostatic capillary system to fail, causing severe
overheating of the outlet water.
In summary, the storage tank feedback system offers large
volumes of constant temperature water but has storage tanks
that take up valuable floor space. Because of the size of such a
system, maintenance or replacement is very difficult and very
expensive. Also this type of unit wastes more energy than a
tankless system because it heats and maintains the temperature
of water that is not being used. On the other hand, the tankless,
instantaneous feedback system can fit into very small areas and
uses no tank that would require service or replacement. It does
not waste energy keeping unused water hot, but rather heats
water instantly on demand. Because it does not use a large stored
volume of water as a temperature heat sink, however, it is prone
to large temperature swings and temperature system failures.
Both systems, being thermostatically controlled, have modulat-
ing steam pressures within the heat exchanger. If they are not
piped and trapped properly, water hammer and corrosion can
occur in the heat exchanger, causing premature failure.

FEED-FORWARD UNITS
A feed-forward unit is a water heater that controls hot water
temperature by sensing the difference between the inlet and out-
let water pressures. This differential pressure is an indication of
demand. The greater the differential pressure, the greater the
demand for hot water. Such units are proactive, rather than re-
active, in terms of their control of outgoing water temperature.
There is no lag time associated with this method of control be-
cause with it a unit responds to demand rather than to something
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 337

affected by demand, such as water temperature. Another way of


thinking of the term feed-forward is that, in such a unit, con-
trol is accomplished in front of or forward of the operation of the
heat exchanger.
Feed-forward control eliminates the need for the temperature
controlled valve associated with feedback systems. Instead a spe-
cially designed differential pressure diaphragm mixing valve is
used to regulate the flow of water in the unit and to maintain
temperature control. This valve is combined with a shell and tube
heat exchanger to complete the system. As hot water demand
downstream of the valve increases, it creates a pressure drop
that is sensed by the differential pressure diaphragm, causing it
to position a series of valves to allow flow of makeup water into
the heat exchanger as well as bypass water around the heat ex-
changer. The concept is to overheat the water in the heat
exchanger and then blend cold water as needed with the over-
heated water so the unit delivers the proper temperature water
over a broad range of flows. Because the differential pressure is
associated with and proportional to demand, a feed-forward unit
can respond immediately to demand by positioning its valves to
control output temperature. There is no lag time.
The greatest benefit of the feed-forward system is safety. First,
because it has proactive control, such a system provides much
better temperature control than its feedback instantaneous coun-
terpart. Second, if its operator, the differential pressure
diaphragm, fails, the unit cannot pass water to the heat exchanger.
Only cold water may exit the unit. This prevents a scalding situ-
ation, such as would occur with a feedback instantaneous system,
which fails uncontrolled. The feedback unit cycles its controls on
and off under no load conditions, ultimately wearing them out.
The feed-forward unit does not operate unless there is demand,
meaning that it can sit idle for prolonged periods of time, not
cycling and wearing out its controls.
Feed-forward units operate on low-pressure steam, usually
no greater than 15 psig (103 kPa). This steam pressure remains
on the unit throughout its operation. The water in the unit does
not boil because its pressure is greater than the steams. Be-
cause the steam pressure is constant, condensate drainage from
the feed-forward unit is more assured than it is with the modu-
lating pressure of the feedback system. If low-pressure steam is
readily available at the point of installation, the installer need
only make the connection to the steam main and include an iso-
lation valve. If steam pressures are higher than 15 psig (103 kPa),
338 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

a pressure reducing valve must be used and sized to supply ad-


equate volumes of steam at delivery pressures between 2 and 15
psig (14 and 103 kPa). Steam volume requirements must be stud-
ied to determine whether the steam available at the units location
is adequate. Steam mains are sized to handle the maximum vol-
ume of steam required by any instantaneous device experiencing
substantial pressure drops due to equipment and valve restric-
tions. Steam volume requirements are provided in the
manufacturers feed-forward capacity charts and depend on the
sizes and condensing rates of the units used.
For all the benefits of a feed-forward unit, there also are a few
shortcomings. First, because the differential pressure control valve
on a feed-forward unit is not temperature activated, the unit re-
quires that two things delivered to the unit remain constant. One
is steam pressure, which ensures a constant temperature in the
shell of the heat exchanger. The other is entering water tempera-
ture. A constant steam pressure is generally not difficult to
maintain, but a constant inlet water temperature may be. This
means that preheating the inlet water with a heat recovery sys-
tem or energy conservation device, as is is done with a feedback
system, cannot be done. Sudden changes in inlet water tempera-
ture can affect the output water temperatures of the feed-forward
unit once it has been adjusted. Seasonal temperature changes of
the water are generally not a problem. These changes occur so
slowly that they are not noticed by the user. If, however, sea-
sonal changes are undesirable to the user, a quick and simple
readjustment of the unit will solve the problem. With a typical
domestic hot water temperature of 120 to 140F (49 to 60C), for
every 3F (2C) inlet water temperature change, the outlet tem-
perature change with a feed-forward unit will be 1F (1C) in the
same direction.

RECIRCULATION SYSTEM PIPING AND


OPERATION
Because a feed-forward system is relatively small and compact, it
can easily be installed close to the point of usage. This usually
eliminates the need for a recirculation system.
In applications where the unit is located in a basement or
utility room and feeds an entire building or the wing of a build-
ing, a recirculation system or loop is desirable to ensure delivery
of instantaneous hot water at all points of usage.
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 339

The feed-forward recirculation system is composed of several


different components designed to work together to maintain the
temperature of the water in the loop during times of no or very
low demand. (See Figure 22.1.)
The recirculation pump runs continuously, regardless of the
hot water demand. Its function is to constantly recirculate the
water in the loop to maintain the temperature during times of no
or low demand. The size of the pump is determined by the maxi-
mum capacity of the feed-forward unit used. As a rule of thumb,
the pump flow rate should be approximately 10 to 15% of the
maximum capacity of the feed-forward unit. The recirculation
pump can be larger than 15%, but when a larger pump is used,
the installer must pipe a full size balancing line with globe valves
around the thermostatic capsule to balance the flow going to the
diverting valve. Failure to do this can cause overheating of the

Figure 22.1 Recirculation System Piping and Operation.

Source: Courtesy of Armstrong-Yoshitake, Inc.


340 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

system due to the large volume of diverted water going back to


the unit for reheating.
The three-way diverting valve is a device with a nominal set
point that is roughly 15 to 20F (8 to 11C) below the set point of
the feed-forward unit or a diverting temperature that is roughly
5 to 10F (3 to 6C) below the units set point. The capsule senses
the temperature of the recirculated water and compares it with
its diverting temperature. If the temperature in the return piping
drops below the three-way valves diverting temperature because
of radiation loss from the piping and there is no hot water de-
mand from the loop, the valve begins to divert some of the loops
flow to the inlet of the feed-forward unit (ports A to B in Figure
22.1). There it is reheated to bring the temperature of the loop
back up to its required level. Once the temperature in the loop is
above the capsules diverting temperature, all flow from the re-
circulation pump is directed straight through the valve (ports A
to C in Figure 22.1) and the return water is fed back out to the
hot water system.
This diverting recirculation system eliminates the need for
aquastats and electrical wiring. It is a self-contained, self-regulat-
ing system that controls the temperature of the water in the loop
during periods of no or low hot water demand. When there is a
demand for hot water, the temperature of the water introduced
into the system is instantly controlled by the feed-forward unit.
Note: Failure to install the diverting valve in the feed-forward
units recirculation system will result in the eventual overheating
of the system due to the constant elevation of inlet water tem-
peratures.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The following are system design criteria:
The heat exchanger must be sized on gpm not gph when a
storage tank is not provided. The maximum instantaneous flow,
not the diversified flow, must be used.
The heat exchanger should have the domestic water in the
shell and the steam in the bundle. This will provide for the load/
lag flywheel required to maintain a uniform delivery tempera-
ture.
Heat exchanger selection should include local, state, and fed-
eral code provisions.
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 341

A recirculating hot water pump should be provided.


Since most steam control valves are not good for finite con-
trol less than 30%, two steam valves should be provided for, sized
at 030% and 25100% of the load.
For other design considerations, please refer to American
Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2001, Steam and condensate sys-
tems, Chapter 8 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 3.

Example 22.1
A hot water system is required for 1110 gph (4202 L/h) of 160F
(71C) water from a 50F (10C) cold water system. The maxi-
mum fixture demand is 43 gpm (2.7 L/sec).

Gph method (with storage tank)


1110 gph 8.33 (160 50F) = 1017.5 Mbh
[4202 L/h 4.186 (71 10C) = 1 073 519 kJ/h]

Gpm method (using maximum connected flow)


43 gpm 500 (160 50F) = 2365 Mbh
[2.7 L/sec 15 071 (71 10C) = 2 495 207 kJ/h]
Expansion TTanks
anks 343

23
INTRODUCTION
EXPANSION
TANKS

The objective of this chapter is to show the designer how to size


an expansion tank for a domestic hot water system and to ex-
plain the theory behind design and the calculations. The following
discussion is based on a diaphragm or bladder type expansion
tank, which is the one most commonly used in the plumbing
industry. This type of expansion tank does not allow the water
and air to come in contact with each other.
When water is heated, it expands. If this expansion occurs in
a closed system, dangerous water pressures can be created. A
domestic hot water system can be a closed system. When hot
water fixtures are closed and the cold water supply piping has
backflow preventers or any other device that can isolate the do-
mestic hot water system from the rest of the domestic water
supply, a closed system can be created. (See Figure 23.1[a].)
The water pressures can quickly rise to a point at which the
relief valve on the water heater will unseat, hence relieving the
pressure but also compromising the integrity of the relief valve.
(See Figure 23.1[b].) A relief valve installed on a water heater is
not a control valve but a safety valve. It is not designed or in-
tended for continuous usage. Repeated excessive pressures can
lead to equipment and pipe failure and personal injury.
An expansion tank, when properly sized and connected to a
closed system, provides additional system volume for water ex-
pansion while ensuring a maximum desired pressure in a domestic
hot water system. It does this by utilizing a pressurized cushion
of air. (See Figure 23.2[a] and [b].)
344 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

(a)

(b)

Figure 23.1 A Closed Hot Water System Showing the Effects as


Water and Pressure Increase from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2.
Expansion TTanks
anks 345

(a)

(b)

Figure 23.2 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a Closed


System as Pressure and Temperature Increase from
(a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2.
346 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

EXPANSION OF WATER
A pound of water at 140F (60C) has a larger volume than the
same pound of water at 40F (4.4C). To look at it another way,
the specific volume of water increases with an increase in tem-
perature. Specific volume data show the volume of 1 lb (1 kg) of
water for a given temperature and are expressed in ft3/lb (m3/
kg). When the volume of water at each temperature condition is
known, the expansion of water can be calculated.

(23.1) Vew = Vs2 Vs1

where

Vew = expansion of water, gal (L)

Vs1 = system volume of water at temperature 1, gal (L)

Vs2 = system volume of water at temperature 2, gal (L)

Vs1 is the initial system volume and can be determined by calcu-


lating the volume of the domestic hot water system. This entails
adding the volume of the water heating equipment with the vol-
ume of piping and any other part of the hot water system.

Vs2 is the expanded system volume of water at the design hot


water temperature. Vs2 can be expressed in terms of Vs1. To do
that, we must look at the weight of water at both conditions.

The weight of water at temperature 1 (T1) equals the weight of


water at temperature 2 (T2), or W1 = W2. At T1,

Vs1
W1 =
VSP1

where

VSP = specific volume of water at a specified


temperature condition (see Table 23.1 for
specific volume data).

Similarly, at T2,

Vs2
W2 =
VSP2

Since W1 = W2, then


Expansion TTanks
anks 347

Table 23.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water


at a Saturated Liquid
Temp., Specific Volume,
F (C) ft3/lb (m3/kg)
40 (4.4) 0.01602 (0.0010013)
50 (10) 0.01602 (0.0010013)
60 (15.55) 0.01604 (0.0010027)
70 (22.1) 0.01605 (0.0010032)
80 (26.7) 0.01607 (0.0010045)
90 (32.2) 0.01610 (0.0010064)
100 (37.8) 0.01613 (0.0010082)
110 (43.3) 0.01617 (0.0010107)
120 (48.9) 0.01620 (0.0010126)
130 (54.4) 0.01625 (0.0010157)
140 (60) 0.01629 (0.0010181)
150 (65.6) 0.01634 (0.0010214)
160 (71.1) 0.01639 (0.0010245)

Vs1 = Vs2
VSP1 VSP2

Solving for Vs2:

Vs2 = Vs1 (VSP


VSP )
2

Earlier it was stated that the expansion of the water (Vew) =


Vs2 Vs1. Substituting Vs2 from above, we can now say that:

Vew = Vs2 Vs1

Since Vs2 = Vs1 (VSP


VSP )
2
, then
1

Vew = Vs1 (VSP


VSP )
2
V
1
, or
s1

VSP
(23.2) Vew = Vs1 (VSP 1)
2

1
348 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Example 23.1
A domestic hot water system has 1000 gal (3785.4 L) of water.
How much will the 1000 gal (3785.4 L) expand from a tempera-
ture of 40F (4.4C) to a temperature of 140F (60C)?

From Table 23.1:

VSP1 = 0.01602, at 40F (0.0009, at 4.4C)

VSP2 = 0.01629, at 140F (0.001017, at 60C)

Using Equation 23.2:

0.01629
Vew = 1000 ( 0.01602 1
)
Vew = 16.9 gal

0.0010181
[Vew = 3785.4 ( 0.0010013 1)

Vew = 64.0 L]

Note: This is the amount of expansion of the water and should


not be confused with the size of the expansion tank needed.

EXPANSION OF MATERIALS
Does the expansion tank receive all of the water expansion? The
answer is no because not just the water is expanding. The piping
and water heating equipment expand with increased tempera-
ture as well. So any expansion of material results in less of the
water expansion being received by the expansion tank. Another
way of looking at it is as follows:

(23.3) Venet = Vew Vemat

where

Venet = net expansion of water seen by the


expansion tank, gal (L)

Vew = expansion of water, gal (L)

Vemat = expansion of material, gal (L)


Expansion TTanks
anks 349

To determine the amount of expansion each material will


experience per a certain change in temperature, look at the
coefficient of linear expansion for each material. For copper,
the coefficient of linear expansion is 9.5 106 in./in.F (1.7
10-5 mm/mmC); for steel, it is 6.5 106 in./in.F (1.2 105
mm/mmC). From the coefficient of linear expansion we can
determine the coefficient of volumetric expansion of material.
The coefficient of volumetric expansion is three times the
coefficient of linear expansion.

(23.4) = 3

where

= volumetric coefficient of expansion

= linear coefficient of expansion

steel = 19.5 106 gal/galF (3.6 105 L/LC)

copper = 28.5 106 gal/galF (5.1 105 L/LC)

The material will expand proportionally with an increase in


temperature.

(23.5) Vemat = Vmat (T2 T1)

Making the above substitution and solving for Venet:

(23.6) Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]

Example 23.2
A domestic hot water system has a water heater with a volume of
900 gal (3406.86 L) and is made of steel. It also has 100 ft (304.8
m) of 4 in. (101.6 mm) piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 2 in. (50.8 mm)
piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 1 in. (38.1 mm) piping and 300 ft
(91.44 m) of in. (12.7 mm) piping. All the piping is copper.
Assuming that the initial temperature of water is 40F (4.4C)
and the final temperature of water is 140F (60C), (A) how much
will each material expand, and (B) what is the net expansion of
water that an expansion tank would see?

A. Utilizing Equation 23.5, for the steel (material no. 1):

Vmat1 = 900 gal


350 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

Vemat1 = 900 (19.5 106)(140 40) = 1.8 gal

[Vmat1 = 3406.86 L

Vemat1 = 3406.86 (3.6 105)(60 4.4) = 6.81 L]

For the copper (material no. 2) we first look at Table 23.2 to


determine the volume of each size of pipe.

4 in. (101.6 mm): 100 0.67 = 67 gal


(30.48 8.32 = 253.6 L)

2 in. (50.8 mm): 100 0.17 = 17 gal


(30.48 2.113 = 64.4 L)

1 in. (38.1 mm): 100 0.10 = 10 gal


(30.48 1.243 = 37.99 L)

in. (12.7 mm): 300 0.02 = 6 gal


(91.44 0.249 = 22.7 L)
Total volume of copper piping = 100 gal (378.69 L)

Utilizing Equation 23.5 for copper:

Vmat2 = 100 gal (378.69 L)

Table 23.2 Nominal Volume of Piping


Pipe Size, Volume of Pipe,
in. (mm) gal/l ft (L/m)
(12.7) 0.02 (0.249)
(19.1) 0.03 (0.472)
1 (25.4) 0.04 (0.495)
1 (32.5) 0.07 (0.869)
1 (38.1) 0.10 (1.243)
2 (50.3) 0.17 (2.113)
2 (63.5) 0.25 (3.104)
3 (76.2) 0.38 (4.718)
4 (101.6) 0.67 (8.32)
6 (152.4) 1.50 (18.629)
8 (203.2) 2.70 (33.533)
Expansion TTanks
anks 351

Vemat2 = 100 (28.5 x 106)(140 40) = 0.3 gal

[Vemat2 = 378.69 (5.1 105)(60 4.4) = 1.07 L]

B. The initial system volume of water (Vs1) equals Vmat1 + Vmat2,


or 900 gal + 100 gal (3406.86 L + 378.69 L).

From Example 23.1, we already determined that 1000 gal (3785.4


L) of water heated from 40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C) will expand 16.9
gal (64.0 L). So, utilizing Equation 23.6, we find that

Venet = 16.9 (1.8 + 0.3) = 15 gal

[Venet = 60.4 (6.81 + 1.07) = 56.12 L].

This is the net amount of water expansion that the expansion


tank will see. Again, please note that this is not the size of the
expansion tank needed.

BOYLES LAW
We have determined how much water expansion will be seen by
the expansion tank. Now it is time to look at how the cushion of
air in an expansion tank allows us to limit the system pressure.
Boyles Law states that, at a constant temperature, the vol-
ume occupied by a given weight of perfect gas (including, for
practical purposes, atmospheric air) varies inversely as the abso-
lute pressure (gage pressure + atmospheric pressure). It is
expressed by:

P1V1 = P2V2

How does this law relate to sizing expansion tanks in domestic


hot water systems? The air cushion in the expansion tank
allows a space for the expanded water to go. The volume of air
in the tank will decrease as the water expands and enters the
tank. As the air volume decreases the air pressure increases.
Utilizing Boyles Law, we can determine what the initial vol-
ume of air (size of expansion tank) needs to be based on (A) the
initial water pressure, (B) the desired maximum water pressure,
and (C) the change in the initial volume of air. In using the above
equation, we realize that the pressure of the air equals the pres-
sure of the water at each condition and we make the assumption
that the temperature of the air remains constant at condition 1
and condition 2. This assumption is reasonably accurate if the
352 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

expansion tank is installed on the cold water side of the water


heater. Remember, to size an expansion tank you are sizing a
tank of air, not a tank of water.
Referring to Figure 23.3, you see that at condition 1 the tank
has its initial air pressure charge, P1, which equals the incoming
water pressure on the other side of the diaphragm. V1 is the
initial volume of air in the tank and is also the size of the expan-
sion tank we are solving for. V2 is the final volume of air in the
tank, which also can be expressed as V1 less the net expansion of
water (Venet). P2 is the pressure of the air at condition 2. P2 will be
the same pressure as the maximum desired pressure of the do-
mestic hot water system at T2. P2 should always be less than the
relief valve setting on the water heater (approximately 10% less
than the relief valve setting).
Utilizing Boyles law, P1V1 = P2V2, since V2 = V1 Venet

P1V1 = P2 (V1 Venet)

P1V1 = P2V1 P2Venet

(P2 P1) V1 = P2Venet

P2Venet
V1 =
(P2 P1)

Multiplying both sides of the equation by (1/P2)/(1/P2) or by


1 we have:
Venet
(23.8) V1 =
(1 P1/P2)

where

V1 = size of expansion tank required to maintain the


desired system pressure (P2), gal (L)
P1 = incoming water pressure (in absolute pressure),
psia (kPa)

(Note: Absolute pressure is the gage pressure, psig, plus atmo-


spheric pressure, e.g., 50 psig = 64.7 psi in absolute pressure
[344.5 kPa = 445.78 kPa].)

Venet = net expansion of water, gal (L)

P2 = maximum desired pressure of water (in absolute


pressure), psia (typically 10% less than the
relief valve setting)
Expansion TTanks
anks 353

Figure 23.3 Sizing the Expansion Tank.

Example 23.3
Looking further at the domestic hot water system described in
Example 23.2, if the cold water supply pressure is 50 psig (344.5
kPa) and the maximum desired water pressure is 110 psig (757.9
kPa) (the relief valve setting is 125 psig [861.25 kPa]), what size
expansion tank is required?
In example 23.2 we determined that Venet equals 15 gal (56.78
L). Converting the given pressures to absolute and utilizing Equa-
tion 23.8 we can determine the size of expansion tank needed:

15
V1 = = 31 gal
(1 64.7/124.7)

[V1
=
56.78
(1 445.78/859.18)
= 117.3 L]
Note: When selecting the expansion tank, make sure the tanks
diaphragm or bladder can accept 15 gal (56.78 L) of water
(Venet).
354 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water

SUMMARY
Earlier in this chapter the following was established,

Equation 23.2:
VSP
Vew = Vs1 ( VSP 1)
2

1
Equation 23.6:
Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]

In Equation 23.2, Vs1 was defined as the system volume at condi-


tion 1. Vs1 can also be expressed in terms of Vmat.

Vs1 = Vmat1 + Vmat2

Making this substitution and combining the equations, we get


the following:

(23.9) Venet = (Vmat1 + Vmat2) ( VSP


VSP
1) [V
2

1
mat1
1 (T2 T1) +

Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]

Venet
(23.8) V1 =
(1 P1/P2)

where
Venet = net expansion of water seen by the expansion
tank, gal (L)
Vmat = volume of each material, gal (L)
VSP = specific volume of water at each condition,
ft3/lb (m3/kg)
= volumetric coefficient of expansion of each
material, gal/galF (L/LC)
T = temperature of water at each condition, F(C)
P = pressure of water at each condition, psia (kPa)
V1 = size of expansion tank required, gal (L)

These two equations are required to size an expansion tank for


a domestic hot water system properly.
INDEX

Index Terms Links

1-bedroom apartments
retirement homes 157
water demand 26
1 -compartment sinks
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 100 103
108 115 123
hospital sizing example 112
hospital usage factors 79 80
hourly demand 65 87
jailusage 183
kitchen requirements 50 87 151
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples 165 168 171 175
2-bedroom apartments
retirement homes 157
water demand 26
2 -compartment sinks
central sterile supply 95 113
high school usage 55
hospital example 112
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 100 103
106 108 115
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital utility rooms 73

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

2 -compartment sinks (Cont.)


hourly demand 65 87
kitchen requirements 50 87 151
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 165 168 173
sports arenas and stadiums 211
3-compartment sinks
booster heaters for 187
fast-food restaurants 228
high schools 55
hospital example 112
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 119
hospital worksheets 79 80
hourly demand 65
kitchen requirements 50 52 53 87
151
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 168
3-way diverting valves (ther-
mostatic capsules) 339 340
4-compartment sinks 65
5-min peak demand guide-
line 30 33
30/3 guideline 30
30 mA ground fault equipment 267

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

32-bed hospitals
example 93
worksheets 100
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home
example 158
gathering information 161
worksheet example totals 176
worksheets 164
100-ft length criterion 234
300-bed hospital example 111

absolute pressures
equations 352
gases 351
access to equipment 281
ACEEE (American Council for
Energy Efficient Economy) xxi
acidity of water, indirect fired
water heaters and 295
activity rooms in religious
facilities 226
ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) xxi 192
additions to buildings, heat
trace systems and 272
adjustable orifice flow control
valves 248

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Index Terms Links

administration areas
hospitals 77 82 83 93
99
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138 157 163
religious facilities 226
retirement homes 140
sports arenas and stadiums 204
advanced high-efficiency water
heating systems
considerations 17
multifamily buildings
and 30
after-hours at schools 47
after-work crowd at spas and
health clubs 130
afternoon peak demand
multifamily buildings 21
spas and health clubs 130
AGA. See American Gas
Association (AGA)
aggressive fluids, heat ex-changers and 288
air
air intake control in burners 319 321
cushions in expansion
tanks 343 351
entrapped in recirculating
systems 259
as heat source in heat
pumps 327

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

air filters in heat pump systems 332


alkalinity of water
heat pump systems and 332
indirect fired water heaters and 295
steam storage water heaters 334
altitudes
DSH systems and 4
gas burners and 321
ambient heat, heat pumps
and 329
American Council for Energy
Efficient Economy (ACEEE) xxi
American Gas Association
(AGA) xxi 15 16
American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) xxi
Energy Conservation in
New Building Design 261
Energy Efficient Design of
New Low Rise
Residential Buildings 261
IEW 90.1 standard 16
New Information on
Service Water Heating 261
Pipe Sizing 261
Service Water Heating 261
Thermal and Water Vapor
Transmission Data 261

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 15
code for fired and unfired
pressure vessels 16
code for relief valves 16
Plumbing Fixture Fittings 261
American Society of Plumbing
Engineers (ASPE) xxi
Cold Water Systems 261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems 262
Insulation 262
Piping Systems 261
Position Paper on Hot
Water Temperature
Limitations 261
Pumps 262
Service Hot Water Systems 57 261
Steam and Condensate
Systems 341
American Water Works Association
Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution Systems 262
Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) xxi 192
ammonia
in indirect fired water
heaters 291
refrigeration 288
anchor department stores 228

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Index Terms Links

Anding, Craig xix


Andrews, Steven M. xix
animal facilities in pharmaceutical plants 195
anodes. See also sacrificial
anodes
heat pump systems 332
anti-siphoning features 300 315 319
antibacterial cleaners 195
apartment buildings. See
multifamily buildings
apartments in retirement
homes. See retirement
homes
appliance flow rates table 236
approach temperature
defined 280
heat exchangers 281 288
plate-type heat exchangers and 284
U-tube removable bundles and 283
aquastat controls 258 340
arenas. See sports arenas
arms/hips/leg/back tubs 94 112 159 214
art rooms 46
ASHRAE. See American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE)
ASME. See American Society
of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

ASPE. See American Society


of Plumbing Engineers
(ASPE)
assisted bathing 73
athletic centers
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
laundry and food service
demand 130
shower rooms 129
athletic teams. See sports
teams
atmospheric pressures
equations 352
gases 351
attachment tape in heat trace
systems 269
automatic flow control valves 247
automatic gas shut-off valves 315 318
autopsy rooms 77 91
considerations 93
gathering information 99
user group totals work-sheets 82 83
average demand
calculating for apartment
building example 32
vs. peak demand 26
average occupancy per hotel
guest room 61

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

backflow preventers in closed


systems 343
backup electric elements in
heat pump systems 332
bacteria
biological growth on
drains 332
Legionnaires Disease 14
pharmaceutical plants 195
baffles
gas water heaters 316
U-tube removable bundles and 282
balancing devices. See flow
balancing devices and
valves
Balliet, James L. xix
ballrooms in hotels 59
baptistries 225
bar sinks
demand 87
high school 55
kitchen requirements 151
sports arenas and stadiums 209 211
barber shops in prisons 185
barometric dampers 321
bars in sports arenas and
stadiums 204

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Index Terms Links

base-mounted centrifugal
circulating pumps 258
baseball stadium example 214
batch loads, heat exchangers
and 285
bathing. See also central
bathing areas
compared to showering 37
bathroom groups
hospital example work-sheets 84 86
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 100 107 115
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 173
bathtubs
delivered hot water temperatures 12
faucet flow rates 236
fill times 74 136
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 100 107
115
hydrotherapy 91 94 112
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149 156
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 170 173
obstetrics areas 77 93 95
in patient rooms 73 91

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Index Terms Links

bathtubs (Cont.)
therapy tubs 73
whirlpool baths. See
whirlpool baths
bayonet type U-tube heat
exchangers 335
bedpan washers 73 95 113 135
biological growth on drains 332
biological laboratories. See
laboratories
birthing rooms 77 93
black and white photo pro-
cessing 198
bladder-type expansion
tanks 343
blade immersion elements 300
blocked flues 322
blood removal
hospital laundry example 222
on prison uniforms 188
Bloodborne Pathogen law 188
blowdown valves for fixed
orifices and venturis 245
body showers 128
boilers
combination heating/
DHW boilers 33
steam storage water
heaters 334

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Index Terms Links

booster heaters
controls 306 308
defined 297
dishwashers 48 64
hospital food services 74 112
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 137
prison kitchens 185 187
recovery times and 67
Boyles law 351
bradley wash fountains 211
See also wash fountains
branches in heat trace systems 270
break rooms in sports arenas
and stadiums 209
Breese, James L. xix
bronze pump fittings 258
Btu/h ratings 33
building management
systems in sports arenas 205
building movement 207
building occupants. See
populations
bundle assemblies
approach temperature
and 283
U-tube removable bundles 282
burners for water heaters 319
burns from hot pipes 259

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

burns from hot water. See


scalding
business travelers hotels 60 61
bypass systems, considerations for 69
Byrley, Tom 14
Byron, R. C. xix

cable end termination. See


termination
cafeterias in schools 52
calculations. See equations
can washers
grocery stores 227
hospital food services 92
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 108
119 122 123
hourly demand 65
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples 168 171
school kitchens 48
capillary tubing for heat
pump water heaters 326
car washes in schools 46
carbon matrix heating elements 267
carbon monoxide, blocked
flues and 322

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

carbon steel sheets in heat


exchangers 285
Carpenter, S. C. 37
cart washers
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 103 108
119 122 123
hospital food services 74 92 96
hospital usage factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes 137 142 147 149
157
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples 168 171
prison kitchens 187
cassettes (welded plates) 287
CCUs (critical care units) xxi 111
cell pods in jails 181 185
center flues 313
central bathing areas
48-bed nursing care
facility example 159
gathering information 162
hospitals 73 91
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 137 152 154 156
157
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 170 176
obstetrical use 77

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.


Index Terms Links

central hot water systems


sports arenas and stadiums 207 212
central hot water temperature 206
central sterile supply areas
32 -bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 113
considerations 76
gathering information 92 98
usage factors 90
worksheet example totals 82 83 109 124
worksheet examples 106 122
central systems for schools 47
central utility generating facilities 190 197
centrifugal circulating
pumps 258
ceramic barriers in plate-type
heat exchangers 285
channel flues 316
check valves
on loops 245
steam water heater piping systems 339
chemical laboratories. See
laboratories
chemical processing plants 190 196
chemical sanitizing dish-
washers 12 187
chevron corrugation 285
children
locker rooms for 129
peak demand and 22

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chimneys 324
churches 225
circuit breakers
heat pump systems 332
heat trace systems 267 273
circuit length in heat trace
systems 273 274
circular wash stations 191
circulating pumps
baptistries 226
centrifugal circulating
pumps 258
in circulation systems 239
controls 258
flow rates 257 339
head capacity of 257
in-line centrifugal circulating pumps 258
lack of in heat trace systems 266
return pipes and 257
sizing 249
steam water heater systems 341
for vertical storage tanks 207
circulation rate examples 254
circulation systems. See
recirculating hot water
systems
Cix, J. B. 37
classrooms
religious facilities 226
schools 46 49 52

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clean rooms in pharmaceutical plants 195


clean utility rooms
hospitals 73 94 111
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135
clean work 191 194
cleaning
hydrotherapy tubs 74 92
therapy rooms 128
U-tube removable bundles 283
cleanliness of streams in heat
exchangers 281
cleanouts on storage tanks 315
cleanup activities
fast-food restaurants 228
grocery stores 227
kitchen cleanup time periods 64 66
office buildings 229
clinic sinks. See flushing rim
sinks
clip gaskets 287
closed systems
dangerous water pressures 343
recirculating systems 258
clothes washers. See also
laundries
baseball team locker room
examples 214 215 217
capacity 221
high schools 54

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clothes washers (Cont.)


hospital example work-sheets 84 86
hotel laundries 68
jailusage 183
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138
schools 49
sport arenas and stadiums 209
student dormitories 41
club house laundries 203
coal processing plants 196
codes. See standards and
codes
coefficient of linear expansion 349
coefficient of volumetric expansion 349 354
Cohen, Arthur 262
coin-operated laundries 39 40
cold formed sheets in heat
exchangers 285
cold leakage 288
cold showers 197
cold water. See incoming cold
water supply
Cold Water Systems 261
color photo processing 198
column showers 209
combination aquastat/time
clock controls 259
combination heating/DHW
boilers 33

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combination upfeed/down-
feed circulation systems 241
combustion
air requirements 207
thermal efficiency and 4
commercial dishwashers
commercial spray-type dishwashers 12
conveyor dishwashers 50 55 65 67
demand 65
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 119
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 168
recovery and 67
school kitchens 48 50 55
sports arenas and stadiums 211
commercial facilities, circula-
tion systems for 239
commercial heat pump water
heaters 325 326
commercial laundries
gathering information 221
sports arenas and stadiums 208 211
water temperatures 12 206
commercial water heaters
defined 297
storage tank gas water
heaters 313

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Comparison of Collected and


Compiled Existing Data on
Service Hot Water Use Patterns 38 57
compatibility of heating medi-
ums 281
compressors
electric 327
heat pump water heaters 325
concessions areas in arenas 203 205 206 209
concrete plants 198
concurrent usage
hospital areas 77
schools 49
condensation
dew points and 206
drains for, in heat pump
systems 331
gas-fired water heaters
and 15
U-tube removable bundles and 282
condensors
heat pump systems 331
heat recovery systems 330
condo hotels 61
condos. See multifamily
buildings
connection points, storage
volume and 16
conservation laws 37
contaminated laundry 76 188

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contamination
cross-contamination in
heat exchangers 284
in nuclear power plants 197
continuous duty systems,
heat exchangers and 285
continuous flow demand 6
contraction
indirect fired water heaters 293
U-tube removable bundles 283
control circuits 306
controls
booster heaters 306 308
coverage in this manual 1
domestic hot water systems 15
electric water heaters 303
heat pump systems 332
recirculating pumps 258
convection
plate-type heat exchangers 285
tank heaters and 283
convenience stores 226 329
convention hotels and motels
average occupancy 61
considerations 70
defined 59
food service example 65
guest room example 62
conventional, iron bodied
pumps 258

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conventional water heating


systems 17
conveyor dishwashers. See
commercial dishwashers
cooling functions of heat
pumps 327 328 329 330
copper coils, pH values and 295
Copper Development Associa-
tion
Copper Tube Handbook 262
Historical Perspective of
Corrosion by Potable
Waters in Building
Systems 262
copper piping
expansion 349
hard water and 312
in heat trace systems 267
time delays and 235 237
water velocity and 244
copper sheaths 302 303
Copper Tube Handbook 262
correctional facilities. See
prisons
corrosion
indirect fired water heaters 293
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
pump fixtures 258
steam feedback systems 336

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corrosion (Cont.)
storage tanks 314
welded plate and frame
exchangers 288
corrugation in plate units 285
costs
delays in hot water and 238
heat exchangers 284 288
heat pumps 328 331
life-cycle costs 278
oversizing and 37
payment for hot water
and demand 25
countercurrent 281
CPVC piping 235 237
critical care units (CCUs) xxi 111
cross-contamination in heat
exchangers 284
crossover bypass systems 69
CT scan rooms 95 114
cupro-nickel components 312
customized sizing for
multi-family buildings 28

daily water demand


multifamily buildings 19
peak flows and 26
dairies. See food product
facilities

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Danenhauer, Greg xix


dark rooms 112 198 204
Daugherty, Larry xix
day-care facilities
office buildings 229
religious facilities 226
dead-end hot water branches 234 245
Decioco, J. 37
decontamination
chemical processing
plants 196
nuclear power plants 197
dehumidification, heat
pumps and 327 328
delays in hot water. See also
lag time
dead-end branches and 245
heat trace systems and 266 270 275
hospital user group information 72
low flow fixtures and 235
piping types and diam-
eters table 237
recirculating hot water
systems and 234
results of 238
steam water heaters and 333
time to tap defined 278
delivered hot water tempera-
ture recommendations 12

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demand
commercial laundries 221
delays in hot water and 238
football stadium example 211
heat trace system fixtures 270
high school systems 57
hotel guest rooms 60
monitoring in existing
systems 28
multifamily building determination 24
patterns in multifamily
buildings 19
pay-as-you-go systems
and 25
school calculations 49
special use facilities 35
demographic profiles. See
populations
density of population 23
dental clinics in office build-
ings 229
department stores 228
desk phones in hotels 60
dew points
condensation and 206
gas-fired water heaters
and 15
DeWerth, D. W. 38 57
DHW (domestic hot water) xxi
DHW Modeling 37

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DHW System Sizing Criteria


for Multifamily Buildings 37
diameters of piping, time de-
lays and 237
Diamond, R. 38
diaphragm expansion tanks 343 352
diaphragm mixing valves 337
dietary and food services
grocery stores 227
hospitals
32-bed hospital example 94
300-bed hospital example 112
considerations 74
gathering information 92 97
requirements table 87
usage factors 89
worksheet examples 82 83 103 109
119 124
hotels 59 64
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes 136 151 156
48-bed nursing care
facility example 159
gathering information 162
worksheet examples 168 176
office buildings 229
schools 47 50
spas and health clubs 130
water temperatures for 75 206

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differential pressure
diaphragm mixing valves 337
steam feed-forward systems 336
diluting flue gases 321
dip tubes 300 315 316 318
direct fired water heaters 4
dirty work 191 194 196
dishwasher prerinse. See pre-rinse sinks
dishwashers
apartments in retirement
homes 139
delivered hot water temperatures 12
flow rates 236
high schools 54 55
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 103
hospital food services 74 92 112
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and 295
jail usage 182
manufacturers data 64
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 156
prison kitchens 185 187
religious facilities 225
retirement apartments 158
school classrooms 49
school kitchens 47 50 52 53
small hospital example 94
sports arenas and stadiums 209
steam water heaters 333

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dishwashers (Cont.)
student dormitories 41
disinfectors 95 113 122
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 106
hospital usage factors 79 80
disposable tableware 48
distances from water heater
to fixtures 233
distributed hot water systems 208
district-supplied steam 334
diverting valves 340
Domestic Hot Water Consumption
in Four Low Income
Apartment Buildings 38
domestic hot water (DSH) xxi
codes and standards 16
controls 15
delivered hot water temperature 12
high altitudes and 4
mixed water temperatures 6
recovery. See recovery
periods
relief valves 15
safety and health concerns 13
specific applications. See
under names of specific applications
(i.e., hospitals, jails, hotels
and motels)
steady-state heat balance
formula 3

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domestic hot water (DSH) (Cont.)


storage and recovery 15
system alternative considerations 17
thermal efficiency 4
thermal expansion 15
Domestic Hot Water Loads,
System Sizing and Selec-
tion for Multifamily Buildings 37
Domestic Hot Water Service in
Lumley Homes 37
donut configurations, heat
trace systems and 272
door types of dishwashers 50
dormitories
heat trace system plans 277
institutional dormitories 42
student dormitories 39
double bunking in jails 181 186
double compartment sinks.
See 2-compartment sinks
double tank indirect fired
water heaters 292
double-wall heat exchangers
defined 284
double-wall plate and
frame exchangers 287
double-wall protection 279
heat pump systems 331
doughnut configurations,
heat trace systems and 272

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downdrafts
draft hoods and 323
gas venting systems and 322
downfeed hot water systems 240 241
draft diverters 321
draft hoods 321
draft regulators 321
drain cocks 298 315
draining tanks 315
drains for heat pump systems 331 332
drawdowns
laundry equipment 68
sinks 66
drawings 273
drilled port burners 320
dry firing 303
DSH. See domestic hot water
PSH)
ductwork for heat pump systems 331
dump loads
indirect fired water heaters 293
showers as 193
dumping water. See water
conservation
duration
shift-end wash-up 192
shower turnaround time 210
showers 62 181 185
Dutt, G. 37

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ease of access to equipment 281


educational laboratories. See
laboratories
The Effects of Hot Water Circulation
Systems on Hot
Water Heater Sizing and
Piping Systems 262
efficiency
heat pumps 328
thermal 4 260
elastomer gaskets 286 288
electric flash sterilizers 75 92
electric heat trace systems.
See self-regulating heat
trace systems
electric resistance hot water
heaters 327 330
electric water heaters
booster type 297 306 308
components 298
continuous flow 6
controls 303
heat recovery 5
storage type 297
voltage and phase 207
electrical terminals on
immersion elements 300

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electricity
heat pump usage 327
heat trace systems 267
as heating medium 185 280
elementary schools 45 52
Ellis, L. Richard xix
emergency eyewashes 204 209
emergency medical clinics in
prisons 185
emergency operations in surgical suites 75
emergency rooms (ERs) xxi 95 111 113
emergency showers in sports
arenas 204
end termination 273
energy codes for sports arenas 205
energy conservation
100 ft. length criteria and 234
heat trace systems and 265 266
problems with inadequate
hot water systems 233
steam feedback systems 336
Energy Conservation in New
Building Design 261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems 262
Energy Efficient Design of
New Low Rise Residential
Buildings 261
Energy Use and DHW Consumption
Research Project 37

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Engineering Plumbing Design 262


entrapped air in recirculating
systems 259
EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene monomer) xxi 286
equations
absolute pressure 352
circulation rate example 254
demand
baseball team locker
room examples 215 218
elementary schools 53
football stadiums 212
high school shower
usage 55
hospital laundries 222
hotel guest rooms 62
hotel laundries 68
jail shower usage 181
prisons 186
sports arena shower
usage 210
student dormitories 41
expansion
Boyles law 351
materials expansion 349
tank materials 348 354
water expansion 346 354
heat recovery, electric
water heaters 5

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equations (Cont.)
heat transfer 68
mixed water temperatures 6
piping heat loss 252
probable occupancy rates 31
steady-state heat balance 3
steam water heaters 341
storage tank sizing 183
thermal efficiency (R factor) 4 260
equipment
electric water heaters 297
expansion tanks 343
heat exchangers 279
heat pump water heaters 325
indirect fired water heaters 291
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 311
manufacturers information 231
recirculating domestic
hot water systems 233
self-regulating heat trace
systems 265
steam water heaters 333
sterilization 76 93
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
washers and sterilizers 195
equipment ratings 34
erosion, velocity 244
ERs. See emergency rooms

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(ERs)
Estimating Hot Water Use in
Existing Commercial Buildings 37
ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) xxi 286
evaporator coils 332
evening peak demand
multifamily buildings 22
spas and health clubs 130
events at sports arenas 204
examples
32-bed hospital 93
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home 158
300-bed hospital 111
baseball stadium 214
circulation rate 254
continuous flow for electric
water heaters 6
direct gas-fired heat input
rates 5
elementary school 52
expansion tanks 353
football stadium 211
foundry facility 193
high school 54
hospital laundry 222
hotel food service 65
hotel guest room 62

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examples (Cont.)
hotel laundry service 68
institutional dormitory 42
jail 181
materials expansion 349
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home 147
prison 184
shower mixed water temperatures 7
special use housing facility 35
steady state heat balance 4
steam water heaters 341
student dormitory 39
traditional multifamily
building 31
water expansion 348
expansion. See also thermal
expansion
expansion joints 206
of schools 49
expansion tanks
Boyles law 351
defined 343
examples 349 353
material expansion 348
types 343
use of 15
water expansion formulas 346
experimental laboratories.
See laboratories

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An Experimental Study of
Competing Systemsfor
Maintaining Service Water
Temperature in Residential Buildings 262
external channel flues 313 317
extracurricular activities 48
eyewashes, emergency 204 209

factory preset automatic flow


control valves 247
families. See also multifamily
buildings
family changing areas 129
spas and health club usage 130
fans
heat pumps 327
refrigeration units 332
fast-food restaurants 228
faucets. See also fixtures and
fixture outlets
infrared faucets 205
metering faucets 205 236
non-metering faucets 236
FDA (Food and Drug Administration) 194
feed-forward units
components 336
point of usage installation 338
recirculation systems 339
steam water heaters 333

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feedback units
steam water heaters 333 334
types 335
Fehrm, Al 262
fertilizer storage rooms 209
fiberglass insulation
heat trace systems 267 269 275
recirculating systems 275
fiberglass insulation thick-nesses 250
fill times for hydrotherapy
tubs 74 91 156
first aid rooms in sports arenas 204 209
first-degree burns 13
fixed orifices in flow balancing 245
fixtures and fixture outlets
apartments in retirement
homes 139
delivered hot water temperatures 12
distances between heater
and 233
flow rates table 236
gathering data for requirements 47
hospital user groups 72 78
kitchens 64
school general purpose 49
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128 130
sports arenas and stadiums 205
temperature at 6 78
usage patterns 72

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fixtures and fixture outlets (Cont.)


worksheets for 140
flanges on immersion elements 300
flash sterilizers 75 92 95 112
floating tank external flues 313 317
floor receptors 95 112
hospital usage factors 79 80 111
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 100 105
108 115
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 165 171 175
flow baffles, U-tube removable
bundles and 282
flow balancing devices and valves
balancing systems 244
balancing valves 245 248
in circulation systems 239
factory preset automatic
flow control valves 247
fixed orifices and venturis 245
flow regulating valves 248
friction losses and 257
memory stops 248
as not needed in heat
trace systems 272
recirculated hot water systems 244
steam water heater piping
systems 339

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flow rates
clothes washers 221
daily water patterns in
multifamily buildings 21
dormitory fixtures 40
fixed orifices and venturis 245
fixtures and appliances
table 236
head capacity of circulating
pumps and 257
in heat balance formula 3
hospital user group information 72
recirculation pumps 339
showers 48 51 77 93
158 210
sterilization equipment 76 93
storage volume and 16
therapeutic facilities 128
worksheets 78
flow restrictors in prisons 184
flue gases
condensation and 206
mixture control 321
thermal efficiency and 4
flues
flue routing 207
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
venting systems 321
fluid treatment facilities 190 198

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flush port burners 320


flushing rim sinks 73 95
central sterile supply 113
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 100 105
108 115 121
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 165 171
obstetrics area 93 113
outpatient surgery 113
surgical suites 112
flywheels in steam water
heater systems 340
fonts, baptismal 225
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 194
food kiosks in student dormitories 39 40
food processing facilities and
activities
design issues 194
fast-food restaurants 228
food product facilities 196
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
steam water heaters 333
food product facilities
dairy heat recovery systems 329
defined 190
design issues 196

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food service. See dietary and


food services
football stadium example 211
Force, F. 38
forced convection 283
formulas. See equations
fossil fuel plants 190 197
fouling process in heat ex-changers 288
foundries 190 193
Frankel, Michael xix
Freehill, Mina xx
freezing
areas subject to 207
heat pump installations
and 328
heating cables for freeze
protection 267
freon in indirect fired water
heaters 291
friction loss and circulating
pumps 257
full-condensing equipment 17
full-service kitchens 48
fuses for heat pump systems 332

gage pressures
equations 352
gases 351

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gallons per hour (gph)


in heat recovery equations 5
in hospital usage factors 88
laundry demand 221
worksheets 140
gallons per minute (gpm)
in heat trace system fixtures 270
in hospital usage factors 88
hospital user group totals
worksheets 81 84 86
hospital user groups 78
worksheets 140
gallons per pound in laundry
demand 221
gas flues. See flues
gas input ratings 320
gas shut-off valves 315
gas water heaters
burners 319
condensation and 15
dip tubes 315 318
flues and heat exchangers 313
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 311
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
tank fittings 314 318
tanks 314
venting systems 321

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gases
flame patterns 319 320
flue gases 4
as heating medium 280
volume of 351
gasketed plate units 285 288
gathering information
hospital examples 96 115
hospital food services 74
hospital laundries 75
hospital user groups 72 91
hospital worksheets 78
hotel food service 64
hotel guest rooms 60
hotel laundries 67
jails 181
laundries 221
nursing/intermediate care
facilities 134 156
nursing/intermediate
care facility example 161
obstetrics/nursery areas 77
prisons 185
retirement homes 157
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 127
sports arenas and stadiums 204
general occupancy hotels 60 61
See also hotels and
motels

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general purpose demand in


schools 49 53 54 57
generation rates, capacity
and 30
generation systems in
apartment buildings 34
geographical variances in demand 25
geothermal energy as heating
medium 280
glass barriers in heat exchangers 285
glassware sanitizers 12 195
globe valves 339
glueless gasket designs 287
Goldner, Fredric S. xix 37
gph. See gallons per hour
(gph)
gpm. See gallons per minute
(gpm)
gravity sterilizers 95 113
grocery stores 226 331
grounds services in arenas 203
group wash fountains 192 193
guest rooms
examples 62
hotel types 59
multiple systems design 69
gym classes 46 48 55
gymnasiums 226

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hand sinks
central sterile supply 113
central sterile supply areas 95
fast-food restaurants 228
grocery stores 227
high demand hospital
areas 73
high schools 55
hospital food service 112
hospital utility rooms 73
kitchens 50 52 53 225
miscellaneous hospital
areas 77
nurses stations 89 94
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135 138
obstetrics areas 90
prisons 184
temperatures 75
hands/elbows/arms tubs 94 112 159
hard water
heat pump systems and 332
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
steam storage water heaters 334
hastelloy 285
HBV (hepatitis B virus) xxi 188
head. See pressure

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head assemblies 282


health clinics. See medical
and health clinics
health clubs
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
in office buildings 229
health concerns 13 71
heat exchangers
approach 280 288
codes and standards 279
countercurrent 281
defined 279
flues as 313
in heat pump water heaters 325
heating mediums 280
indirect fired water heaters as 291
selection factors 288
steam water heaters 334 340
temperature cross 281
terminology 280
types 281
heat loss
equations 252
recirculating systems 250
required circulation rate
example 254
storage tanks 255 256

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heat pump water heaters


applications 330
benefits 328
considerations 17
criteria 331
defined 325
drawbacks 328
energy sources for 327
heat recovery systems 329
incoming water quality 332
integral heat pump water
heaters 326
maintenance 332
remote heat pump water
heaters 327
requirements 331
safety controls and devices 332
heat recovery. See recovery
periods
heat trace systems. See
self-regulating heat trace
systems
heat transfer
flues and 313
hotel laundry demand 68
plate-type heat exchangers 285
time rates for 3
turbulence and 286

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heating cable systems


approved systems 267
heat trace systems 265 266 269
illustrated 268
plumbing drawing indicators 273
selecting cables 274
heating mediums 280
Henriques, V. C. Jr. 13
hepatitis B virus (HBV) xxi 188
herringbone corrugation 285
high altitudes
DSH systems and 4
gas burners and 321
high-demand facilities 35
high-efficiency water heating
systems
considerations 17
multifamily buildings
and 30
high end hotels 70
high limit safety devices 298 303
high population density in
multifamily buildings 23
high schools
defined 45
examples 54
kitchen demand 55
shower demand 55
system selection factors 56
hip/leg tubs 94 112 159

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Historical Perspective of Corrosion


by Potable Waters in
Building Systems 262
HIV (human immune deficiency virus) xxi 188
holding kitchens 48
home team locker rooms 203 214
horizontal draft hoods 322
horizontal mains in heat
trace systems 276
horizontal slot port case
burners 320
horizontal-to-vertical draft
hoods 322
horizontal water tanks
storage capacity 207
stratification 16
hose stations
grocery stores 227
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 108
119 122
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples 168 171
hospitals
32-bed example 93
300-bed example 111
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274

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hospitals (Cont.)
heat trace system plans 276 277
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
kitchen hot water requirements table 87
laundries 222 295
safety and health concerns 71
user group example work-sheets 84
user group totals work-sheets 81
user group worksheets 78
user groups defined 72
hot tubs 61
Hot Water and Energy Usein
Apartment Buildings 38
hot water multiplier
in hospital worksheets 82 83 109 124
in mixed water temperatures 7
in nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 176
hotels and motels
classifications of 59
design considerations 70
food service 64
guest rooms 60
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
heat trace system plans 276
laundry service 67
resorts 60 61 70
steam water heaters 333

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hotels and motels (Cont.)


system considerations 69
hourly consumption figures
hotel kitchens 65
multifamily buildings 27
hourly number of therapies 74 91
hours of operation
central bathing areas 137 154 157
central sterile supply areas 92
food service 64 92
hospital laundries 92
hydrotherapy units 74 91 136 156
laundries 76 138 139 158
222
sterile supply areas 76
surgical suites 75 92
therapeutic facilities 129
human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) xxi 188
HVAC ductwork, heat trace
systems in 265
hybrid systems
considerations 17
multifamily buildings
and 30
hydro showers 128
hydrotherapy
32-bed hospital example 94
48-bed nursing care facility example 159
300-bed hospital example 112

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hydrotherapy (Cont.)
gathering information 91 96 161
hospital requirements 73
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 136 152 153
school requirements 48
sport arenas and stadiums 209
tub temperature 129
usage factors 79 80 89
worksheet example totals 82 83 109 124
176
worksheet examples 84 86 102 117
167
hydrotherapy tubs
football stadium example 212
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
sports arenas and stadiums 211
worksheet examples 167
hypalon 286

ice machines, heat pumps


and 327
ice rinks
heat recovery systems 329
resurfacing 205
ICVs. See intensive care units
(ICUS)

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IEW 90.1 standard (ASHRAE) 16


immersion controls 305
high limit safety devices 305
storage tank fittings 315 318
immersion elements
construction and operation 300
storage tanks 298
immersion well remote bulb
thermostats 305
Impact of Water Conservation
on Interior Plumbing 262
in-line centrifugal circulating
pumps 258
incoloy sheaths 302 303
incoming cold water supply
heat pump systems 332
laundries and 40
in mixed water temperatures 6
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems 336
storage tank fittings 314 318
in storage tank indirect
water heaters 291
temperature and approach 280
temperature of 222
incoming hot water supply
in steady-state heat balance formula 3
supply in mixed water
temperatures 6

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indirect fired water heaters


defined 291
as heat exchangers 291
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 293
storage tank types 291
water conditions 295
indoor ice rinks 329
industrial facilities. See also
specific types of facilities
areas of demand 191
circulation systems for 239
clean and dirty work 191 194
defined 188
design considerations 190 194
example 193
selecting water heaters 192
showers 192
steam water heaters 333
storage tanks 194
types of 188
wash stations 191
industrial laundries
gathering information 221
in prisons 188
industrial water treatment
plants 190 198
infrared faucets 205
initial costs
heat exchangers 288

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initial costs (Cont.)


heat pumps 328
initial fills for sinks 66
initial pressures in expansion
tanks 351
initial volumes
air cushions in expansion
tanks 351
initial system volume of
water 346
inlet air orifices in burners 319
inlet fittings 298
inmates
double bunking 181 186
lavatories and showers 184 186
redundancy in systems
and 185
showers for 180
inns. See hotels and motels
input energy in thermal efficiency formulas 4
input water. See incoming
cold water supply
insertable pressure measuring devices 248
instantaneous systems
apartment building example 32
baptistries 226
gas heaters with separate
tanks 311
group wash fountains 193
indirect fired water heaters 293

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instantaneous systems (Cont.)


industrial facilities usage 192
instantaneous-coil-in-a-boiler
water heaters 294
multifamily buildings 30
point-of-use heaters 242
steam feedback systems 335
steam water heaters 333
tankless coil systems 32 295
institutional dormitories 42
institutional laundries
delivered hot water temperatures 12
gathering information 221
insulation
gas water heaters 316
heat trace systems 267 269 275
piping 250
recirculating systems 259 275
sports arena and stadium
piping 207
vent pipes 321
Insulation 262
integral heat pump water
heaters 326 331
intensive care units (ICUs) xxi
example 111
hand washing demand 73
intermediate care facilities
48-bed facility example 158
central bathing 137 159

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intermediate care facilities (Cont.)


defined 133
dietary and food service 136
gathering information 156 161
hydrotherapy 136 159
kitchen requirements
table 151
laundries 138 160
miscellaneous areas 160
nurses stations 135 159
resident areas 135 158
usage factors 152
user group analysis 135
worksheet examples 140 147 165
worksheet totals 144 176
internal (center) flues 313 316
Internal Corrosion of Water
Distribution Systems 262
internal fusing in
wiring circuits 305 306
International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical
Officials 262
iron bodied pumps 258
isolation rooms 73
isolation valves
feed-forward steam systems 337
heat pump systems 331

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jails
auxiliary equipment 182
design considerations 179
examples 181
gathering information 181
heat trace system plans 276 277
life cycle of 180
janitors closets 46 203
janitors receptors. See floor
receptors
Johnson, Peter J. xix
junior high schools 45
Justin, Lawrence G. xix

kitchen sinks
flow rates 40
hospital user group usage
factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes 142 147 149
sports arenas and stadiums 211
student dormitories 41
user group example work-sheets 84 86
worksheet examples 103 119 168
kitchens
cooling functions of heat
pumps 327

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kitchens (Cont.)
demand
hospital requirements
table 87
hospital usage factors 79 80
hotel example 65
jails and prisons 180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 151
prisons 184 187
schools 46 47 50 55
57
small hospital example 94
sports arenas and stadiums 203 205 209
gathering data for requirements 47
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
multiple kitchens 64
multiple systems design 69
residential 42 43
water temperature 206
Kokko, J. P. 37
Konen, Thomas 262

L/h. See liters per hour (L/h)


labels in heat trace systems 269
laboratories 197
defined 190
in hospitals 77 91 93 99

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laboratories (Cont.)
pharmaceutical plants 195
sinks 195
testing laboratories 198
user group totals work-sheets 82 83
lag time. See also delays in
hot water
feed-forward systems 336
instantaneous steam
feedback systems 336
steam feedback units 335
large apartment buildings 31
large hospitals 111
lateral runs in vents 324
laundries
delivered hot water temperatures 12
demand
apartment buildings 36
coin-operated 39 40
hospital considerations 75 92 98 295
hospital example 113 222
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheets 84 86
hotels and motels 67
institutional dormitories 42 43
jails 180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138 157 160
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 176

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Index Terms Links

laundries (Cont.)
prison industrial
laundries 188
prisons 180 184 185 188
retirement apartments 139 155 158 164
174
schools 46
spas and health clubs 130
sports arenas and stadiums 203 208 209
student dormitories 39
gathering information 98 163 221
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and 295
manufacturer specifications 68
multiple systems design 69
recover requirements 222
steam water heaters 333
storage tanks 222
wash cycles 40 75 222
laundry tubs
baseball team locker room examples 214 215 217
flow rates 236
hospital usage factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 171 174
sports arenas and stadiums 211

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lavatories
delivered hot water temperatures 12
demand 87
baseball team locker
room example 214 215 217
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet
examples 107 115
institutional dormitories 42 43
jails and prisons 180 184
kitchens 50 151
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 142 147 149 173
patient areas 88 94
resident areas in care
facilities 135
schools 49 52 54
sport arenas and stadiums 209 211
staff toilets 73
student dormitories 41
user group example
worksheets 84 86
flow rates 40
maximum flow rates 236
steam water heaters 333
leaks
cold leakage 288
copper piping 244

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Legionella Pneumophila (Le-


gionnaires Disease) 14
length of branches
delays in hot water and 234
in non-heat traced systems 270
life cycles
costs 278
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
lime deposits 294 300
See also scaling
linear expansion 349
linings for storage tanks 284 298 314
liquid petroleum gas (LPG), xxi 330
liters per hour (L/h)
in heat recovery equations 5
laundry demand 221
worksheets 140
LMH factor (low, medium, and high) xxi
apartment building example 32 33
applying 26
multifamily building demographics 23
peak and maximum demands 25
small, medium and large
apartment buildings 31
special use facilities 35
load calculations
alternative systems 17
apartment building example 32 34
load lag flywheels 340

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loads per hour


hospital laundries 75 92
nursing/intermediate
care laundries 138 157
retirement home laundries 139
local plumbing codes 16
locker rooms
hospitals 96 114
industrial facilities 191
shower rooms 129
sports arenas and stadiums 203 214
surgical suites 75 92
loops
check valves on 245
isolating portions of systems 244
lounges 160
low, medium, and high. See
LMH factor (low, medium, and high)
low-flow fixtures
heat trace systems and 265 271
hot water delays and 235
low-pressure steam 337
LPG (liquid petroleum gas), xxi 330

magnesium oxide immersion


elements 300
magnetic resonance imaging
machines 114

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main lines
heat trace systems 270
in heat trace systems 276
maintenance
accessibility of heat exchangers 281
ease of access to equipment 281
fixed orifices and venturis 245
gasketed heat exchangers 287
heat pump systems 332
nursing/intermediate care
systems 163
planning for repairs 40
sports arenas and stadiums 207
storage tank draining and
cleaning 315
therapy room systems 128
maintenance areas
hospitals 77 91 93 96
99
nursing/intermediate
care systems 138 157
retirement homes 140
makeup water for feed-for-ward
steam systems 337
malls 228
management systems for
sports arenas 205
manholes 315
manicures 128 129
manual pump controls 258

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manufacturing facilities 188 194


massage therapy 128
meals. See also dietary and
food services
number of 74 92
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 156
meat processing facilities 194
mechanical circulation, stratification and 16
mechanical draft inducers 321
Meckler, Milton 262
medical and health clinics
first aid rooms in sports
arenas 204 209
office buildings 229
prisons 185
schools 46
shower rooms 129
medical patients 72
medication rooms 73 94 111 135
medium-sized apartment
buildings 31
meeting rooms
hotel types 59
religious facilities 226
melt down in immersion ele-
ments 303
memory stops on valves 245 248
metal barriers in heat ex-changers 285
metering faucets 205 236

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Mettelstaedt, Bernie xix


Meyer, Randy xix
mid-sized apartment buildings 31
middle schools 45
Miller, Julius E. xix
Milligan, N. H. 37 38
mineral facilities 196
mineral salt baths 129
mining facilities 190
miscellaneous areas
hospitals
32-bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 113
gathering information 93 99
usage factors 91
worksheet example
totals 82 83 109 124
worksheet examples 108 123
nursing/intermediate
care 138 157
48-bed nursing care
facility example 160
gathering information 163
user groups 152 154
worksheet example
totals 176
worksheet examples 171
retirement homes 140 155 158 164
175
miscellaneous facilities 225

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mixed water temperatures


calculating 56
in heat loss equations 253
hydrotherapy 74
jails 181
showers 51
sports arenas and stadiums 206
tables and equations 6
tempering devices 69
mixing tubes or areas in
burners 319
mixing valves 337
Mixing Valves and Hot Water
Temperature 262
monel 285
mop sinks 41 49
morgues 77 91
considerations 93
gathering information 99
user group totals work-sheets 82 83
Moritz, A. R. 13
morning peak demand
multifamily buildings 21 22
spas and health clubs 130
motels. See hotels and motels
movement of buildings 207
MRI machines 114
Mulder, Bernie xix
multi-loop immersion elements 300

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multifamily buildings
centralized systems 25
circulation systems for 239
demand determination 24
demographic profiles 23
examples 31 35
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
laundries in 36
LMH factor and 26
patterns of demand 19
peak vs. average demand 26
potential traps 36
retrofitting 28
steam water heaters 333
multifunction full-condensing
equipment 17
multilevel facilities 276
multiple flues 313 3 17
multiple game events 204
multiple stamped ribbon
ports 320
multiple systems
high school considerations 56
hospital user group totals
worksheets 81
hotels 69
schools 47
multiple temperature systems 272

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National Board of Boiler and


Pressure Vessel
Inspectors (NBBPVI) 15
National Electric Code (NEC), xxi 17
National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) xxi 17
National Fuel Gas Code 324
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) xxi 16
natural convection 283
natural gas heat sources 185 330
NBBPVI (National Board of
Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors) 15
NEC (National Electric Code), xxi 17
Neeck, James T. xix
neonatal intensive care 113
net expansion of water 354
New Information on Seruice
Water Heating 261
New Methods for Analyzing
Hot Water Systems 262
NFPA (National Fire
Protection Association) xxi 17
nichrome (nickel chrome) 301 302 303
NICU (neonatal intensive care) 113
nighttime peak demand 22
nitrile rubber (NR) xxi 286
non-metering faucets 236

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nonambulatory patients
bathing tubs for 137 152 154
central bathing areas 157
nonurban hotels 61
noon-time demand in spas 130
nourishment rooms
hospitals 73
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135
NR (nitrile rubber) xxi 286
NSF (National Sanitation
Foundation) xxi
nuclear power plants 197
nurseries. See obstetrics/
nursery areas
nurses stations
32-bed hospital example 94
48-bed nursing care facility example 159
300-bed hospital example 111
characteristics 73
gathering information 91 96 156 161
hospital usage factors 89
hospital worksheet examples 82 83 101 109
124
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 135 152 153 156
159
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 166 176

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nursing care facilities


48-bed facility example 158
central bathing 137 159
defined 133
dietary and food service 136
gathering information 156 161
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
hydrotherapy 136 159
kitchen requirements
table 151
laundries 138 160
miscellaneous areas 160
nurses stations 135 159
resident areas 135 158
usage factors 152
user group analysis 135
worksheet examples 147 165
worksheet totals 144 176
worksheets 140

OB (obstetrics).
See obstetrics/nursery areas
OBrien, Tim xix
obstetrics/nursery areas
32-bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 113
gathering information 93 99
obstetrics (OB) xxi

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obstetrics/nursery areas (Cont.)


usage factors 90
worksheet example totals 82 83 109 124
worksheet examples 107 115
occupancy rates
in hotels 70
in retirement homes 139
in spas and health clubs 129
occupants. See populations
off-peak generation
heat pumps 328
multifamily buildings 28
office buildings 229
OHRD (Ontario Hydro
Research Division) xxi
Oil
heat pump applications 330
as heating medium 280
refineries 190
on-call rooms 94 111
on-demand controls 258
one bedroom apartments. See
1-bedroom apartments
one compartment sinks. See
1 -compartment sinks
Ontario Hydro Research
Division (OHRD) xxi
open systems 258
operating conditions for heat
exchangers 281 288

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ore processing facilities 190


orifices in burners 320
outdoor line insulation 260
outgoing water
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems 336
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
storage tank fittings 298 314 318
temperature and approach 280
outlet fittings 298 314 318
outpatient surgery 95 113
output energy in formulas 4
output water. See outgoing
water
overlapping use 49 77
oversizing
avoiding in multifamily
buildings 25
costs and 37
standard methods and, xvii

P. See hot water multiplier


pain threshold 13
pantries 185
pantry sinks 214 215 218
paper mills 196

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parents at spas and health


clubs 130
particulate fouling
indirect fired water heaters and 295
plate and frame heat ex-changers and 281
shell and tube devices
and 282
patient areas
hospitals
32-bed hospital example 93
300-bed hospital example 111
gathering information 72 91 96
usage factors 88
worksheet example
totals 82 83 109 124
worksheet examples 100 115
nursing homes
worksheet example
totals 176
worksheet examples 165
Patterns of Domestic Hot
Water Consumptionfor a
Multifamily Building 38
payment for hot water, demand and 25 37
peak demand
alternative systems 17
apartment building example 33
hospital laundries 76
hospital user groups 90
hospital worksheets 81

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peak demand (Cont.)


hotels 61
institutional dormitories 43
multifamily buildings 19 25 26
remote heat pump water
heaters and 327
resort hotels 60
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128
sports arenas and stadium fixtures 204
student dormitories 39
surgical suites 75
time of day and 26
vs. average demand 26
Pearlman, M. 38
pedicures 128 129
peel and stick labels in heat
trace systems 269
pelvic exam rooms 114
perfect gases, volume of 351
Performance of Domestic Hot
Water Systems in Five
Apartment Buildings 37
pesticide storage rooms 209
Petes Plugs 248
petrochemical facilities 333
petroleum refineries 190
pH values 295
See also
alkalinity of water; hard

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pH values (Cont.)
water
pharmaceutical facilities 188 195
phase, electric water heaters
and 207
photographic dark rooms 112 198 204
photography labs 196
physical therapy areas 89 153
physics laboratories. See
laboratories
pilot plants 188
pinhole leaks in copper piping 244
Pipe Sizing (ASHRAE) 261
piping
expansion 259 348 349
heat loss 254
heat pump systems 328 331
heat trace systems 270
heating 235
instantaneous point of
use heaters 243
insulation 250 259
pipe routing in sports arenas 205
steam systems 338 339
surface temperature 251
time delays tables 237
untraced piping 278
vent pipes 323
volumes table 350
weight of 235

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Piping Systems 261


plastic barriers in heat ex-changers 285
plate and frame heat ex-changers 285
approach temperatures
and 281
precipitation and particulates 281
plate-type heat exchangers
advantages 284
approach temperatures
and 288
compared to other types 281
double-wall plate and
frame exchangers 287
plate and frame heat
exchangers 281 285
prime surface
heat ex-changers 285
welded plate and frame
exchangers 287
plumbing drawings 273
The Plumbing Engineer as a
Forensic Engineer 262
Plumbing Fixture Fittings 261
point-of-use applications
defined 242
grocery stores 227
heat trace systems 270
sports arenas and stadiums 208
temperature 206

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pools
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
laundry and food service
demand 130
religious facilities 226
shower rooms 129
populations
by apartment size 26
demographic profiles 23
density of population 23
hotel considerations 70
multifamily buildings 23
schools 47 48
spas and health clubs 130
working tenants in
multi-family buildings 22
ports in gas burners 319 320
Position Paper on Hot Water
Temperature Limitations 261
post-birthing rooms 77 93
postsurgery rooms 111
potable water treatment
plants 190 198
pots and pans sinks 225
pounds per square inch
gauge (PSIG) xxi
power circuits 306

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power connection kits


in heat trace systems 269
plumbing drawing indicators 273
power plants 190 197
power vent systems 321
precipitation, plate and frame
heat exchangers and 281
preheating
inlet water in feed-forward
systems 338
laundry water supply 222
prerinse sinks
central sterile supply areas 113
demand 65 87
food services 92
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 119
122
hospitals 92 112
kitchens 50 52 53 151
187
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 142 147 149 156
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 168
prisons 187
schools 50 52 53 55
prescrapper sinks 50 87 151
preset flow control devices
balancing systems 244

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preset flow control devices (Cont.)


preset automatic flow
control valves 247
pressure
Boyle's law 351
dangerous water pressures 343
equations 354
head capacity of circulating pumps 257
heat exchangers and 281
heat pump water heaters 326
hospital user group information 72
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and 295
kitchen usage and 137
measuring devices 248
sensing in feed-forward
steam units 336
sterilization equipment 76 93
pressure-balanced shower
valves 209
pressure-formed sheets in
heat exchangers 285
pressure measuring devices 248
pressure relief valves
heat pump systems 332
standards 15
storage tanks 298 315
Price, D. C. 37

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primary air burners 319


prime surface heat exchangers 285
principal's toilets 46
printing and publishing facilities 190 196
prisons
design considerations 179
example 184
gathering information 185
heat trace systems 274 276 277
kitchens 187
laundries 188
life cycle of 180
redundancy in systems
and 185
storage tank sizing 186
work-release programs 186
private lavatories and toilets
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 100 105
115 123
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital user group information 72
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 165
sports arenas and stadiums 204 209
private patient rooms 72 91 135 156
private suites in stadiums 203 209
proactive feed-forward systems 336

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probable occupancy rates


calculations 3 1
sizing and 26
process fluids 281
professional patrons at spas 130
protective suits at chemical
processing plants 196
psig (gage pressure) 352
PSIG (pounds per square inch
gauge),
public laundries 31
public lavatories and toilets
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 102 103
115
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital user group information 72
institutional dormitories 42 43
maximum flow rates 236
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 171 175
public restrooms 160
schools 49
sports arenas and stadiums 204 209
publishing facilities 190 196
Pumps
electric 327
head capacity 257
instantaneous gas heaters

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Pumps (Cont.)
with separate tanks 311
recirculation pumps 257 339
refrigeration units 332
steam feedback systems 335
types of circulating
pumps 258
Pumps 262
Pumps and Pump Systems 262
purified water in sterilization 195
pushbutton self-closing control valves. 180

quality of water. See water


quality
quarter circle wash stations 191
questions. See gathering information

R factor (thermal resistivity) 260


radiology departments 95 114
rain, insulation and 260
raised port burners 320
raw materials processing 196
re-gasketing maintenance 287
reactive feedback units 334
ready-mix concrete plants 198
rebates, utility 328

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recirculating hot water systems


air elimination 259
circulation systems 239
commercial, industrial,
and large residential
projects 239
controls 258
delays in hot water 234 238
flow balancing devices 245
head capacity of pumps 257
heat trace systems 242
insulation 259
length of systems 234
open and closed systems 258
point-of-use heaters 242
problems 233 243
pump types 258
required circulation rate
example 254
return piping and pumps 249
steam feedback systems 335
steam water heaters 338
storage volume and 16
stratification and 42 44
water delivery methods 238
recirculating prerinse sinks 50 87 151
recirculating pumps. See cir-culating pumps
recovery periods
baseball team locker room
examples 216 219

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recovery periods (Cont.)


electric water heaters 5
equations 63
football stadiums 213
general design principles 15
grocery stores 227
heat pumps 328
heat recovery systems 329
hotel kitchens 67
hotels 62
immersion elements and 300
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
institutional dormitories 43
laundry requirements 222
preheating laundry water
supply 222
prison laundries 188
sanitizers 194
showers and 57
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128
steam feedback systems 335
storage tank indirect water heaters 292
stratification and 16
recovery rooms in hospitals 112
recovery systems 329
redundancy in systems 185
refrigerants
as heating medium 280

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refrigerants (Cont.)
refrigerant-based water
heating systems 17
refrigerant evaporators/
condensers 288
refrigeration heat reclaim systems 329
See also
heat pump water heaters
considerations 17
grocery stores 227
refrigeration pressure/temperature
controls 332
regional plumbing codes 16
relationships in steady-state
heat balance formula 3
relief valves
standards 15
unseating of 343
religious facilities 225
remodeling buildings
heat trace systems and 272
multifamily buildings 28
remote bulb thermostats 305
remote evaporators 327
remote heat pump water
heaters 326 327 331
repairs. See maintenance
resident areas
48-bed nursing facility
example 158 160

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resident areas (Cont.)


gathering information 161 164
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135 152 156
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 176
religious facilities 226
retirement homes 139 155 157 173
sports arenas and stadiums 205
residential dishwashers
delivered hot water temperatures 12
flow rates 236
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheets 84 86 117
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 173
retirement apartments 158
residential heat pump water
heaters 325 326
residential laundries
delivered hot water temperatures 12
flow rates 236
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 115 117
jails and prisons 180
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 171 174

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residential laundries (Cont.)


retirement apartments 139 158
residential water heaters. See
domestic hot water (DSH);
equipment
residents. See populations
resistance of elements 302
resistance wires 300
resorts. See hotels and motels
response times in steam feed-
back systems 335
restaurants
fast-food 228
food kiosks 39 40
heat pump systems 331
heat recovery systems 329
in multifunction buildings 36
in shopping malls 228
steam water heaters 333
retail spaces
in multifunction buildings 36
in office buildings 229
in shopping malls 228
retired patrons at spas 130
retirement homes
48-bed example 160
defined 134
gathering information 157 161
kitchen requirements
table 151

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Index Terms Links

retirement homes (Cont.)


laundries 139 155 160
miscellaneous areas 140 155 158 160
resident areas 139 155 160
worksheet examples 147 173
worksheet totals 144 176
worksheets 140
Retrofit of Building Energy
Systems and Processes 262
retrofitting buildings
heat trace systems and 272
multifamily buildings 28
return pipes
check valves and 245
in circulation systems 239
entrapped air 259
head capacity
of circulating pumps 257
insulation 260
lack of in heat trace systems 266
sizing 249
ribbon port burners 320
rinse requirements
for dish-washing 48
rise in temperature 5
risers in heat trace systems 276
runout lines in heat trace
systems 270 275

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Index Terms Links

sacrificial anodes 298 314 315 318


safety concerns
feed-forward steam systems 337
hospitals 71
scalding 13
safety controls for heat pump
systems 332
safety equipment 1
Salisbury, Brian D. xix
salt baths 129
Saltzberg, Edward xix 262
same-day surgery 95 113
Sampler, Donald L. xviii xx
sanitization
food processing plants 194
grocery stores 227
hospital laundry example 222
sanitizing dishwashers 12 75
scalding
codes and 135
feed-forward steam systems 337
hospital codes and 73
safety concerns 13
scaling
heat exchangers 288
heat pump systems 332
indirect fired water heaters 293 295
instantaneous indirect

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Index Terms Links

scaling (Cont.)
water heaters and 295
lime deposits 294 300
steam storage water heaters 334
schedules. See also hours of
operation
in prisons 185
schools
calculating demand 49
elementary school example 52
expansion 49
gathering information 47
general considerations 47
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
high school example 54
kitchens and food services 47 50
population 47 48
showers 48 51
steam water heaters 333
system selection factors 56
types of 45
science rooms 46 49
Scott, J.Joe xviii xx
scraping sinks 112
scrub sinks
emergency rooms 95
hospital example 112
hospital usage factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate care/retirement

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scrub sinks (Cont.)


homes 142
obstetrics area 93 113
outpatient surgery 113
surgical suites 75 92
usage factors 90
worksheet examples 105 108 115 121
123
worksheets 84 86
Sealine, David A. xviii xx 262
seasonal sports arenas 205
seasonal temperatures of
water 338
seasonal usage of heat
pumps 330
seasonal water demand 20
secondary schools 45 48
security type showerheads 205
sediment 296 314 332
seismic requirements 207
self-closing valves 180
self-contained photo processors 198
self-limiting flow control car-tridges 247
self-regulating heat trace
systems
approved systems 267
circuit lengths 273
components 269
defined 242 266
design considerations 272 273

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Index Terms Links

self-regulating heat trace (Cont.)


heating cables 266
horizontal mains and
supply risers 276
identifying pipes 270
insulation 275
maintenance temperatures 274
overview 265
performance variables to
consider 266
piping design 275
selecting cables 274
terminology 278
water and energy conservation 265
semicircular wash stations 191
semiprivate patient rooms 91
semiprivate rooms
hospital patient rooms 72
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135 156
senior high schools 45
sensors for steam water heaters 334
separate systems. See multiple systems
Service Hot Water Systems 57 261
service sinks
baseball team locker
room examples 214 215 218
flow rates 236
schools 49
sports arenas and stadiums 211

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Service Water Heating 261


servicing plumbing. See
maintenance
sewage treatment plants 190 198
sheaths on immersion elements 300
Sheet Metal and Air
Conditioning Contractors
National Association
(SMACNA),xxi
Retrofit of Building Energy
Systems and Processes 262
shell and tube devices
advantages 282
approach temperatures
and 288
cleanliness of stream and 281
compared to other heat
exchangers 281
double-wall heat exchangers 284
feed-forward steam systems 337
steam water heater systems 340
tank heaters 283
TEMA (Tubular Exchange
Manufacturers Association)
standards 280
U-tube removable bundles 282
shift changes
industrial plants 190
nurses stations 89 153
wash-up duration 192

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Index Terms Links

shop rooms in schools 46


shopping malls 228
short-circuited water in
loops 244
showerheads
in calculations 51
hotel demand and 62
maximum flow rates 236
security type shower-heads 205
sports arenas and stadiums 211
showers
calculating demand 210
compared to bathing 37
delivered hot water temperatures 12
demand
baseball team locker room
examples 214 217
emergency showers 204
football stadium example 212
high schools 55
hospital locker rooms 92 112
hospital usage factors 79 80 90
hospital worksheet examples 100 105 107 115
121 123
hospital worksheets 84 86
hotels 59 61
hydrotherapy areas 74 92
industrial facilities 191 192
institutional dormitories 42 43
jails and prisons 180

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Index Terms Links

showers (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate care facilities 142 147 149 156
157
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 170 171 173
obstetrics areas 77 90 93 95
patient rooms 73 91 94
prisons 184 185
resident areas in care
facilities 135
schools 46 48 51
shower rooms 129
spas, pools, health
clubs, and athletic
centers 128
sports arenas and
stadium fixtures 204 206 208
staff shower rooms in
hospitals 77
student dormitories 41
surgical suites 75
dump loads 193
duration 62 130 181 185
equations 181
flow rates 40
gathering data for requirements 47
Legionnaires Disease
and 14
steam water heaters 333
Vichy and swiss showers 129

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Index Terms Links

showers (Cont.)
water temperature 206
winter vs. summer demand 20
shutoff valves
in circulation systems 239
for fixed orifices and venturis 247
gas 315 318
isolating portions of systems 244
silverware washers 50
single bedroom apartments.
See 1-bedroom apart-
ments
single compartment sinks.
See 1 -compartment sinks
single-loop immersion elements 300
single people at spas 130
single systems 69
sinks. See also specific types
of sinks (i.e., kitchen
sinks)
classrooms 52
faucet flow rates 236
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 119
hospital food services 74 92
hourly demand 65
initial fills and draw-downs 66
kitchens 48 50
laboratories 195
miscellaneous hospital
areas 77

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Index Terms Links

sinks (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 138 156
school general purpose
usage 49
schools 48 50 54
service sinks 49
sport arenas and stadiums 209
surgical suites 95
siphoning, preventing 300 315 319
sitz baths 77
sizing. See also names of spe-
cific systems to be sized
(i.e., laundries, hospitals)
costs and 37
delays in hot water and 238
generator size 30
heat exchangers 340
heat pump systems 331
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
oversizing xvii 25
retrofitting buildings 28
return piping and pumps 249
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
storage tanks 183
systems
baseball team locker
room examples 215 218

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Index Terms Links

systems (Cont.)
concrete processing water tanks 199
dormitory systems 39
hospital systems 71
hotel and motel systems 59
industrial facility systems 189
jail and prison systems 179
laundries 221
miscellaneous facilities 225
multifamily buildings 19 25
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home systems 133
school systems 45
spas, pools, health
clubs, and athletic
center systems 127
sports arenas and
stadium systems 203
Sizing of Sewice Water Heating
Equipment in Commercial and
Institutional Buildings 38
skin damage 14
slaughter houses. See food
product facilities
sleeping quarters in nursing/
intermediate care facilities 135
slotted port burners 320

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Index Terms Links

SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air


Conditioning Contractors
National Association) xxi
small apartment buildings 30
small hospitals 93
small hotels 70
Smith, Jean B. xx
snap-action surface-mounted
high limit safety devices 303
snap-action surface-mounted
thermostats 303
snap gaskets 287
social areas 160
soiled utility rooms
hospitals 73 94 111
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135
solar energy
as heating medium 280
solar water heaters 17
solid-state progressive sequencers 306
sonic cleaners 95 113 122
hospital user group usage
factors 79 80
user group example work-
sheets 84 86
worksheet examples 106
space cooling functions of
heat pumps 327 329 330

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spas
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
laundry and food service
demand 130
shower rooms 129
special education rooms 46
special needs in therapy services 128
special use housing facilities 35
specialized tubs
nonambulatory patients 137
worksheet examples 170
specific heat of water 3 4
specific volume of water 346 354
Spielvogel, L. G. 38
spills
flue gas spillage 322
pharmaceutical plants 195
sponge bathing 88
sports arenas
baseball stadium example 214
commercial laundries in 208
demand assumptions 208
design traps 206
football stadium example 211
gathering information 204
sizing systems 210
system design considerations 205
types of systems 207

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Index Terms Links

sports arenas (Cont.)


usage areas 203
water temperatures 206
sports teams 46 48 55
spot cooling 327
spray-type dishwashers. See
commercial dishwashers
stadiums
baseball stadium exam-ple 214
commercial laundries in 208
demand assumptions 208
design traps 206
football stadium example 211
gathering information 204
sizing systems 210
system design considerations 205
types of systems 207
usage areas 203
water temperatures 206
staff shower rooms
hospitals 77
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138
staff toilets
hospitals 73 111
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135
sport arenas and stadiums 209
sports arenas and stadiums 204

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stainless steel
in heat exchangers 285 288
pump fittings 258
stamped horizontal port
burners 320
stamped mono-port burners 320
standards and codes
heat exchangers 279
listing 16
sports arenas and stadiums 205
state plumbing codes 16
static head in closed systems 258
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
steam
as heating medium 185 280
tank heaters 283
U-tube removable bundles and 282
Steam and Condensate Systems 341
steam generation plants 185
steam mains 338
steam sterilizers 95 112 113
steam water heaters
design considerations 340
example 341
feed-forward units 336
feedback units 334
instantaneous water heaters 333
recirculation system piping
and operation 338

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steam water heaters (Cont.)


storage water heaters 333
types 333
steamers 48
steel mills 190
steel piping 235 237
steel water heaters 349
Steele, Alfred 262
sterile areas
hospital sterile supply
areas 76
pharmaceutical plants 195
sterilization
pharmaceutical plants 195
requirements for dish-washing 48
sterilizers 75 92 95 197
Stevens, Kris xx
storage. See also storage
tanks
general design principles 15
generation rate and capacity research 30
peak vs. average demand and 26
storage rooms 209
storage steam water heaters 333
storage tank electric water heaters
commercial and residential 297
dip tubes 300
elements 300
tank fittings 298
tanks 298

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storage tank feedback systems 335


storage tank gas water heaters
burners 319
defined 313
dip tubes 315 318
flues and heat exchangers 313
tank fittings 314 318
tanks 314
venting systems 321
storage tank indirect water
heaters 291 295
storage tanks
applications
apartment building
example 34
baseball team locker
room example 219
football stadium example 213
high school systems 57
hotel kitchens 66
hotels 62 63
industrial facilities 194
institutional dormitories 43
jail example 183
laundry requirements 222
multifamily buildings 26
prison example 185 186
student dormitories 41
corrosion 314
dip tubes 300

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Index Terms Links

storage tanks (Cont.)


draining and cleaning 315
electric water heaters 298
expansion formulas 348
expansion tanks 343
fittings 298 314 318
gas water heaters 314
heat loss 252 255 256
heat pump water heaters 326
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 311
linings 298 314
steam feedback systems 335
steam water heaters 333
stratification 16 42 44
tank draw efficiency 300
tank mounting collars 283
tank recirculation systems 16
vertical and horizontal tanks 207
stores
convenience stores 226 329
grocery stores 227 331
malls 228
supermarkets 226 329 330
strainers
for fixed orifices and venturis 245
heat pump systems 331
stratification in water tanks
eliminating 42 44
overview 16

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stresses
on indirect fired water
heaters 293
on pipes 259
student dormitories 39
student toilets 46
studio apartments 26
suite hotels 61
summer season water de-mand 20
supermarkets 226 329 330
supplemental water heating
systems 17
supply. See incoming cold
water supply; incoming
hot water supply
supply pipes
check valves and 245
in circulation systems 239
insulation 260
risers in heat trace systems 276
surface-mounted high limit
safety devices 298 303
surface-mounted thermo-stats 298 303
surface temperature of piping 251
surgical patients 72 92
surgical suites
32-bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 112
considerations 75
gathering information 97

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Index Terms Links

surgical suites (Cont.)


usage factors 90
worksheet examples 105 121
worksheet totals 82 83 109 124
swimming pools 46
swing care wings in nursing
facilities 158
swiss showers 129
symbols in heat trace systems 273
system sizing. See names of
specific systems (i.e.,
laundries, hospitals)
system temperature range 278
Szydlowski, R. 38

T & P relief valves 243


tableware 48
tank draw efficiency 300
tank heaters. See gas water
heaters; indirect fired
water heaters; storage tank
electric water heaters
tank mounting collars 283
tank-within-a-tank indirect
fired water heaters 292
tankless coil systems
apartment building example 32
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295

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Index Terms Links

tankless systems.
See instan-taneous systems
tanks. See storage tanks
tape in heat trace systems 269
Tarbutton, George B. xx
tax credits 328
Taylor, H. 38
teachers lounges 46
teachers workrooms 46 49
tee/inline splice kits
in heat trace systems 269
plumbing drawing indicators 273
TEMA (Tubular Exchange
Manufacturers Association) xxi 280
temperature
condensation and 15
delivered hot water temperatures 12
differential in heat recovery equations 5
equations 354
at fixture outlet 6 64 78
heat trace systems 266
large differences in 283
lime deposits and 294
mixed water temperatures 6
requirements
concrete 198
gathering requirements 47
heat trace maintenance temperature
table 274
hospital laundries 76 92

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Index Terms Links

temperature (Cont.)
hospital user groups 72 78
hospital worksheets 81 84 86
hydrotherapy 74 92 136 156
jail and prison considerations 179
kitchens 137 187
laundries 76 92 138 222
nursing/intermediate
care laundries 138
prison kitchens 187
showers 210
special therapeutic
needs 128
sports arenas and
stadium fixtures 204 206
scalding 13
sterilization 76 93
system temperature
range 278
worksheets 140
temperature controlled steam
valves 335
temperature cross
defined 281
plate-type heat exchangers and 284
U-tube removable bundles 283
temperature differential
drops in system temperature range 278
in heat recovery equations 5

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Index Terms Links

Temperature Limits in Service


Hot Water Systems 262
temperature relief valves
heat pump systems 332
standards 15
storage tanks 298 315
temperature rise 5
temperature sensing bulbs 335
tempered water. See mixed
water temperatures
tempering valves 69
temples 225
tenants. See populations
termination
cable end termination in
heat trace systems 269
electrical terminals on
immersion elements 300
end termination 273
plumbing drawing indicators 273
terminology
heat exchangers 280
self-regulating heat trace
systems 278
testing laboratories.
See laboratories
thawing food
fast-food restaurants 228
grocery stores 227

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Index Terms Links

therapy services
calculating demand 130
hot water requirements 128
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128
sports arenas and stadium fixtures 206
therapy tubs 73 91
Thermal and Water Vapor
Transmission Data 261
thermal efficiency (R factor) 4 260
thermal expansion
allowing for 15
indirect fired water heaters 293
piping 259
refrigerant liquids 326
tank materials 348
U-tube removable bundles 283
thermal expansion tanks. See
expansion tanks
thermal insulation.
See insulation
thermal stress in indirect
fired water heaters 293
thermodynamic properties of
water 347
thermostatic aquastat controls 258
thermostatic capillary systems 336
thermostatic capsules 339
thermostatic mixing valves 74 112 209

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Index Terms Links

thermostats
electric water heaters 303
gas water heaters 316 317
heat pump systems 332
storage tank fittings 315 318
storage tanks 298
thirty mA ground fault equipment 267
Thrasher, W. H. 38 57
threaded nipples 298 314
three-way thermostatic
capsules (diverting valves) 339 340
ticket booths 204 209
time clock controls 259
time-delay sequencers 306
time delays. See delays in hot
water
time length. See duration
time of day, peak flows and 26
time periods for showers 48
time rates for heat transfer 3
time to tap. See delays in hot
water
timed-control valves 180
titanium 285
To Combine or Not to Combine 262
toilets
fast-food restaurants 229
grocery stores 227
industrial facilities 191
prisons 184

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Index Terms Links

toilets (Cont.)
public 42 43
religious facilities 226
shopping malls 228
special school facilities 46
staff toilets 73
training rooms 204 209
trauma rooms 113
travelers hotels 60 61
tray cleaning 227
triple compartment sinks. See
3-compartment sinks
troubleshooting
multifamily building sizing 36
problems with inadequate
hot water systems 233
recirculating hot water
systems 233 243
sports arena design 206
truck tanks, concrete 199
tub rooms 94 111 157
tube failures in heat exchangers 284
tube-in-tube heat exchangers 281 284
tube-on-tube heat exchangers 281
tube velocity 282
tubes, weight of 235
tubs. See bathtubs; hydro-therapy
tubs; laundry tubs
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers
Association (TEMA) xxi 280

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turbulence
in heat exchangers 286
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
turnaround time for showers 210
two bedroom apartments. See
2-bedroom apartments

U-tube bayonet-type heat


exchangers 335
U-tube double-wall heat ex-changers 284
U-tube removable bundles 282
UL. See Underwriters
Labo-ratories, Inc. (UL)
uncirculated hot water
branches 234
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) xxi
electrical components listing 16
heat trace systems 267
unheated distances in heat
trace systems 278
Uniform Plumbing Code Il-lustrated
Training Manual 262
uniforms
blood on 188
laundries and 188
uninsulated hot water
branches 234
unions in heat pump systems 331

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Index Terms Links

units of measurement in formulas 3


university steam water systems 333
unrecirculated tanks 16
untraced piping 278
updrafts, gas venting systems and 321
upfeed hot water systems 239 240
urban hotels 61
U.S. Food and Drug Administration 194
user groups
hospitals. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, surgical suites)
32-bed hospital
example 93 109
300-bed example 124
300-bed hospital example 111
defined 72
gathering information 72 91
laundries 75 92 98 113
total worksheets 81 109 124
usage factors 88
worksheet examples 84
worksheets 78
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, patient areas)
48-bed facility example 158
defined 134
gathering information 134 161

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Index Terms Links

user groups (Cont.)


total worksheets 144 176
usage factors 152
worksheet examples 147 165
worksheets 140
users. See populations
utensil sinks 225 227 228
utensil washers 50
utilities
laundries 222
rebates 328
sports arenas and stadiums 205
utility plants 190 197

vapor barriers in heat trace


systems 269
vapor compression 325
vegetable sinks
demand 87
high school kitchens 55
kitchen requirements 151
prison kitchens 187
school kitchens 50 52 53
velocity
erosion 244
in recirculating systems 244
vent caps 321 323
vent pipe connections 321

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Index Terms Links

vents
gas water heaters 316 317
pipe connections 323
storage tank gas water
heaters 321
venturi flow meters 245
vertical draft hoods 322 323
vertical drilled ports case
burners 320
vertical-to-horizontal draft
hoods 322
vertical water tanks
storage capacity 207
stratification 16
Vichy showers 128 129
Vine, E. 38
visiting team locker rooms 203 217
viton 286
voltage
electric water heaters 207
resistance of elements 302
volumes
of materials 354
of water 346 354
volumetric expansion 349

waiting for hot water. See


delays in hot water
Ward, John R. xx

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Index Terms Links

wards in hospitals 72
warehouses 190 197
warm air sources for heat
pumps 325
warming kitchens 48
wash cycles
averages 222
dormitory laundries 40
loads per hour 75
number per hour 222
wash down activities 227
wash fountains
baseball team locker room
examples 214 215 218
example 193
sports arenas and stadiums 211
wash rooms. See lavatories
wash stations
group wash fountains 192 193
industrial facilities 191
washing disinfectors. See
disinfectors
wasting energy. See energy
conservation
wasting water. See water conservation
water
expansion formulas 348
as heating medium 280
volume of 346
wastage. See water con-servation

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Index Terms Links

water (Cont.)
weight of 3 4 346
water conservation
delays in hot water and 238
energy conservation 234
heat trace systems and 265 266 270
laws 37
wastage tables 271
water expansion formulas 346
water hammer 336
water heaters
applications
baseball team locker
room examples 215 217 218
football stadium example 212
industrial facilities 192
institutional dormitories 43
jail example 183
distances to fixtures 233
expansion 348
types
electric water heaters 297
heat exchangers 279
heat pump water
heaters 325
indirect fired water
heaters 291
instantaneous gas
heaters with
separate tanks 311

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Index Terms Links

water heaters (Cont.)


instantaneous point
of use heaters 242
recirculating domestic
hot water systems 233
residential and commercial 297
self-regulating heat
trace systems 265
steam water heaters 333
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
water lines. See piping
water paths (ankle therapy) 129
water quality
hospital sterilization 93
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
for sterilization equipment 76
water treatment plants 190 198
water velocities in
recirculating systems 244
wattage, resistance of elements and 302
weapons, hot water as 180
weather, insulation and 260
weekday water demand
flow patterns 21
multifamily buildings 19
weekend water demand
flow patterns 21
monitoring demand 28

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Index Terms Links

weekend water demand (Cont.)


multifamily buildings 19
seasonal demand 20
weeping in plate and frame
units 289
weight
of heated water 3 4 346
of piping or tubes 235
welded connections in heat
exchangers 286
welded plates in steam
storage water heaters 334
Wen-Yung, W. Chan 262
Wentz, Thomas A. xx
Werden, R. G. 38
wet vacuum equipment 195
whirlpool baths
baseball team locker room
examples 214 217
football stadium example 212
hotel demand 61
sports arenas and stadiums 209 211
Whitworth, Patrick L. xx
Wilcox, Greg 262
Windsor, Tod 262
winter season
monitoring demand during 28
water demand 20
wiring circuits for
electric water heaters 305

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Index Terms Links

work-release programs in
prisons 186
work shifts. See shift changes
workforce clients at spas 130
working tenants in multifamily buildings 22
worksheets
hospitals
32-bed hospital examples 100 109
300-bed examples 115 124
user group examples 84
user group work-sheets 78
worksheet totals 81
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
48-bed examples 164
user group examples 147
worksheet totals 144
worksheets 140
retirement home examples 173
wraparound elements 300

year-round sports arenas 205

Zamboni machines 205


zinc plating 303

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