Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
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Water
Heating
Design
Published by
American
Society of
Plumbing
Manual
Engineers Second Edition
ii Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
The Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition, is designed to provide accurate
and authoritative information for the design and specification of domestic water heating
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding
the data and information contained in this publication. All data and information are provided
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting,
engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any infor-
mation storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-891255-18-2
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1
Contents xiii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1 Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption . . . . . 20
Figure 2.2 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.3 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 2.4 Consumption curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.5 Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.6 Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.7 Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2.8 Peak Demand Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at
Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at Top of System. . 242
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water
Heater Piping Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters. 246
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control
Cartridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve. . 248
Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with
Memory Stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable
for Hot Water Temperature Maintenance. . . . . . . 268
Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature
Maintenance System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components
of a Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System. . . . . . 273
Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of
Hospitals, Correctional Facilities, and Hotels. . . . 276
xiv Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
TABLES
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Table 1.1(M) Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures
for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 1.2(M) Typical Delivered Hot Water
Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
ACRONYMS
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
2. MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
Introduction ......................... . . . . . . . 19
Background ......................... . . . . . . . 19
Weekday Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . 19
Seasonal Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
iv Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
3. DORMITORIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Student Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Example 3.1 Student Dormitory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Institutional Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6. HOSPITALS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Worksheet 6.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1 . . . . . . 84
Table 6.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . 87
Table 6.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . 88
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Patient Areas and Nurses Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Hydrotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Dietary and Food Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Surgical Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Laundry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Central Sterile Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Obstetrics/Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,
Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue) . . . . . . . . . 93
vi Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Jail Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Calculations for Jail Housing Units . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Auxiliary Equipment Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Prison Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Design Criteria and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Calculations for Inmate Housing Units . . . . . . . . 186
Storage Tank Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Kitchen Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Laundry Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
12. LAUNDRIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
System Design Questions .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Example 12.1 . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Section
I
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and re-
viewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and design-
ers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.
1
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
(1.1) q = rwcT
where
q = time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gph (L/h)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T1 = change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incom-
i n g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation repre-
sents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
4 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(1.2) q = gph [( )(
1 Btu
lb/F gal )]
8.33 lb (T)
{ q=
h[(
m3 4.188 kJ
kg/K )( 999.6 kg
m3 ) ]}
( T)
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or out-
put, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated sur-
faces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
q
(1.3) Et = 100%
q+B
where
B = heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 5
Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.
( q
Et
=
475 374 kJ/h
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h )
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:
(
1552.02 L
T
= L of water per kWh at T
)
(1.5) gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(L/h T
1552.02 L
= kWh required )
(1.6) gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
( L/h
L of water per kWh at T
= kW required
)
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)
[ 151.42 L/h
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
= 9.8 kW required ]
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE
Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.
Example 1.4
Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.
(Continued)
8 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 9
45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
10 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 11
7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
(Continued)
12 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water tem-
perature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately ex-
perience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin dam-
age in adult males.
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive tem-
peratures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Ameri-
can Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The de-
signer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those stan-
dards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for in-
formation on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater con-
trols should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratifi-
cation, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respec-
tively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced signifi-
cantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratifica-
tion since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
1
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
(1.1) q = rwcT
where
q = time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gph (L/h)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T1 = change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incom-
i n g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation repre-
sents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
4 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(1.2) q = gph [( )(
1 Btu
lb/F gal )]
8.33 lb (T)
{ q=
h[(
m3 4.188 kJ
kg/K )( 999.6 kg
m3 ) ]}
( T)
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or out-
put, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated sur-
faces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
q
(1.3) Et = 100%
q+B
where
B = heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 5
Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.
( q
Et
=
475 374 kJ/h
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h )
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:
(
1552.02 L
T
= L of water per kWh at T
)
(1.5) gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(L/h T
1552.02 L
= kWh required )
(1.6) gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
( L/h
L of water per kWh at T
= kW required
)
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)
[ 151.42 L/h
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
= 9.8 kW required ]
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE
Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.
Example 1.4
Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.
(Continued)
8 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 9
45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
10 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic Water Heating
Water 11
7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41
7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
(Continued)
12 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water tem-
perature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately ex-
perience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin dam-
age in adult males.
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive tem-
peratures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Ameri-
can Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The de-
signer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those stan-
dards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for in-
formation on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater con-
trols should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratifi-
cation, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respec-
tively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced signifi-
cantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratifica-
tion since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
2 MULTIFAMILY
BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
When selecting and sizing domestic water heaters for multifam-
ily buildings, the designer must take into consideration the
variables affecting hot water demand that are unique to each
particular project. (Note: Certain government agencies have their
own design criteria, which must be strictly followed.)
Demand is a function of the anticipated hot water usage of
the occupants of a particular building during the period being
considered. It is affected by the population of a project as well as
the behavioral patterns of those occupants and the amenities
offered them.
Note that the design guidelines in this chapter are based on a
large amount of monitored data from occupied buildings, which
was collected during recent research efforts.
BACKGROUND
In order to design a domestic hot water (DHW) system for multi-
family buildings properly it is useful to understand the
consumption and demand patterns of this type of occupancy.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
20 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Figure 2.1
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 46.
Figure 2.2
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.107.
Figure 2.3
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.
Multifamily Buildings 23
IDENTIFICATION OF DEMAND
The first step the designer must take in calculating demand is to
determine the demographic profile of the project and building
occupants. Different types of building occupants have been found
to have fairly predictable patterns of hot water consumption. Us-
ers can be divided into three categorieslow, medium, and
high-volume water consumers (LMH)as a function of the build-
ing and occupant demographics. Table 2.1 shows a variety of
occupant characteristics. One or some combination of these
should closely describe any particular multifamily building. For
example, a luxury condominium in an area inhabited predomi-
nantly by young couples will tend to fall into the all occupants
work category of low anticipated water consumption. By con-
trast, a low-income housing project will generally fall somewhere
between the low-income and no occupants work categories of
high-volume water consumption. Keep in mind that the presence
of an abundance of hot water consuming appliances, such as
washing machines or dishwashers, tends to increase hot water
consumption. Therefore, if the condominium in the above ex-
ample intended or allowed for the future installation of a washing
machine in each unit, its demographic category should be raised
from low to medium. It is up to the designer to ask the necessary
questions of the developer, architect, or building manager in or-
der to determine this category. Remember, in the face of
uncertainty, be conservative.
It is important to note that Table 2.1 represents a graduated
scale of residents use of DHW. Quite often a building is occupied
by people from more than one of the demographic categories given
in this table. In such a case, the designer should weight the
demographic breakdown to select a low, medium, or high factor.
After some experience with this methodology, the designer may
decide that some buildings fall between groupings and select a me-
dium-high or low-medium category. In such instances, the
designer can extrapolate from the values in Table 2.2.
The characteristic high population density in Table 2.1 is
sometimes overlookedand it shouldnt be. This characteristic
is important in the selection of the LMH factor and, thus, in sys-
tem sizing. Even though a buildings other demographic factors
24 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Families
Public assistance Medium
Singles
Single-parent households
Couples
High population density
Middle income
Seniors Low
One person works, 1 stays home
All occupants work
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project.
DEMAND DETERMINATION
Once the LMH factor has been determined, values for hot water
demand and consumption can be selected from Table 2.2. Thus,
anticipated consumption values can be determined using the
known building population for intervals of 5 min, 15 min, 30
min, 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h. These values will be used later in selecting
and sizing domestic hot water equipment.
Multifamily Buildings 25
Figure 2.5
Source: Goldner 1994, DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings.
Figure 2.6
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 420.
30 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Figure 2.7
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.110.
EXAMPLES
Step 1
Compute the maximum probable occupancy based on local
standards/expectations and conversations with the building
owner, manager, or architect.
For example, multiply the number of 3-bedroom apart-
ments (4) by the maximum number of persons in each
apartment (5) to determine the total number of persons (20).
This is then added to the resultant sum from all the other
apartment sizes, as follows.
Maximum No.
Apt. Size No. of Apts. Persons/Apt.
3-bedroom apts. 4 5 = 20
2-bedroom apts. 14 4 = 56
1-bedroom apts. 25 3.5 = 87.5
Studios 15 2.25 = 33.75
Building total (rounded) 198
persons
Note: The designer needs to determine the optimum usage and occupancy of
the facility. For example, in some facilities, the demographic profile may re-
quire using 3, 4, or 7 occupants per 3-bedroom apartment.
32 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Step 2
Determine the low, medium, or high usage factor (demographic
profile) of the project and building occupants from Table 2.1,
based on knowledge of the building, conversations with the
building owner, and observations. Consider the effect of ei-
ther currently installed or possible future additions of
appliances (e.g., washers), which might move a building to a
higher usage category.
Based on the information above, the medium usage fac-
tor is selected.
Step 3
Estimate the DHW consumption. To estimate how much hot
water is used in a building for energy consumption or sav-
ings calculations, use the LMH factor and the average day
hot water value in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines). If the building
is existing, substitute the maximum probable occupancy from
Step 1 with the actual current (or estimated) occupancy level.
Current
LMH No. of Demand System
Factor People Category Load
Average day:
Medium 153 30.0 gal/capita = 4590 gal/day
(113.55 L/capita) (17 373.15
L/day)
Step 4
Size the equipment. Follow Steps A and B, below, for either
Instantaneous Systems or Generation and Storage Sys-
tems, depending on the equipment used.
Instantaneous systems
Step A
Compute the system load using the LMH factor and the 5-min
peak demand values in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines).
No.
LMH Peak No. Demand Periods/ System
Factor of People Category H Load
Peak 5 min:
Medium 198 0.7 gal/capita 12 = 1663 gph
(2.65 L/capita) or 27 gpm
(6294.46 L/h
or 1.75 L/sec)
Step B
Convert the system load to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating.
For a system with a mix of generation and storage, use the fol-
lowing two steps: Calculate the generator size based on twice the
peak 30-min period to get a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating, then calculate
the storage tank volume based on the maximum 3-h demand.
Step A
Compute the system load using the peak 30-min and maxi-
mum 3-h hot water values in Table 2.2.
No.
LMH No. Demand Periods/ System
Factor People Category H Load
Peak 30 min:
Medium 198 2.9 gal/capita 2 = 1148 gph
(10.98 L/capita) (4348.08 L/h)
Step B
Convert the load into equipment ratings.
Solution
Since this demographic group includes occupants who presently
do not work (they are away from home) and has a high percentage
of children, it definitely falls into the high demand category
according to Table 2.1. There are 88 units with 2 occupants per
unit, so the total population is 176 people. According to Table
2.2 the 5-min peak, 15-min peak, 30-min peak, 1-h peak, 2-h
peak, and 3-h peak demand factors are 1.2, 3.0, 5.1, 8.5, 14.5,
and 19 gal (4.5, 11.4, 19.3, 32.2, 54.9, and 71.9 L), respectively.
Therefore, the anticipated demand is as follows:
POSSIBLE TRAPS
In order to avoid falling into a trap that leads to miscalculating
water demand, the designer must try to learn all of the unique
facets of a multifamily building. This is generally accomplished
by compiling a list of questions for the owner/manager/architect
during a project brainstorming session. Does the building have a
central laundry? If so, the designer should select the next higher
LMH value than otherwise would have been selected. Does the
building have retail spaces that might be used in the future for a
restaurant or other large water consuming application? If so, will
the building be obligated by lease to provide hot water for the
tenant? Would such a provision be a desirable selling point for
the retail space to the owner? The demand will then have to be
increased accordingly. For large restaurants or laundries, the
Figure 2.8
Source: Goldner and Price 1996, p. 8.
Multifamily Buildings 37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, S. C., and J. P. Kokko. 1988. Estimating hot water use in
existing commercial buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 94(2): 312.
Ciz, J. B. 1986. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five apart-
ment buildings (Part IInstallation and commissioning). OHRD Rpt.
8677K.
Decioco, J., and G. Dutt. 1986. Domestic hot water service in Lumley
Homes: A comparison of energy audit diagnosis with instrumented
analysis. Proceedings of the 1986 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily build-
ings. ASHRAE Transactions. 100(1): 147165.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. Energy use and DHW consumption research project:
Final reportPhase 1. Report no. 9419. Prepared for New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1994. Domestic hot water loads, sys-
tem sizing and selection for multifamily buildings. Proceedings of
the 1994 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1996. DHW modeling: System sizing
and selection criteria, Phase 2Interim project report no. 1. Prepared
for New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
Milligan, N. H. 1987. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five
38 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
3 DORMITORIES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers two types of buildings classified as dormito-
ries. The first type is a student dormitory or similar housing that
has a nonstructured use of hot water. The second type is an
institutional type dormitory, similar to that at a military school,
that has a structured hot water use.
STUDENT DORMITORIES
The peak demand for hot water for this type of building is more
spread out. Students tend to create schedules based upon when
their classes are held. Additional hot water demand that could
be anticipated is laundromat type clothes washers and possibly
a residential type kitchen. This type of building tends to have
multistory units.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
40 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Assumptions
1. The food kiosks provide their own water heating when the
spaces are leased out. These food venders are similar to those
found in airports and mall food courts.
2. There is a central mechanical space that serves both build-
ings where the water heaters and storage tanks are located.
3. A separate circulated hot water system is required for each
building.
4. A minimum of two water heaters are required, with each hav-
ing 65% of both buildings required capacity. This allows the
building to operate with minimum disruptions if one heater
is down for repairs.
5. As the coin-operated laundry facilities are an integral part of
the building, the hot water required is calculated as part of
the central system.
6. The water distribution temperature used is 120F (49C). Pres-
sure balance or thermostatic shower valves are used at each
bathroom group.
7. The suites have shower/bathtub combinations and the double
and single rooms have only showers. We will use the demand
for showers in our calculation.
8. Each building houses 300 students and advisors.
9. The flow from fixtures is as follows:
Showers = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Kitchen sinks = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Lavatories = 1.5 gpm (0.095 L/s)
10. An outside laundry service is available to students, and some
students will bring their laundry home. This will reduce the
demand on the coin-operated clothes washers. Laundry deter-
gents today are designed to get clothes clean using only cold
water and many items are recommended to be washed in cold
water. This reduces the demand for hot water for clothes wash-
ing. For this application we calculate that each wash cycle will
use no more than 10 gal (37.9 L) for washing and 10 gal (37.9 L)
for rinsing for a total of 20 gal (75.7 L). Each machine is calcu-
lated to go through two cycles during the peak design hour.
Dor mitories
Dormitories 41
Calculations1
1 Calculations for showers, lavatories, and mop sinks are based on ASPE Data
Book, looseleaf Chap. 4, Service Hot Water Systems, Table 7.
42 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
INSTITUTIONAL DORMITORIES
The hot water requirements for this type of building are based
upon the shower and lavatory use occurring during a very short
period of time because of schedules. Any additional hot water
demand will be from kitchens, dining facilities, and possibly a
laundry. These specialized areas should have a separate water
heating system. (Refer to the chapter Laundries in this manual.)
Note that there will be a short time in the morning (2 h) and that
evening will be longer but less intense (4 to 5 h).
Assumptions
1. Shower use will tend to be quick, in and out, with large num-
bers of people using hot water at the same time.
2. The peak hour usage will be early in the morning and after
5:00 P.M. This allows a long recovery time. The time selected
for this example is 4 h (see note above).
3. The kitchen sink/dishwasher and mop sinks will not be used
during the peak hour.
4. Recovery capacity and 80% of storage will have to meet total
demand.
5. Recommend two water heaters with a capacity of 65% of the
demand calculation.
Calculations
20 427 L/h
= 5107 L/h minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 5107 L/h 0.65 = 3320 L/h each heater
Storage tank sizing: 20 427 L 3320 L/h = 17 107 L storage
required)
4 ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for elementary and secondary schools.
TYPES OF SCHOOL
The terms elementary and secondary schools cover grades K
through 12. School districts have different ways of grouping
students, especially in the middle years. This middle group may
be known as either junior high school or middle school (see
Table 4.1).
Grade Level
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
46 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Type of School
Classroom toilets X
Kitchen X X X
Laundry X X X
Art room X X X
Science room X X X
Health clinic X X X
Teachers lounge X X X
Teachers workroom X X X
Principals toilet X X X
Student toilet rooms X X X
Special ed. room X X X
Showers X X
Car wash X
Shop room X
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 47
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents.
2. The architect.
3. School staff.
4. School district construction personnel.
5. School district design criteria and manuals.
6. School district maintenance personnel.
7. Survey of existing and similar facilities.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The criteria for determining the hot water demand are presented
as if one central system were being designed. In fact, the best
choice may be to use multiple systems. This may be necessitated
by criteria calling for a dedicated kitchen water heater or by iso-
lated small loads.
It is not the intent of this chapter to go into detail about the
selection of water heating equipment or the hot water delivery
system. An initial concept must be established for the purposes
of grouping the load and planning for the location of equipment.
SHOWERS
The shower load is often the most significant hot water require-
ment in secondary schools and should be carefully evaluated.
The quantity of showers is usually determined by the schools
criteria, the architects design, and code requirements.
Beyond the number of showers, the hot water requirement
can be affected by such things as:
1. Gym class size and schedule.
2. Whether students are required to take showers.
3. Time period available for showers.
4. What temperature(s) are required.
5. Maximum flow of shower heads.
6. Special fixtures in the space (e.g., those for hydrotherapy).
7. Types of extracurricular activity (sports, etc.).
SCHOOL POPULATION
For new schools, the populationthe total number of students and
staffis usually given in the design criteria for the school. Other-
wise, it can be obtained from the school district or the architect or
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 49
Kitchen Demand
Using the data in Table 4.4, calculate the kitchen demand in the
same manner used for the general purpose demand. The domi-
nant factor influencing the kitchen load will be the dishwasher
rinse requirement. If this is not available, the hot water require-
ment for the dishwasher can be estimated from Table 4.5.
Note: Based on water pressure of 140 kPa at equipment. Based on operation at 100%
mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual de-
mand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.
Shower Load
The shower load is derived by multiplying the number of shower-
heads by the flow rate per shower by the amount of time the
showerheads are used per hour. The load is expressed in gallons
(liters) per hour. Generally, the water to showers is tempered by
mixing the hot water with cold water; therefore, the actual re-
quirement for hot water will be only a portion of the total shower
flow. See Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed water tempera-
ture formula.
52 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
EXAMPLES
Vegetable sink 1 45 45
Triple-compartment sink 1 90 90
Prerinse 1 45 45
Hand sink 2 5 10
Dishwasher (door type) 1 69 69
259
aFrom Table 4.4.
Elementar
Elementaryy and Secondar
Secondaryy Schools 53
The designer has decided with this type of system to use one
or more water heater(s) to provide domestic hot water for the
school. Since the kitchen requires 140F (60C) water, the heater(s)
will raise the temperature of the water to this level and reduce it
to 110F (43C) for general usage. Using the mixed water tem-
perature formula found in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7), we calculate
the amount of 140F (60C) water needed to meet the general
usage demand:
(110 40)
= 0.70
(140 40)
[ (43 4)
(60 4)
= 0.70]
Kitchen demand
Normal operating hours, not serving hours, are from 10:00 A.M.
until 3:00 P.M.
Shower demand
Showers are taken after gym classes and after athletic team prac-
tices.
The total number of showers is 23. Each shower head has a
flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). A worst-case scenario for usage
is estimated to be 5 showers per hour per head for 6 min each.
= 6624 L/h)
(This scenario would happen only after school when the athletic
teams have completed their practices.)
Possibly a better and more normal scenario to look at is the
usage after gym classes. Since time is very limited, only a few
quick showers will be taken.
(102 40)
= 0.89
(110 40)
[ (39 4)
(43 4)
= 0.89
Kitchen demand
Size the storage capacity of the water heater(s) for approxi-
mately half of the demand and the recovery rate for
approximately 100% of the demand.
REFERENCES
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water sys-
tems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishments. ASHRAE Research
Project No. RP-600.
Hotels and Motels 59
5
INTRODUCTION
HOTELS AND
MOTELS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
60 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
The heat required to raise 3938 gph (15 120 L/h) of 40F (4C)
water to 105F (41C) is
3938 gph 8.33 lb/gal/F (105 40F) = 2,132,230
Btu/h output required
[15.12 m3/h 4188.32 kJ/m3/K (41 4C) =
2 343 113.74 kJ/h output required]
2,132,230 Btu/h
= 2,665,288 Btu/h
0.80
105 40F
= 0.65 591 gal = 384 gal
140 40F
( 41 4C
60 4C )
= 0.65 2268 L = 1474.2 L
384 gal
64 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
( 1474.2 L
0.80
= 1842.75 L minimum )
Select the next larger size standard tank.
Another way to select the recovery capacity when using larger
storage tanks is to divide the useable storage by the number of
hours the peak demand lasts. Subtract the result from the peak
hour demand to determine the minimum required recovery.
To provide owners with the most cost-effective system, evalu-
ate the cost of several combinations of storage, recovery, and
efficiency.
Assumed Assumed
Equipment 140F (gph) 180F (gph)a
Assumed Assumed
66 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
2232.95 1211.2
aWater is raised from 60 to 82C by booster heater.
Then select the nominal tank size by dividing 231 gal (874.34 L)
by the manufacturers published tank efficiency. (Assume 75%.)
231 gal
= 308 gal nominal storage required
0.75
( 874.34 L
0.75
= 1165.79 L nominal storage required )
Select the next larger size standard tank. If heaters with full de-
mand recovery capacity are specified, the water drawn from
storage during high demand periods will be quickly replaced and
no greater storage capacity should be required. Selecting the stor-
age tank size requires the engineers judgment.
Required recovery
For a kitchen, you may want to calculate full recovery, not taking
into consideration storage since it is normally an insignificant
percentage of the demand, particularly when a conveyor type dish-
washer is used. Assume a minimum inlet temperature of 40F
(4C). Also assume that an electric booster heater is furnished to
raise the dishwasher hot water from 140 to 180F (60 to 82C).
Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter 1 (Equation 1.2),
we calculate the 140F (60C) water recovery as follows:
LAUNDRY DEMAND
GENERAL NOTES
System Considerations
The choice of a system(s) to meet the hotel/motels hot water
demand is up to the designer. There are several factors and ideas
that should be considered:
1. Should the hotel/motel be served by a single system? Should
it be served by two systems, one serving the guest rooms and
the other serving the laundry/kitchen? Does the hotel/motel
need three separate systems?
2. What type(s) of tempering device should be installed to en-
sure safe delivery of the proper temperature water to the
various areas?
3. If systems are combined, what size should the combined stor-
age tank be?
4. Is it desirable to install a crossover bypass system so that, if
one system is down, water from another system can be di-
verted to temporarily provide service to the down system? If
this is done, it is important to remember that a tempering
valve must be placed in a bypass for the lower temperature
system so that, when this system is temporarily used for a
higher temperature, water can be routed through the tem-
pering valve bypass.
70 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
6
INTRODUCTION
HOSPITALS
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
72 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
General Outline
User Groups
Patient areas
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medi-
cine and simple food or drink items for patients and do their
required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is located
nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks
in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms are in the vicinity of
the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl
sink while the soiled utility room typically has a double bowl
sink, a hand washing lavatory, and a flushing rim sink (also known
as a clinic sink) with a bedpan washer.
The nurses station is not a heavy hot water use area and is
typically part of another specific user group (i.e., patient areas
have their own nurses stations). In many of the newer facilities,
the nurses station is shared between departments to lower the
number of staff required. This is done commonly in smaller fa-
cilities.
Hydrotherapy
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperature in the area. Typically, three temperatures
are needed, 110F (43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for
dietary use, and 180F (82C) for sanitizing purposes.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and runs
simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Surgical suite
Laundry
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hospitals 77
Bathroom group
Tub/shower & lavatory 2.5 10
Public lavatory 0.5 10
Private lavatory 2 4
Single bowl sink 2.5 1
Double bowl sink 2.5 1
Bathtub 7 10
Shower 2.5 10
Flushing rim sink 4.5 1
Floor receptor 4.5 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 2.5 10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal) 15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal) 15
Laundry tub 4.5 1
Residential washing
machine 4.5 6
Residential dishwasher 4.5 3
Commercial dishwasher 7
Triple compartment sink,
per faucet, 9
Commercial kitchen,
single sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
double sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse 2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash 9 10
Sonic cleaner 4.5
Washer/disenfector 9
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
80 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Bathroom group
Tub/shower & lavatory 0.16 10
Public lavatory 0.03 10
Private lavatory 0.13 4
Single bowl sink 0.16 1
Double bowl sink 0.16 1
Bathtub 0.44 10
Shower 0.16 10
Flushing rim sink 0.28 1
Floor receptor 0.28 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 0.16 10
Small hydro-tub
Less than 378.5 L 0.95
Large hydro-tub
More than 378.5 L 0.95
Laundry tub 0.28 1
Residential washing
machine 0.28 6
Residential dishwasher 0.28 3
Commercial dishwasher 0.44
Triple compartment sink
per faucet 0.57
Commercial kitchen
single sink 0.57
Commercial kitchen
double sink 0.57
Commercial kitchen
prerinse 0.16
Hose station or
cart/can wash 0.57 10
Sonic cleaner 0.28
Washer/disenfector 0.57
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Hospitals 81
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
(Continued)
Hospitals 85
bBased on ANSI standards of 2.5 gpm for showerheads, 2.5 gpm for sinks, 2.0
gpm for lavatories, and 0.5 gpm for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 4.5 gpm and in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses ( gph).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
86 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
bBased on ANSI standards of 0.16 L/sec for showerheads, 0.16 L/sec for sinks,
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.
eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 0.28 L/sec and DN15 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/
sec maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses (L/h).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
General
The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water us-
ing fixture will be operated during a 1-h period. These figures are
based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.
GPM (L/Sec) 0.10 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.05
GPH (L/H) 0.40 0.50 0.90 0.90 0.50 0.90 0.40 0.10
Note: Based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.
Patient area
This user group is split into two areas, surgical and medical pa-
tient areas. Many patients in these areas are not ambulatory and
require assistance from the staff to use the toilet or the bathing
facilities. Many surgical patients are not allowed to use the shower
or bathing facilities until approximately the second day after sur-
gery. Medical patients are often not allowed to use the facilities
until after their conditions improve. Because of this, many are
sponge bathed. The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by
the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
only the shower being in use (i.e., the lavatory is not in use dur-
ing the same minute). Also, it is assumed that not all the patients
are using the fixtures during the same minute.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
either the shower or the lavatory being used in an hour during
Hospitals 89
peak usage time. Because the lavatory uses less water than the
shower, the factor is less than 0.50 (50%).
Nurses station
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The staff can
be split between the physical and hydrotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the cyclical use of the therapy tubs and on the assumption that
staff members also are doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that during peak usage times almost all the fixtures
in this area are used. That assumes that the staff schedules wa-
ter therapies during one time and physical therapies during
another.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of
the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Surgical suite
Surgical procedures account for the majority of the time this area
is in use. Though the scrub sinks are used intermittently during
a procedure (e.g., staff leaving the room and returning will scrub
again), the showers and scrub sinks are typically not used con-
currently.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for both the gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h) are based on the above scenario. During any 1 min or h of
the facilitys peak usage period, either the scrub sinks or the
showers are in use.
Obstetrics/Nursery
The 0.40 (40%) gph (L/h) usage factor also is based on the
patient wing area. Also, many patients remain in the birthing
rooms after delivery. (Theyre not transferred to separate post-
partum rooms.) Because of this, lavatories are used during labor
by the staff and bathing or shower facilities are used by patients
during the peak usage period. Both fixtures are not used exten-
sively during the same hour.
The rest of the facility uses water but not during the facilitys peak
usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the miscel-
laneous areas. These areas must be taken into account, however,
because water using fixtures are available and used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that only a minor number of the fixtures are
used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are used
outside of the facilitys peak usage hour.
The designer must determine the usage pattern for each mis-
cellaneous area.
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to be
92 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Surgical Suite
Laundry
Obstetrics/Nursery
1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in these areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap open-
ing and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of branch
piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue with all users.)
EXAMPLES
Patient area
The facility has 24 patient-care beds (12 for medical patients
and 12 for surgical patients). The facility has a wing arrange-
ment with medical patients in one wing and surgical patients
94 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
in the other. The rooms are single patient rooms with a shower
(2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/
sec] typical) in each. There is a tub room with a single bath-
tub. Each wing has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5
gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double
bowl sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with
bedpan washer). Each wing has a janitors closet with a re-
ceptor.
Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, one nurses station pro-
vides service to the medical, surgical, and ICU patient beds.
This station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink at the
station for general water use. A second nurses station, for
obstetrics, has a general use sink. This station shares the
use of the drug dispensing and toilet rooms with the other
station.
An on-call room for staff members, which has a shower
and lavatory, is also provided in this area.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hips/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), and a hands/
elbows/arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]) with a hand washing lava-
tory in the area. The 25-gal (94.63-L) arm tank is filled using
the hip/leg tub valve. In this example, a mixing valve will be
used at a maximum flow of 15 gpm (0.95 L/sec). There is also
a shower with lavatory provided for outpatient services.
Surgical suite
The facility has two operating rooms with two double scrub
sinks in the suite, and the department runs from 6:00 A.M.
to 12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday. The department also
has two general purpose sinks, a flash sterilizer (steam is
provided from a central system), janitors receptor, two flush-
ing rim sinks (one in recovery), and two showers with lavatories
in the locker areas.
Obstetrics/Nursery
This department has six labor and delivery rooms set up so
that the mother and infant may remain in one room for the
duration of their stay. If an overflow occurs, the surgical pa-
tient wing is adjacent to the OB and the mother is transferred
to an open room. Each room has a tub/shower with two hand
washing lavatories. The OB department shares the soiled and
clean utility rooms with the surgical patient wing.
Miscellaneous areas
Same-day surgery is a place where minor surgeries can be
performed as outpatient services (patients need not stay in
the facility overnight). The area has a general use sink and is
adjacent to the emergency room (ER), thus sharing many of
ERs fixtures. Hours are between 6:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.
The ER has a scrub sink, flushing rim sink with bedpan
washer, two general use sinks, a double sink, and a toilet
room with lavatory. This department is considered to be in
use 24 h a day.
Radiology is the department where X-rays are taken. The
department typically has a general use sink in each proce-
dure room. In this example, the department has two general
radiology rooms and a CT scan room, each with a sink. The
96 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal (416.35 L),
and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
Two
3. What hours is the department in use?
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to
be fully filled for cleaning between patients?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is to be used.
Yes
5. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
Hospitals 97
103F (39C)
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
Yes, with a 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head and
a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory
Surgical suite
Laundry
1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the wash-
ing machines in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and
gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
Nonefacility sends laundry out.
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is
in operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?
Obstetrics/Nursery
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 2.5 10 60 600
Private Lavatory 2 2 4 4 16
Single Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Bathtub 1 7 10 7 70
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
TOTALS: 76 691 9 9
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B: 7.6 276 0.9 3.6
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 0.16 10 3.84 2304.0
Private Lavatory 2 0.13 4 0.26 62.4
Single Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Double Bowl Sink 1 0.16 1 0.16 9.6
Bathtub 1 0.44 10 0.44 264
Flushing Rim Sink 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Floor Receptor 1 0.28 1 0.28 16.8
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 2.5 10 2.5 25
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
TOTALS: 9.5 38
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.05 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 0.5 19
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 0.16 10 0.16 96
Private Lavatory 1 0.13 4 0.13 31.2
Single Bowl Sink 2 0.16 1 0.32 19.2
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 2.5 10 2.5 25
Public Lavatory 1 0.5 10 0.5 5
Small Hydro-Tub 2
Less Than
100 Gal (4 fills) 15 12 30 360
TOTALS: 3 30 30 360
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 5B: 0.75 27 7.5 324
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 1 0.16 10 0.16 96
Public Lavatory 1 0.03 10 0.50 18
Small Hydro-Tub 2
Less Than
378.5 Liters (4 fills) 0.95 12 1.89 1368
Private Lavatory 2 2 4 4 16
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
Shower 2 2.5 10 5 50
Flushing Rim Sink 2 4.5 1 9 9
Floor Receptor 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 4 2.5 10 10 100
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 12 85.5 6.8 6.8
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Sonic Cleaner 1 4.5 5 gphb 4.5 5
Washer/Disenfector 1 9 27 gphb 9 27
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 6 2.5 10 15 150
Private Lavatory 6 2 4 12 48
TOTALS: 27 198
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2): 0.1 0.4
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B: 2.7 79.2
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 6 0.16 10 0.96 576
Private Lavatory 6 0.13 4 0.78 187.2
Private Lavatory 6 2 4 12 48
Single Bowl Sink 7 2.5 1 17.5 17.5
Double Bowl Sink 1 2.5 1 2.5 2.5
Shower 2 2.5 10 5 50
Flushing Rim Sink 1 4.5 1 4.5 4.5
Floor Receptor 2 4.5 1 9 9
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 1 2.5 10 2.5 2.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90
Patient area
The hospital has 300 patient-care beds, including those in
intensive care suites, critical care suites, postsurgery rooms,
emergency suites, and patient-care rooms. The facility is di-
vided by floor, with medical patients and surgical patients
housed on different floors. Patient rooms are private or semi-
private rooms with a shower (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical)
and a lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. In the
emergency care, intensive care and critical care suites, each
bed has a lavatory, and each suite has a flushing rim sink
with a bedpan washer. There are tub rooms on each floor
with a single bathtub for those who desire to take a bath.
Each floor has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm
[0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double bowl
sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with bed-
pan washer). Each floor has a janitors closet with receptor.
Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, each suite has a nurses
station, which provides service to the medical, surgical, in-
tensive care unit, and critical care unit (CCU) patient
beds. Each station has a medical drug dispensing room (single
sink), a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink
for general use. There are also nurses stations at the emer-
gency services area and the same-day surgery suites. These
nurses stations each have a general use sink at the station
and a toilet room with lavatory. An on-call room, which has a
shower and lavatory for staff members, is located in each of
these areas.
112 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a large hydrotherapy tub (500 gal
[1892.5 L]), 3 hip/leg tubs (100 gal [378.5 L]), arms/hips/
leg/back tubs (110 gal [416.35 L]) and a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.6]), and there is a hand washing
lavatory in the area. Mens and womens locker rooms with
showers and lavatories are provided for outpatient services.
Surgical/recovery suite
The facility has 24 operating rooms, each with two double
scrub sinks. The surgery department runs from 6:00 A.M. to
12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday with on-call services the
remainder of the time. The department also has general pur-
pose sinks, flash sterilizers (steam is provided from a boiler
in the boiler room), two janitors receptors, flushing rim sinks
(one in recovery), and showers with lavatories in the mens
and womens staff locker areas. The area also has four toilet
rooms with lavatories and two dark rooms. Each dark room
has a sink and a processor, which requires tempered water.
Thermostatic mixing valves should be used to provide the
tempered 110F (43C) water.
Hospitals 113
Laundry
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water
systems for this area.
Obstetrics/Nursery
The department has two delivery rooms and four sepa-
rate labor rooms. Each delivery room has two scrub-up
sinks, a steam sterilizer (steam is supplied from the boiler
room), and a single wash-up sink. There is a soiled utility
room with a flushing rim sink and a single wash-up sink.
Each labor room has a toilet with lavatory.
There are three levels of nursery in this facility: one (level
I) is for the newborns requiring standard care; one (level II) is
for newborns requiring extra observation; and one (the
neonatal intensive care unit, or NICU) is for newborns requir-
ing critical care. An isolation room is used for newborns who
need to be isolated. Each nursery has a lavatory, a single
wash-up sink, and a larger sink used to wash and bathe the
newborns. There is one shared soiled utility room with a wash-
up sink and a flushing rim sink.
Miscellaneous areas
Same-day (outpatient) surgery is where minor surgeries are
performed as outpatient services (i.e., the patients need not
stay overnight in the facility). The area has a general use sink,
a flushing rim sink, and scrub sinks adjacent to the two op-
erating rooms. Hours of operation are between 6:00 A.M. and
8:00 P.M.
The emergency room is in use 24 h a day. It has a scrub
sink, a flushing rim sink with bedpan washer, and a general
use sink in each of the four trauma rooms (areas used for
114 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 300 2.5 10 750 7500
Public Lavatory 20 0.5 10 10 100
Private Lavatory 5 2 4 10 40
Single Bowl Sink 20 2.5 1 50 50
Double Bowl Sink 5 2.5 1 12.5 12.5
Bathtub 3 7 10 21 210
Flushing Rim Sink 10 4.5 1 45 45
Floor Receptor 5 4.5 1 22.5 22.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 2 2.5 10 5 50
Residential Washing
Machine 2 4.5 6 9 54
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 300 0.16 10 48.00 28 800
Public Lavatory 20 0.03 10 0.60 360
Private Lavatory 5 0.13 4 0.65 156
Single Bowl Sink 20 0.16 1 3.20 192
Double Bowl Sink 5 0.16 1 0.80 48
Bathtub 3 0.44 10 1.32 792
Flushing Rim Sink 10 0.28 1 2.8 168
Floor Receptor 5 0.28 1 1.4 84
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet 2 0.16 10 0.32 192
Residential Washing
Machine 2 0.28 6 0.56 201.6
Subtotals Hot
Water Multiplier: 7.98 10 697.16 1.73 453.62 3.37 4018.85 0.70 3450.44 13.78 18 620.07
7
SPAS, POOLS,
HEALTH CLUBS,
AND ATHLETIC
CENTERS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for spas, pools, health clubs, and athletic centers.
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
This is especially true if unique therapies or special treatments
will be performed at the facility.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents,
2. The interior design documents,
3. The architect,
4. The interior designer,
5. The owner,
6. The spa manager or coordinator,
7. The therapist,
8. Maintenance personnel,
9. Comparisons with similar facilities, and
10. Cut sheets on each piece of equipment.
Information will be used to determine:
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
128 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Therapies/Special Needs
The therapy load can oftentimes be a significant load. This needs
to be carefully evaluated. Coordinating with the health club/spa
staff, including the therapist, managers, and maintenance staff,
is very important. The owner, architect, or interior designer usu-
ally determines the quantities of fixtures.
The hot water requirements of therapies and special needs
can be affected by such things as:
1. The schedule of each type of therapy per room per hour and
the number of therapy rooms.
2. Whether cleaning/maintenance is required between thera-
pies.
3. What temperature is required for different therapies.
4. What other activities are happening concurrently with the
therapies.
5. The maximum flows for the equipment used.
Spas, Pools, Health Clubs, and Athletic Centers 129
Shower Rooms
The locker room shower load must also be considered. Typically
showers will operate concurrently with the therapies. The quan-
tity of showers is usually determined by the owners requirements,
the architects design, and/or code requirements. Facilities often
include areas with showers designed for specific functions, such
as family changing areas and childrens locker rooms. These areas
need to be evaluated for their use during the peak hours of opera-
tion.
The hot water requirements of the showers can be affected by
such things as:
1. Hours of operation.
2. Occupancy at different hours. It should be noted that the
occupancy will vary throughout the day. This list is only a
guide; the occupancy may vary with location and owners re-
130 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
quirements.
Early morning, 5:00 to 8:00 A.M.workforce, young pro-
fessionals.
Late morning, 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.parents with/without
children, older or retired people.
Noon, 11:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M.workforce, young profes-
sionals.
Afternoon, 1:30 TO 4:00 P.M.parents with children, older
or retired people.
Early evening, 4:00 to 6:00 P.M.the after work crowd,
young professionals.
Late evening, 7:00 to 9:00 P.M.families and single people.
3. Maximum flow rate of shower heads.
4. Special fixtures required.
5. Duration of showers.
6. Type of clients using the facility.
Note: It is not unusual for 25 to 50% of the showers in health
club facilities to be operating throughout the day. It is antici-
pated that during the peak hour 100% of the showers will operate
simultaneously.
Other Demands
There may be other demands associated with these facilities, de-
pending on owner preferences. If any of these other services are
specified, they too must be considered in the overall hot water
calculation. These demands are usually not large and need to be
added to the overall system capacity.
1. Laundry demand,
2. Food service demand.
designed for both the therapies and the shower area should be
considered. If food service is also included, then this must be
considered in the calculations. If there will not be concurrent
usage, then the system can be designed according to the maxi-
mum demand during the peak hour. Consideration needs to be
given to providing two water heaters, each sized for 60% of the
total demand required.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 133
8
NURSING/
INTERMEDIATE CARE
AND
RETIREMENT HOMES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating sys-
tem for a nursing/intermediate care and retirement home. It is
important for the designer to realize that there is a difference be-
tween designing a domestic water heating system for this type of
facility and designing one for any other type of building.
The first section of this chapter addresses design consider-
ations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. A third section
contains worksheets, and the final section presents a design
example.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calcu-
lating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The proce-
dure presented here will help predict the minimum amount of
hot water needed by the facility.
Nursing care facilities typically have residents who require
nursing supervision in an inpatient setting. These resi-
dents generally have health issues or are frail from age, both of
which may adversely affect their mobility and ability to care for
themselves. These facilities offer 24 h per day care and typically
are regulated by the state department of health.
Intermediate care facilities typically have residents who ei-
ther desire or need nursing supervision. These residents are
healthier and more mobile than the residents of nursing care
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
134 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
facilities and may still be able to care for themselves. The nurs-
ing supervision is provided for general assistance and emergency
care.
Retirement homes, as discussed in this chapter, are under-
stood to be facilities that are either adjacent or attached to
nursing/intermediate care units. The facilities are so arranged
to enable the spouse/friend of a person in the nursing care unit
to be close by and aid in care. Residents of these facilities are
fully mobile and capable of taking care of themselves. Medical
assistance is available, however, if it is needed. Retirement homes
are similar to apartment complexes for the elderly.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1. Fixtures requiring hot water,
2. Whether the fixtures are public or private,
3. Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fix-
ture,
4. Flow rates for each fixture,
5. The usage pattern of each fixture.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 135
User Groups
Resident areas
General resident areas in a nursing/intermediate care
facility typically are sleeping quarters, which may be shared
(double rooms are usual) and each of which has its own toilet
room. People living in this type of facility typically require
constant, specialized care.
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medi-
cine and simple food and drink items for residents and do
their required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is
located nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typi-
cally have sinks in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms
are in the vicinity of the station. The clean utility room typi-
cally has a single bowl sink while the soiled utility room
typically has a double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and a flushing rim sink (also known as a clinic sink) with a
bedpan washer. There may also be a bedpan sanitizer, and if
so, the hot water requirements of this unit will need to be
addressed.
136 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is where therapy using water
occurs. The therapies may involve many different tempera-
tures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The
therapy tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50-
gal to 500-gal (189.25-L to 1892.50-L) capacity or larger.
Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inad-
equate hot water supply.)
4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C),
to be boosted at the equipment or is a separate water
heating system desired?
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperatures and pressures in the area. Typically
two and sometimes three temperatures are needed: 110F
(43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for dietary use,
and 180F (82C) for dishwashing. Some of the equip-
ment may have higher or lower than water line pressure
requirements.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and
runs simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Central bathing
Central bathing is where staff members aid residents who
cannot bathe themselves and where, if individual rooms do
not have their own tubs/showers, all the residents shower/
bathe. The area typically has a shower, a residential style
tub, and a specialized bathing tub for nonambulatory resi-
dents.
Laundry
A nursing care facility produces a large amount of laundry.
The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry de-
partment. Not all facilities have their own laundry department;
some opt to send the laundry to an outside service.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The de-
partment commonly begins operating in the early A.M.,
which is the same time other areas of the facility begin
startup (i.e., during hot water peak demand). The filling
of the washers is typically the first thing done at startup.
The probability that the washing machines will fill simul-
taneously is high during startup.
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot wa-
ter systems for this area. Due to the elevated water
temperatures required, separate water heating systems may
have to be used.
Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage
times of many of the other specific user groups. Though
the fixtures may be few, they still are used and should be
considered when doing calculations.
Retirement home
Resident areas
General resident areas in a retirement home are typically pri-
vate apartments.
Laundry
Since a retirement home is similar to an apartment complex,
the facility may have a laundry room with a number of resi-
dential type washing machines.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry rooms scheduled hours of operation. Since
residents use this area, its hours of use are not regu-
latedthus, it could be used at any time. There is a
possibility that the washing machines will fill simul-
taneously.
the flow from the faucet is not all hot water. Table 1.1 is used to
determine the actual amount of hot water needed at the faucet
outlet. The temperature at outlet section is split into four sub-
sections, each having a different faucet outlet water temperature.
For the last subsection, labeled other, any temperature may be
used, but the temperature must be the same for all fixtures used
in that column. Each temperature subsection is split into two
more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h). The equation
for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated,
each column is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of
the sheet under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm
(L/sec) and gph (L/h) are found in Table 8.2. Each total is multi-
plied by the appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals,
which are used on Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals. The
user group totals are the amount of hot water predicted to be
used in a particular user group during the peak hour(s). Design-
ers should use their best judgment when working with these
figures.
142 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatory 2.5 10
Public lavatory 0.5 10
Private lavatory 2 4
Single bowl sink 2.5 1
Double Bowl Sink 2.5 1
Bathtub 7 10
Shower 2.5 10
Flushing rim sink 4.5 1
Floor receptor 4.5 1
Scrub sink, per faucet 2.5 10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal) 15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal) 15
Laundry tub 4.5 1
Residential washing
machine 4.5 6
Residential dishwasher 4.5 3
Commercial dishwasher 7
Triple compartment sink,
per faucet 9
Commercial kitchen,
single sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
double sink 9
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse 2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash 9 10
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8. B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 143
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower & Lavatory 0.16 10
Public Lavatory 0.03 10
Private Lavatory 0.13 4
Single Bowl Sink 0.16 1
Double Bowl Sink 0.16 1
Bathtub 0.44 10
Shower 0.16 10
Flushing Rim Sink 0.28 1
Floor Receptor 0.28 1
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 0.16 10
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 378.5 L 0.95
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 378.5 L 0.95
Laundry Tub 0.28 1
Residential Washing
Machine 0.28 6
Residential Dishwasher 0.28 3
Commercial Dishwasher 0.44
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Faucet 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse 0.16
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 0.57 10
TOTALS:
Usage Factors ( UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
144 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): GPM GPH
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1): L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatoryb,c 2.5 10 *l *
Public Lavatoryb 0.5 10 * *
Private Lavatoryb 2 4 * *
Single Bowl Sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Double Bowl Sinkb 2.5 1 * *
Bathtube 7 10 * *
Showerb 2.5 10 * *
Flushing Rim Sinkf 4.5 1
Floor Receptorf 4.5 1
Small Hydro-Tub Based on
Less Than 100 Gald 15 tub size
Large Hydro-Tub Based on
More Than 100 Gald 15 tub size
Laundry Tubf 4.5 1
Residential Washing
Machinef 4.5 6 * *
Residential Dishwasherf 4.5 3 * *
Commercial Dishwasherj 7 Equip. used * *
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Fauceth,i 9 k * 90
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sinkh,i 9 * 30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sinkh,i 9 * 60
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinseg 2.5 * 45
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Washh 9 10 * *
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
(Continued)
148 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Bathroom group
tub/shower &
lavatoryb,c 1,2 0.16 10 *l *
Public lavatoryb 1 0.03 10 * *
Private lavatory b 1 0.13 4 * *
Single bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Double bowl sinkb 1 0.16 1 * *
Bathtube 4 0.44 10 * *
Showerb 1 0.16 10 * *
Flushing rim sinkf 5 0.28 1
Floor receptorf 5 0.28 1
Small hydro-tubd Based on
(less than 378.5 L) 3 0.95 Tub Size
Large hydro-tubd Based on
(more than 378.5 L) 3 0.95 Tub Size
Laundry tubf 5 0.28 1
Residential washing
machinef 5 0.28 6 * *
Residential
dishwasherf 5 0.28 3 * *
Commercial Equip.
dishwasherj 9 0.44 used * *
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8 0.57 k * 340.65
Commercial kitchen
single sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 113.55
Commercial kitchen
double sinkh,i 7,8 0.57 * 227.10
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg 6 0.16 * 170.33
Hose station or
cart/can washh 7 0.57 10 * *
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B
(Continued)
150 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
152 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
General
The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water us-
ing fixture will be operated during a 1-h period.
These figures are based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h
peak period.
Resident area
Many residents in nursing care areas are not ambulatory and
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities.
Residents of intermediate care areas generally are ambula-
tory and thus can use the shower facilities without assistance.
The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 153
on the fact that not all residents use their fixtures during the
same minute. Also, fixtures in this user group flow less water
per minute than fixtures elsewhere and are used for short
periods of time.
The 0.30 (30%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that fixtures in this user group use less water than
fixtures elsewhere and are used for short periods of time.
Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used
most heavily during shift changes. This is because of the
preparation necessary before residents can be aided.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the relationship between the staff and residents. During a
peak 3-h period of hot water use, the resident area is used
more heavily than the nurses station. Since many residents
need assistance using the bathing/shower facilities, staff
members are in the resident area aiding residents and not at
the nurses station using the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is also based
on these same issues, but because of the time staff members
spend at the nurses station organizing/distributing medi-
cines and doing other work, the hand washing fixtures there
are used extensively.
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The therapy
staff can be split between the physical therapy and the hy-
drotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the cyclical use of the hydrotherapy tubs and on the as-
sumption that staff members are also doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that during the peak usage time, almost all of
the fixtures in this area are in use. This assumes that the
staff schedules the water therapies during one time and the
physical therapies during another.
lap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is
based on the assumption that cleaning (washing of dishes,
etc.) does not occur in the same minute as food prepa-
ration. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then
work is done using an intermittent, not a steady, water sup-
ply.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the area fixtures are used dur-
ing one of the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Central bathing
When in operation, this area is a large water user. Staff mem-
bers set a schedule for bathing nonambulatory residents, and
during that time only one bathing fixture is used. The worst
case scenario is when the residents are assisted by staff. This
is because the staff are on a schedule and bathe the resi-
dents based on that schedule.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the use of one tub at a time in each room (assuming each
room has a shower, a residential tub, and a non-ambulatory
residents bathing tub). Also taken into consideration was
the time needed for the staff to get the residents and to dry
them off.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that during peak usage time almost all of the fixtures
in this area are used.
Miscellaneous areas
The rest of the facility uses water, but not during the facilitys
peak usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the
miscellaneous areas. These areas should be taken into ac-
count, though, because water using fixtures are available and
used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that a very small number of the fixtures are used
during 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that most of the fixtures in these areas are not used
during the facilitys peak usage hour.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 155
Retirement home
Resident rooms
The residents of a retirement home are ambulatory and do not
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities. As
noted earlier, this type of facility is similar to an apartment
building, but its residents are of a uniform age group.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that when the shower is in use, the rooms
lavatory and kitchen sink are not in use during the same
minute, and not all residents are using the fixtures.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that the kitchen sink and either the shower or the
lavatory are used during an hour of peak usage time.
Laundry
The laundry area of a retirement home is smaller than one
for a typical apartment building. This is because the usage
time for a retirement home laundry is more spread out over
the course of the day since residents typically do not work.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that when one washer starts its filling
cycle another is being filled with clothes, and the second
machines cycle begins when the first washer is still filling.
Though the two washers fill at the same time, it is assumed
that only half of the other washers are in use in the peak
moment. Also, when a resident is using the washers, the fix-
tures in his/her apartment are not in use.
The 0.75 (75%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
most of the washers being used during a peak usage period.
Also, there is the possibility that a resident may leave the
laundry room and go back to his/her room and use the fix-
tures there.
Miscellaneous areas
Though the rest of the facilitys fixtures use water, they are
not heavily used fixtures. That is because, if the facility is
separate from the nursing care facility, the staff is small. If it
is attached to the nursing care facility, staff members are
generally in the other areas. Miscellaneous areas should be
taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are
available and used there.
156 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that only a very small number of the fix-
tures are used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage
time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are not
used during the facilitys peak usage hour.
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and sizes of the tubs in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between therapies?
6. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
7. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired?
Central bathing
1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and the typical start-
ing time?
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing tubs,
and what are their types and water demands?
4. Is there a desired temperature of the water the staff uses to
bathe residents?
Laundry
Retirement Home
Resident areas/apartments
Laundry
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of the
shower heads.
2. What water temperatures are used/needed in these areas?
Resident area
The facility has 32 nursing care beds and 16 intermediate
care beds. It has a three-wing layout with nursing care resi-
dents in one wing and intermediate care beds in the other
two. (The second intermediate care wing is considered a swing
care wing; it also could be used for nursing care.) The rooms
are double resident rooms with a water closet and lavatory
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 159
(2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. Each wing has a clean
utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical), a
soiled utility room (double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer), and a janitors
closet with receptor. (There are a total of 27 lavatories, 3 single
sinks, 3 double bowl sinks, 3 flushing rim sinks, and 3 floor
receptors in the resident area.)
Nurses station
A single nurses station provides service to the three wings.
The station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink for
general use.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hip/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]), and a hand washing lavatory.
The 25-gal (94.63-L) arms tank is filled using the hip/leg tub
valve.
Central bathing
One of the intermediate care wings has a tub room with one
bathtub and one shower for residents private or assisted use.
The tub rooms for the nursing care wing and the second in-
termediate care wing each have one bathtub and shower for
160 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Laundry
The facility sends the bulk of its laundry out to an off-site
location. There are three residential type washers and dryers
for the residents personal use.
Miscellaneous areas
The administration area has two public restrooms each with
two lavatories (0.5 gpm [0.03 L/sec]). There also is a small
kitchenette with a sink (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec]).
The maintenance area has a cart wash and a service sink,
both of which use 140F (60C) water. The area also has male
and female staff locker rooms, each with one shower and two
lavatories.
Retirement home
Resident rooms
Each unit has a kitchen area with a double bowl sink and the
capability for a dishwasher, and a bathroom with a tub/
shower and a lavatory.
Laundry
The complex has a laundry room with four residential type
washing machines and a laundry tub. The room is scheduled
to be open 24 h/day.
Miscellaneous areas
The complex has a lounge and social gathering area. There
are two toilet rooms in the area, each with a lavatory, and
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 161
Hydrotherapy
1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the tubs in
the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal
(416.35 L), and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
Two total
3. What hours is the department in use?
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is used, thus, fill time is
7 min.
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between
therapies?
Yes
6. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
103F (39C)
162 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Central bathing
Laundry
Note: Since the fixtures in this area are for residents use and
will be monitored, their use is covered under Miscellaneous
Areas.
1. What is the number of the washing machines in the area
and what is the size of each (pound [kilogram] ca-
pacity and gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour
per kilogram])?
Three residential style
Only intermediate care residents may use, with
limited supervision
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
Nothing organized
3. What are the start time and the hours the room is in use?
The laundry room is open between 7:00 A.M. and
4:00 P.M.
Staff members desire some supervision and typi-
cally aid the residents in the use of the washers.
4. What are the temperatures of water used?
Retirement home
Resident areas/Apartments
Laundry
TOTALS: 69 231 27 27
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 6.9 69.3 2.7 8.1
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
A B C (GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________ 110
___________ 140
___________ Other
___________
Fixture Qty. GPM Use/H GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH GPM GPH
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Single Bowl Sink 2 2.5 1 5 5
TOTALS: 7 13
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.05 0.5
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.4 6.5
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 2
100 Gal (4 fills) 15 7 30 420
TOTALS: 2 8 30 420
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.25 0.9 0.25 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.5 7.2 7.5 378
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Private Lavatory 1 2 4 2 8
Commercial
Dishwasher 1 7 64 7 64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet 2 9 90 GPHb 18 180
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink 1 9 30 GPHb 9 30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink 1 9 60 GPHb 9 60
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse 2 2.5 45 GPHb 5 90
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash 1 9 10 9 90
TOTALS: 2 8 57 514
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2): 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.9
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B: 0.8 7.2 22.8 463
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 169
Private Lavatory 3 2 4 6 24
Bathtub 3 7 10 21 210
Shower 3 2.5 10 7.5 75
Specialized Bathtub 2 15 200gphb 30 400
Retirement home
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 2.5 10 60 600
Double Bowl Sink 24 2.5 1 60 60
Residential
Dishwasher 24 4.5 3 108 324
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory 24 0.16 10 3.84 230.4
Double Bowl Sink 24 0.16 1 3.84 230.4
Residential
Dishwasher 24 0.28 3 6.72 1209.6
Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier 23.1 613 17.5 155.4 23.3 350 4.4 223 68.3 1341
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Nursing/Intermediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate 177
Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier 1.48 1830.74 1.10 580.25 1.47 3088.99 0.28 423.74 4.33 5923.72
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
Jail and Prison Housing Units 179
9
INTRODUCTION
JAIL AND PRISON
HOUSING UNITS
GENERAL
The design criteria used to design hot water systems for
jail housing units differ from those used for prison housing units.
This difference is due to the fact that the facilities are used for
different purposes. Jails are used primarily to house people
awaiting trial or serving short sentences. Prisons are used to house
convicted criminals serving long prison terms. This difference
affects the prisoners daily routines, which, in turn, determine
when the facilities peak hot water demands occur.
It is required that hot water temperature for the showers and
lavatories in jails and prisons be limited to between 100 and
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
180 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
110F (38 and 43C). This temperature range has been estab-
lished to prevent inmates from using hot water as a weapon.1
The generally used standard temperature is 105F (41C). Push-
button type self-closing or timed-control valves are used to deliver
hot water of this temperature to the showers and lavatories. Oc-
casionally an owner will require that a shower control valve that
allows some inmate control of shower water temperature be pro-
vided. New security type valves provide this feature. Hot water at
the design temperature must be furnished at the fixture because
of the lower-than-usual water temperature and the self-closing
features of inmate control valves.
The designer should take into consideration that the typical
life of a jail or prison is 50 to 100 years and that any system
installed must be accessible for replacement or repair.
Large jail facilities and all prisons have central laundry fa-
cilities and central kitchens. The hot water systems for the laundry
and kitchen areas should be separate from those for housing be-
cause these areas have very different hot water demands. For
instance, the temperature of the hot water delivered will be higher,
between 140 and 180F (60 and 82C). If a centralized water heat-
ing system is used for the general purpose and kitchen/laundry
water, then a fail-safe water tempering system must be installed
for the general purpose water.
Primary considerations
JAIL EXAMPLE
This is an example of a jail housing unit with six pods of 24 cells
each (one inmate per cell) and three showers per pod. Assume
that the hot water generated is 140F (60C) and the incoming
water temperature is 50F (10C).
Questions
(Tm Tc)
P =
(Th Tc)
where
504 min 1.53 gpm = 771.12 gal 140F hot water per
peak hour demand
Recommendation
Heater sizing
Calculation
( 1470 L
0.80
= 1837.5 L storage tank size )
The auxiliary equipment demand of 339 gph (1283.12 L/
h) will have the greatest influence on the amount of cycling
done by the heater during off-peak hours.
339 gph
= 5.56 gpm average flow of 140F water
60
( 1283.12 L/h
60 60
= 0.36 L/sec average flow of 60C water )
5.56 gpm 15 min = 83.4 gal
(0.36 L/sec 60 sec/min 15 min = 324 L)
83.4
0.80 = 104.25 gal storage
PRISON EXAMPLE
This is an example of a housing facility for 384 inmates. It has
four wings (96 inmates per wing) and each wing has four stories
(24 inmates per wing per story). A central kitchen and laundry
are located in a separate building. Shower areas are provided on
every floor of every wing, and each of these areas has three shower
heads.
Questions
Calculation
( 3870 L
0.80 eff.
= 4837.5 L storage tank size )
Kitchen Considerations
1. The item that has the greatest effect on hot water demand is
the dishwasher. Some central kitchens do not have dining
areas, in which case all meals are shipped to the housing
units in bulk for distribution and the dishwashers are in the
housing units.
2. The temperature of the hot water going to kitchen lavatories
should not exceed 110F (43C) for safety reasons.
3. Check to see if the dishwasher has a booster heater
and determine the type of energy used (steam or electricity).
This information will help you decide whether or not to gen-
erate 180F (82C) water.
Note: Some dishwashers on the market use chemicals for
disinfecting, thus the higher water temperature is not required.
4. After dishwashers, compartment sinks are the next largest
user of 140F (60C) hot water. The higher temperature is
required to cut through grease on pots and pans. Some three-
compartment sinks have booster heaters in the rinse tank to
maintain the higher temperature.
5. Other kitchen items that use hot water are the prerinse for
the dishwasher, the vegetable sinks, and the cart washdown
hose bibs.
6. Always check the kitchen consultants plans for hot water
requirements.
7. Refer to the Hospitals chapter for additional information on
kitchens.
188 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Laundry Considerations
10
INTRODUCTION
INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIALS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
190 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
periods and breaks. The use of hot water for other general pur-
poses is spread throughout the workday and is occasionally
needed for emergency purposes such as spill cleanup.
Wash Fixtures
The wash fixtures for production personnel are often single, large
fixtures with multiple wash stations. These fixtures are manu-
factured in various standard configurations, such as circle,
semicircle, and quarter circle, and in various sizes.
Spray heads ranging from 0.5 to 0.75 gpm/station (0.03 to
0.05 L/sec/station) are available for light and heavy industrial
facilities. Some individual wash stations are not capable of inde-
pendent operation, which means that the entire fixture would
have to be turned on if just one person were washing.
192 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Showers
If not governed by local code, shower heads should each be lim-
ited to a flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). Generally, males are
provided with group showers, while females are given the privacy
of individual shower stalls. All new and renovated installations
should be Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant.
The number of shower heads is based on the number of people
expected to use the washroom at each change of shift. If no code
requirements are provided, use the clients preference. Allow for
a total of about 20 min for a shift to complete showering. In
laboratories, offices, and other similar facilities, when showers
are provided adjacent to toilet rooms (as compared to toilets ad-
jacent to lockers and washrooms), they usually are used by
personnel finishing some form of exercise (such as jogging or
training on facility-provided equipment) during lunch time prior
to returning to work.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Water Heater
When an instantaneous system is used, the most critical factor
to consider when selecting a water heater capable of meeting the
expected load is the minimum flow rate. No diversity factor should
Industrial Facilities 193
Example 10.1
10 gpm (0.63 L/sec) and shower use is 12.5 gpm (0.79 L/sec).
The instantaneous heater should be sized to handle a demand of
22.5 gpm (1.42 L/sec).
Storage Tank
Systems that require close temperature control and flow a large
amount of hot water at a steady rate over an extended period of
time do not require large storage tanks. If a large storage tank is
provided, there is a good probability that the water temperature
will be lowered, which may be unacceptable. It would be better to
select a relatively small storage tank to act as a stabilizer against
demand surges, have a water heater recovery rate approximately
equal to demand, and use a blending valve. This arrangement
will ensure a steady supply of hot water at a constant tempera-
ture, which will allow for good modulation.
Manufacturing Facilities
Manufacturing work is divided into two types, dirty work and
clean work. (See explanation under Washrooms and Toilets
above.) Workers engaged in clean activities generally do not take
showers at the end of a shift, whereas many workers emerging
Industrial Facilities 195
Pharmaceutical Facilities
Pharmaceutical facilities include many different areas, such as
production areas, clean rooms, sterile areas, and often laborato-
ries and animal facilities associated with the testing and quality
control of products. In general, there is little use of potable hot
water in the production areas. Because spills may contain bio-
logical matter or chemicals not permitted to be treated as regular
waste, spills are cleaned up with mops or rags, which are then
placed in receptacles for proper disposal. Where sterility is re-
quired, special antibacterial cleaners are used. These are sprayed
on exposed piping, walls, floors, and ceilings and wiped up by
hand. Large accidental spills of liquid product are often cleaned
up with dedicated wet vacuum equipment, which is carried on
carts that do not leave the areas where they are stored. In non-
critical areas, hose stations often are provided for room wash
down. These are usually supplied with cold water and steam, or
hot and cold water. Potentially harmful bacteria are isolated in
special areas of the facility where bacteria kill drainage systems
are in place. The equipment and piping for clean in place and
steam in place systems do not use domestic hot water.
Laboratory sinks generally do not use much hot water. When
only laboratory sinks are considered, the use of standard code
obtained water fixture units leads to oversized systems. Glass
and small equipment washers and sterilizers often do use hot
water. Where sterility is required, a final rinse of purified water,
which does not use potable water as feedwater, will be used.
Small wash sinks or lavatories are provided at the entrances to
clean and sterile rooms for personnel to use for washing prior to
putting on sterile or clean clothing. These sinks are used prima-
rily by production personnel at the beginning and end of shifts,
but visitors and inspectors also must wash up.
Animal facilities often use a large amount of hot water for
cage washing and room wash down. Another potential hot water
use is for a slurry system, which disposes of shredded bedding.
Animal facilities usually have routines with set times for the cages
and rooms to be cleaned. Animal areas with integral cage wash-
ing machines should be provided with dedicated hot water
generators.
It is common to wash and sterilize vials, stoppers, and bottles
196 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Central Utilities
In fossil fuel power plants, toilet rooms typically are located adja-
cent to areas where workers normally are required to be present
for extended periods of time. These areas can be far apart, and
each location may require an individual water heater. Central
locker rooms with wash-up fixtures and toilets are provided.
Nuclear power plants must be separated from all other facili-
ties primarily for safety reasons. The control room of a nuclear
power plant must have the fixtures and piping secured and de-
signed to withstand the movement and oscillation of an
earthquake that is twice the magnitude of the largest earthquake
recorded in the area. Decontamination to remove low levels of
radiation from both personnel and equipment will be provided.
This often involves personnel taking cold showers first to close
the pores of the skin to prevent radioactive particles from enter-
ing the body. After readings of acceptable levels of radiation are
achieved, hot showers may be taken. In equipment decontami-
nation areas sinks and scrub brushes with detergent are used to
remove low levels of radioactive deposits from equipment. Water
is used in these areasand could be used in significant volumes
and at significant flow rates during planned shutdowns and emer-
gency situations. A complete list of potential problems should be
given in a facilitys safety analysis report, which describes all
normal operating and potential emergency operating conditions.
Laboratories
General laboratory rooms almost always have sinks. Hot water
use at these sinks is usually light. Washers and sterilizers for
glassware and small equipment are located in different parts of
the laboratory complex and use hot water at random intervals.
To ensure an ample supply of hot water, a worst case scenario
(based on discussions with the owner) should be used to calcu-
late storage and recovery capacity. Animal facilities are discussed
above, under pharmaceutical facilities.
Warehouses
Warehouses require hot water use only in toilet rooms. Separate
toilet rooms usually are provided for staff and drivers (who are
nonstaff). The toilet rooms for drivers often are used heavily for
short periods of time.
198 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Photo Processing
There are two types of photo processing in general use. One in-
volves the use of self-contained automatic machines, which develop
film and produce prints from negatives. These machines require a
minimum amount of water and produce a minimum amount of
waste. The other type is conventional manual processing.
The film and print development systems of conventional pro-
cessing use relatively large amounts of hot water for the final
rinsing of film and prints. Since such a wide variety of equipment
exists, exact requirements must be obtained from the equipment
manufacturer and/or the client.
Black and white photo processing involves the use of warm
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 78F (20 to 26C) and
has a tolerance of 2. Color photo processing involves the use of
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 94F (20 to 34C), de-
pending on the film and the processing technique, and has a
tolerance of only 0.5. Developing and printing equipment is usu-
ally provided with sensitive and accurate integral mixing valves.
Ready-Mix Concrete
Hot water is used to make concrete when the air temperature falls
below 30F (1C). When the ambient temperature is between 0
and 30F (18 and 1C), hot water is used to bring the mixture to
a temperature of about 65F (18C). When the ambient tempera-
ture is below 0F (18C), it is used to bring the mixture to 70F
(21C). The higher temperatures are necessary to prevent the con-
crete from freezing before it sets and to allow proper hydration of
the mixture. The added heat also gives the concrete a greater early
strength. Hot water also serves to warm aggregate in cold weather
Industrial Facilities 199
10 1800 2,630,000 18.9 2100 3,060,000 22.0 2400 3,510,000 25.2 2700 3,940,000 28.4
20 900 1,315,000 9.4 1050 1,530,000 11.0 1200 1,750,000 12.6 1350 1,970,000 14.2
35 515 752,000 5.4 600 875,000 9.2 685 1,000,000 7.2 762 1,112,000 8.0
50 360 525,000 3.8 420 612,000 6.4 480 700,000 5.0 540 788,000 5.7
10 6813 770 590 71.5 7949 896 580 83.3 9084 1 028 430 95.4 10 220 1 154 420 107.5
20 3407 385 295 35.6 3974 448 290 41.6 4542 512 750 47.7 5 110 577 210 53.8
35 1949 220 336 20.4 2271 256 375 34.8 2593 293 000 27.3 2 884 325 816 30.3
50 1363 153 825 14.4 1590 179 316 24.2 1817 205 100 18.9 2 044 230 884 21.6
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
204 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Public toilets,
Private toilets,
Administration areas,
Training rooms,
Stadium club bar,
First aid rooms,
Staff toilets for ticket booths,
Photo labs,
Emergency eyewash, and
Emergency showers.
GATHERING INFORMATION
Before proceeding with any design, the designer must go on a
fact finding mission to gather the information needed to perform
the design. Following are some sample questions that may need
to be asked. The designer needs to develop a list of questions for
each particular project.
1. What are the system demands for the restrooms, concession
areas, locker rooms, training areas, kitchen, dinning areas,
and laundry areas?
2. What water temperatures are desired or required for this
project120, 140, 160 or 180F (49, 60, 71, or 82C)?
3. What are the duration of peak demands and the length of
time between each peak for all fixtures requiring domestic
hot water?
4. How many showers are available? How many people will use
them? What are the estimated peak period of area operation,
the average shower time, the next peak hour demand after
the initial peak demand, the maximum gpm, and the deliv-
ered temperature at shower heads. It is important to remember
the potential of dump loads in some areas, such as the team
showers, where the players can be expected to shower as
quickly as possible after the game. Consideration must also
be given for multi-game play and events on the same day.
This presents the designer with a challenge to provide the
most cost-effective recovery-to-storage ratio.
5. In the training room areas, what kind of hot water using equip-
ment/fixtures will be used? How often will they be used and
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 205
SYSTEM DESIGN
Design Considerations
Once the designer has gathered all the information and answered
all the necessary questions, and the owner has approved the floor
plans, the next step is to calculate the hot water demand and
evaluate the types of systems that would be appropriate for the
project. Following are other design considerations the designer
should consider:
1. It is very important to establish the entire pipe routing with
the approved floor plans.
2. Some energy codes restrict the use of hot water in certain
areas.
3. Consider using security type showerheads in the players home
and visitors shower rooms.
4. Mount shower heads at a minimum of 6 ft 6 in. in home and
visitors shower rooms.
5. Consider using metering or infrared faucets in public areas.
206 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Types of System
To meet diverse heating requirements, one or more of the follow-
ing system configurations may be considered.
Point of use
Assumptions
On most projects, the designer will not get all the questions an-
swered and, therefore, will have to make some assumptions in
the design and piping layout. It is good practice to note all these
assumptions in a letter to the owner and architect for their re-
view and comments. Look for opportunities to find a central
location for the hot water heaters, keeping in mind accessibility
and simple piping layouts.
Design the showers for a 2.5 or 3.0 gpm (0.16 or 0.19 L/sec)
demand. Be aware of regulations affecting the selection of the
flow rate.
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 209
SYSTEM SIZING
Sizing Parameters
Before proceeding with examples, we must set some parameters
for domestic hot water loads (showers):
1. Determine the number of shower heads.
2. Determine the number of people showering.
3. Allow a minimum of 5 min/shower.
4. Determine the expected length of time for showers to oper-
ate, as follows:
(11.1) no. of people min/shower = total expected time
no. of shower heads of shower operation if
all people shower
during peak period.
5. Determine total gpm (L/sec) flow rate for showers, as follows:
(11.2) no. of shower heads gpm flow rate = total gpm flow rate
for showers
6. Determine the temperature of water, F (C), to be used at the
shower head.
7. Determine the gallons (liters) of hot water demand for show-
ers at the required temperature and time of operation, as
follows:
(11.3) total shower total shower = gal (L) required at desired
time gpm (L/sec) temperature, F (C), for
showering peak demand of
determined minutes
8. Estimate turnaround time. Be sure to add turnaround time
when determining the total time during which hot water is
used.
Note: Add a little time in for turnaround. Use a diversity factor
where applicable. Evaluate the system to determine if there
will be a dump load, with most of the demand being utilized in
a fraction of an hour. If this is the case, be sure to calculate
recovery on the basis of gallons per hour (liters/hour). For
example, if the system requires 200 gal (757 L) in 30 min, the
recovery rate will be 400 gph (1514 L/h).
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 211
( 60
43 4.4C = 38.6C
4.4C 55.6C
= 0.7 )
Therefore,
45 people
= 5 people/head
9 shower heads
5 people/head 5 min/person = 25 min minimum for
shower peak demand
9 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 22.5 gpm
25 min 22.5 gpm = 562.5 gal of 110F water required
to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to
be hour after hour.
(9 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.4 L/sec
25 min 1.4 L/sec 60 sec/min = 2129 L of 43C
water required to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to be hour after
hour.)
216 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
total gph (L/h) for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph
(511 L/h) (from the hot water demand table)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 25 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for arm tubs and whirlpools for this ex-
ample. The demand will be met by storage. Should 2 fills/
h be required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h)
recovery of arm tubs and whirlpools 2 to meet the sec-
ond fill within 30 min.
How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combina-
tion of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. If we decide to meet
total demand with storage: 562.5 gal (2129 L) at 110F (43C)
at the shower head and 135 gal (511 L) at 110F (43C) for
arm tubs and whirlpool, stored water temperature at 140F
(60C). Using the mixed water temperature formula in Chap-
ter 1 (Equation 1.7):
( 60
43 4.4C
4.4C
=
38.6C
55.6C
= 0.7 )
Therefore,
Recovery requirements
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements. If
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 217
7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 2 service sinks.
9. 6 wash fountains.
40 people
= 4 people/head
10 shower heads
4 people/head 5 min/person = 20 min minimum for
shower peak demand
10 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 25 gpm
(10 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.6 L/sec)
20 min 25 gpm = 500 gal of 110F water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads
(20 min 1.6 L/sec = 1893 L of 43C water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads)
Spor ts Arenas and Stadiums
Sports 219
(60
43 4.4C
4.4C
=
38.6C
55.6C
= 0.7)
Therefore,
Recovery requirements
This is determined based on the frequency and duration of
the showers plus additional equipment load requirements. If
showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recov-
ery must be the shower load demand recovered over a period
of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour
is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second
nor the third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33%
of shower and additional equipment load requirements.
12
INTRODUCTION
LAUNDRIES
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
222 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
STORAGE
Unless otherwise directed by the owner, assume that all the wash-
ers will operate simultaneously. Provide an amount of hot water
storage equivalent to 50 to 75% of the hourly demand. Evaluate
the operating characteristics of the washers before deciding on
the amount of storage.
RECOVERY
The water heating system should be designed for full recovery of
the hourly demand.
EXAMPLE 12.1
A hospital laundry has three 135-lb (61-kg) and two 75-lb (34-
kg) washers which use 160F (71C) water for sanitation and blood
removal. The washer manufacturers data indicate that all wash-
ers require 2 gal (7.57 L) of hot water per hour per pound (kilogram).
666 gal
= 888 gal
75%
(1145
75%
L
= 1527 L)
13
RELIGIOUS FACILITIES
MISCELLANEOUS
FACILITIES
Kitchen
Many religious facilities have assembly areas, usually with adja-
cent kitchens. These kitchens range from full, commercial type
facilities to minimal rooms where general food warming and prepa-
ration will occur.
If there will be a dishwasher in the kitchen, it may be a major
determinant of the size of the water heater. If there will be a
commercial dishwasher and it has a hot water rinse cycle (in lieu
of a chemical rinse), a booster heater may be required to provide
the sanitizing temperature (180F [82C]) required (residential
and some institutional type dishwashers have a built-in heater).
If the capacity of the dishwasher is not available, the hot water
requirements for the dishwasher can be estimated from Chapter
4, Table 4.5.
If the kitchen will have a utensil cleaning sink (sometimes
called a pots and pan sink) and a hand washing sink, Table 4.4
in Chapter 4 can be used to determine the kitchen demand.
Baptistries
Baptismal fonts that range in size from 400 to 1200 gal (1514 to
4543 L) are required to be maintained at near skin temperature,
between 94 and 105F (34 and 41C); use 100F (38C) for design
purposes. Depending on the use of the font, the water will either
be maintained in the font or filled and drained for each use.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
226 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Toilet Rooms
The toilet room usage can be sporadic but will produce intermit-
tent heavy loads. Depending on the size and location of the toilet
room, hot water can be supplied by the buildings domestic wa-
ter heating system or from a point-of-use heater.
Other Considerations
The designer needs to evaluate additional hot water usage, such
as gymnasiums, pools, activity rooms, meeting rooms, classrooms,
day-care facilities, residences, and administrative offices.
Toilet Rooms
Many times toilet rooms are located in remote areas of the gro-
cery story, away from the food preparation areas. Consideration
should be given to providing a point-of-use water heater.
Other Considerations
Due to the quantity of refrigeration equipment in this type of
facility, the designer should consider the opportunity for heat
reclamation. This is a common method of preheating water in a
grocery store and can be a substantial energy saving factor.
228 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
RETAIL CENTERS
There are two primary considerations for retail centers or shop-
ping malls: the large anchor or department store and the smaller
general retail establishments. For determining hot water demand
in large anchor stores, the designer needs to consider the inclu-
sion of a restaurant, administrative offices, and general facilities.
Concepts for many of these areas can be found throughout this
manual.
For the general retail establishment, hot water is primarily
for use in toilet rooms and demand is driven by hand washing.
The number and type of plumbing fixtures, including those us-
ing hot water, are governed by local building codes. Each tenant
will usually have, and be responsible for, his/her own domestic
hot water system. For general public use toilet rooms, a point-of-
use water heater may be appropriate.
must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc. The food prepa-
ration area usually has at least one hot water hose bibb or mixing
faucet to use for wash down and cleanup. The hot water demand
load for wash down and cleanup is generally not concurrent with
the other hot water demands.
Toilet Rooms
Typically all hot water demands are met by a single heater. How-
ever, a point-of-use water heater should be considered for the
public toilet rooms in fast food establishments.
OFFICE BUILDINGS
The number and type of plumbing fixtures required for an office
building are governed by local building codes. Hot water demand
is usually determined by the quantity of hand washing fixtures.
Based on the location and size of loads in a building, a single
water heater can serve an individual fixture, a toilet room, mul-
tiple toilet rooms, or the entire building.
Special tenant requirements (e.g., mini health clubs, food ser-
vice, day care, cleaning, retail shops, medical and/or dental offices)
should be considered individually. In many instances, the tenant
is responsible for his or her own domestic hot water system.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numer-
ous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit in-
formation from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers re-
sponded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.
14
INTRODUCTION
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers deci-
sion was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
234 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
238 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The point-
of-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long dis-
tance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 243
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various indi-
vidual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Further-
more, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate fac-
tory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is in-
cluded. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjust-
ment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 251
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1) q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 253
where
60 = min/h
3600 = sec/h
q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T = change in heated water temperature (tempera-
ture of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
q = c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
[ L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)
]
15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should
note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recom-
mended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply tempera-
ture provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
254 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses
[ 3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec
required hot water
]
return circulation rate
1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
256 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fix-
tures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give con-
sideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and con-
traction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of some-
one getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
260 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Hand-
book.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applica-
tions Handbook.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential build-
ings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fit-
tings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water sys-
tems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.
Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on
hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
14
INTRODUCTION
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers deci-
sion was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
234 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
238 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The point-
of-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long dis-
tance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 243
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various indi-
vidual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Further-
more, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate fac-
tory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is in-
cluded. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjust-
ment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depend-
ing on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 251
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1) q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]
Recirculating Domestic Hot Water Systems
Water 253
where
60 = min/h
3600 = sec/h
q = piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
r = flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
w = weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
c = specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
T = change in heated water temperature (tempera-
ture of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
q = c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
[ L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)
]
15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should
note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recom-
mended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply tempera-
ture provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
254 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses
[ 3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec
required hot water
]
return circulation rate
1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
256 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fix-
tures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give con-
sideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and con-
traction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of some-
one getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
260 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Hand-
book.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applica-
tions Handbook.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential build-
ings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fit-
tings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water sys-
tems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.
Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on
hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
15
INTRODUCTION
SELF-REGULATING
HEAT TRACE
SYSTEMS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
266 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Electric heat tracing systems replace heat lost through the ther-
mal insulation on hot water supply piping to maintain the water
at desired nominal temperatures, eliminating the need for insu-
lated recirculation lines, pumps, and balancing valves. Preventing
the hot water from cooling also ensures that hot water is readily
available when it is needed.
An electrical heat tracing system is not a substitute for a
complete, efficient domestic hot water system. It does not elimi-
nate the need for an efficient water heater. What a heat tracing
system does is provide another approach to the design and in-
stallation of a hot water system. It does this by simplifying the
hot water distribution system, thereby minimizing the amount of
piping required. Items such as additional piping and balancing
valves are unnecessary.
In a heat trace system, a self-regulating heating cable is at-
tached directly to the hot water supply piping and insulated. A
self-regulating heating cable adjusts its power at each point along
its length to maintain nominal temperature throughout the pip-
ing system. Electrical energy input is controlled by the cables
construction to maintain the required water temperature at the
fixtures. No return piping or circulation pump is required.
Successful installation of a heat tracing system requires
coordination among the various tradespeople involved. Plumbers
and electrical and insulation contractors must be made aware of
the specific requirements affecting each others work.
The information in this chapter will help the designer under-
stand electric heat tracing as it applies to hot water systems.
With this information, a designer should be able to:
1. Compare the merits of heat tracing and a recirculation sys-
tem based on the requirements of a specific project.
2. Identify the extent of piping requiring heat tracing.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace
race Systems 267
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Only Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., listed electric heat tracing
systems for hot water temperature maintenance should be used.
(Note: Thirty mA ground fault equipment protection is to be used
for all hot water heat tracing circuits.) These tested and approved
systems are based on self-regulating heating cables that are spe-
cifically designed for hot water temperature maintenance. (See
Figure 15.1.) Heat is delivered through a carbon matrix heating
element that responds to temperature changes. Whenever the
temperature in the heat traced piping begins to rise, the cable
automatically reduces its heat output. Conversely, when the water
temperature begins to drop the cable reacts by increasing its
heat output. This self-regulating feature occurs along the entire
length of a heat tracing circuit to ensure that each point receives
the amount of heat necessary to maintain thermal equilibrium.
Heating cables, self-regulating or otherwise, intended for pipe
freeze protection or general temperature maintenance should not
be used for hot water temperature maintenance, since their per-
formance has not been matched to the requirements of hot water
applications.
268 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A hot water temperature maintenance system (such as the one
shown in Figure 15.2) typically includes the following components:
1. Self-regulating heating cable.
2. Power connection kit.1
3. Tee/inline splice kit (permits 2 or 3 cables to be spliced to-
gether).
4. Cable end termination.
5. Attachment tape (secures cable to pipe, use at 12 to 24 in.
[305 to 610 mm] intervals).
6. Electric heat tracing label (peel and stick label that attaches
to insulation vapor barrier at 10 ft [3.05 m] intervals, or as
required by code or specification).
7. Fiberglass thermal insulation and vapor barrier.2
Notes:
1. Remember to add up all the fixtures in a facility and to multiply by both the
waste number shown and the expected number of usages per day.
2. Numbers based on line diameter and distance from end of temperature
maintenance.
272 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Heating cable systems do not require system balancing. Often
they are used in buildings with significant lengths of return pip-
ing relative to the lengths of supply piping or in hot water systems
requiring multiple circulation loops.
Heating cable systems may not be economical in buildings
with doughnut configurations and small amounts of return pip-
ing. Such systems still may be selected, however, if the designer
wishes to eliminate flow balancing.
THERMAL INSULATION
While frequently overlooked, thermal insulation plays a critical
role in ensuring that hot water is available at the point of use.
This is true for both recirculation and heat traced hot water
systems.
The standard design for heat traced piping (the design that
manufacturers design guides are based on) utilizes fiberglass ther-
mal insulation with a kraft paper vapor barrier. Thicknesses range
from 1 to 2 in. (25.4 to 50.8 mm) based on line diameter. If a heat
traced hot water system is designed to use only one cable for each
temperature range, the thickness of the insulation will vary.
Manufacturers of hot water heat tracing systems have estab-
lished insulation schedules that outline the thicknesses required
to keep the heat loss within the desired range. Note that in these
schedules the insulation on piping 1 in. (DN35) in diameter and
smaller is oversized to allow space for the heating cable.
After the installation of the heating cable and thermal insula-
tion is completed, the piping is identified with stick-on labels to
note the presence of electric heat tracing. This labeling gives no-
tice to facility maintenance workers that heating cable has been
installed under the insulation should any pipe maintenance or
renovations be required.
reach the point of use may be beyond the levels considered ac-
ceptable for the facility. To remedy this situation, simply heat
trace closer to the point of use.
16
INTRODUCTION
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
Plumbing Codes
Over the last few years, some plumbing codes have been revised
to require double-wall protection in potable water systems. These
revisions address concern over the contamination of potable wa-
ter during normal use or as a result of excess pressure by any
fluid that is flooded in a tank or heat exchanger. The possibility
of such contamination has led to the introduction of double-wall
heat exchangers to generate domestic hot water.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
280 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
DEFINITIONS
Heating Medium
A heating medium is any substance used to heat another sub-
stance to a higher temperature. In the case of heat exchangers
used to heat domestic hot water, the heating mediums are gener-
ally fluids or fuels. There are exceptions to this rule, however,
such as electrical energy, which is used to heat a solid wire, or
element, which then directly transfers heat to the water by con-
tact. Examples of heating mediums include:
1. Steam.
2. Water.
3. Gas.
4. Oil.
5. Electricity.
6. Solar energy.
7. Geothermal energy.
8. Refrigerants.
Approach
The term approach is used to describe how close the outlet
temperature of the water to be heated comes to (or approaches)
the inlet temperature of a fluid heating medium.
Heat Exchanger
This term refers to a device specifically designed and constructed
to efficiently transfer heat energy from a hot substance to a colder
one.
Heat Exchangers 281
Countercurrent
This term is used to describe a situation where the liquid heating
medium in a heat exchanger flows in a direction opposite to that
of the fluid to be heated.
Temperature Cross
A temperature cross occurs when the liquid being heated has
an outlet temperature that falls between the inlet and outlet tem-
peratures of the heating medium; this is possible only when flows
are 100% countercurrent.
The most common type of heat exchanger, the shell and tube,
can be found in almost every type of application. In recent years,
the plate and frame has emerged as a viable alternative to the
shell and tube.
Tank heater
hot and cold media in the unit. The plate and frame unit has a
tendency to weep through the gasket interface. The weeping nor-
mally stops after the gaskets reset or the unit is brought back up
to operating temperatures. Basically, if the application requires
a low probability of leakage, the better choice is a prime surface
or shell and tube design rather than a plate and frame.
While gaskets may be a weakness in a plate and frame unit,
being able to expand its thermal capacity merely by adding chan-
nel plates to an existing unit is one of its major strengths. If it is
known that a particular application will be expanded in the fu-
ture, a plate unit is by far the easiest and most economical design
to use.
Indirect Fired Water Heaters
Water 291
17
INTRODUCTION
INDIRECT FIRED
WATER HEATERS
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
There are two basic types of indirect water heater on the market
today, which are distinguished primarily by the location of the
boiler water.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
292 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
First, the potential for scaling and corrosion in the boiler wa-
ter tank has been virtually eliminated because it is filled with
dead boiler water circulating in a closed loop. Once the loop is
filled, the small amount of makeup water added over time is not
enough to cause problems, provided the loop is properly vented.
Scaling inside the coils is prevented by the accelerated flow of the
potable water whenever hot water is drawn. By using several
coils of relatively small diameter, high output levels are possible
with little pressure drop. Since this type of indirect water heater
does not develop scale, even at higher temperatures, it is often
used in applications where 180F (82C) water is needed for sani-
tizing (e.g., automatic dishwashers, hospital laundries, and food
processing equipment).
Second, a tankless coil typically used a single, finned coil
immersed in the boiler water. Since both sides of each fin or rib
on the coil were considered part of the available heat transfer
surface, efficiency was expected to be high. In reality, the fins
and ribs trapped pockets of static water which acted like a layer
of insulation and hindered the heat transfer process. Scale col-
lected in the valleys, compounding the problem. Wherever coils
were tightly wrapped or touching, heat transfer surfaces were
either unavailable or starved of boiler water. In comparison, the
new instantaneous water heater design makes use of multiple
smooth coils in loosely overlapping bundles to maximize the
amount of available heat transfer surface. The addition of turbu-
lent flows inside and outside the coil boosts the heat transfer
efficiency into the high 90% range and raises the overall operat-
ing efficiency to new levels. The turbulence also scrubs the coils
clean of any scale buildup. As a result, instantaneous indirect
water heaters are projected to last 20 or more years.
WATER CONDITIONS
Obviously, the quality and condition of the potable water supply
will affect the performance of a water heater, direct or indirect. In
general, if the water supply has a pH value close to 7, neither
highly acidic nor heavily alkaline, any indirect water heater will
function properly. However, when high acidity is encountered and
cannot be modified using water treatment equipment, indirect water
heaters with copper coils may be adversely affected. Conversely,
very alkaline water will cause storage tank type indirect water heat-
ers to accumulate scale much more rapidly. Particulate matter in
suspension or otherwise contained in the potable water supply
296 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
should be filtered out before the water enters either type of indi-
rect water heater. Sediment will quickly accumulate in and clog
up the storage tank type or sandblast the coils of the instanta-
neous indirect water heater, causing damage.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 297
18
ELECTRIC WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE AND
BOOSTER
INTRODUCTION
An electric water heater is an appliance for heating water that is
to be used for purposes other than space or central heating (for
instance, cooking, dish and cooking utensil washing, clothes
washing, lavatories, baths, and showers).
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
298 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
COMPONENTS
Other than controls, the following are the principal components
of an electric water heater.
The Tank
In electric tank type water heaters, the tank serves the purpose
of hot water storage.
Linings are generally used in steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. (Tank materials other than steel are also
available.) An additional means of protecting a tank against cor-
rosion is the use of a sacrificial anode. With the insertion of a
sacrificial anode, such as an aluminum or magnesium rod in the
tank, the primary electrolytic reaction occurs between the anode
and the other exposed dissimilar metals within the tank. The
anode is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. The anode
should be replaced as it approaches decomposition to ensure
continued protection of the tank.
Tank Fittings
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections normally are threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe
inlet and outlet connections. A fitting that enables the replace-
ment of the sacrificial anode also is usually provided. In addition
to the inlet and outlet fittings, there are threaded nipples for
the insertion of immersion type elements, thermostats, tempera-
ture-pressure relief valves, and high limits. Residential and
light-duty commercial tanks have brackets on the outside for
surface-mounted thermostats and high limits.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is required on all
domestic and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drain-
age of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom.
Figure 18.1 illustrates a typical residential or commercial
electric water heater and shows the location of some of
the fittings on the tank.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 299
Dip Tube
A dip tube is used with all tank water heaters that have the cold
water inlet located at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent excessive
mixing of cold and hot water as the hot water is used. The rela-
tionship between the length of the dip tube and the height of the
tank determines the amount of usable hot water that can be
drawn from the tank at any one time (the tank draw efficiency). A
dip tube that is too short will cause excessive mixing of cold
water at the top of the tank, which can cause the hot water to be
delivered at a lower than desired temperature. In the past, dip
tubes were made of metal, but presently most dip tubes are made
of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature pre-
vents the tank from being siphoned in case the cold water supply
is cut off. In such a situation, the tank would be siphoned only to
the level of the anti-siphon hole, where the siphoning action would
be stopped.
Elements
Electric water heating technology has been through only minor
changes since its inception. That is because immersion elements
are considered 100% efficient. Only the wattage of the elements
has been increased over the years to shorten recovery times.
Two types of elementwraparound and immersionhave been
used, with immersion type elements representing the overwhelm-
ing majority. Wraparound elements, as their name implies, wrap
around the outside of the tank in a channel. This type of element
heats from the outside and is used primarily in high lime areas to
prevent scaling and premature element failure. Immersion ele-
ments, as their names implies, are immersed in the water and are
made in several styles: blade, single-loop, and multi-loop. (Figure
18.2 shows the types of electric water heater element.)
Element construction
120 4.64
208 14.4 12.4 10.8 9.61 8.65 7.85 7.2
240 18.6 15.9 13.9 12.4 11.1 10.1 9.28
277 25.6 21.9 19.2 17.1 15.3 14.0 12.8
480 76.8 65.7 57.5 51.1 45.7 41.8 38.4
Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
Element operation
Thermostat
This regulates the temperature of the water in the tank. Usually
one snap-action, surface-mounted thermostat is used per ele-
ment. Temperatures are adjustable from 110 to 170F, 10F
(43 to 77C, 6C). (See Figure 18.4 for location.)
High Limit
This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 190F, 5F (88C, 3C).
304 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Surface-Mounted Controls
Thermostat
High limit
Wiring circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing.
Immersion Controls
Thermostat
High limit
Wiring circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the tem-
perature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 95 to 180F (35 to 82C). Immer-
sion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C) and are excellent
units to use when precise temperatures are important. The control
of groups of elements is done by the use of multiple thermostats,
time-delay sequencers, or a solid-state progressive sequencer.
(See Figure 18.5.)
Wiring Circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many of
the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the
temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 140 to 185F (60 to 85C). Im-
mersion thermostats have a differential of 2F (1C) and are
excellent units to use when precise temperatures are important.
(See Figure 18.6.)
Wiring Circuits
Circuits are convertible between single and three-phase voltages.
Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors to link
control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Ratings
All heaters shall be rated according to the following standards:
1. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
Electri
Electricc Water Heaters
Water HeatersStorage and Booster 309
GAS WATER
19 HEATERS
INSTANTANEOUS
WITH
SEPARATE TANK
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
312 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
20
TYPES OF GAS WATER HEATERS
GAS WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
314 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
TANKS
As previously explained, the tank in a tank type water heater serves
the dual purposes of heat exchange and hot water storage. Also, it
must be able to withstand water pressure in compliance with the
codes and regulations of whatever authority has jurisdiction.
The storage of hot water in the tank accelerates corrosion.
Linings are generally used with steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. Tank materials other than steel are also
available.
A second method of protecting the tank is the sacrificial anode.
When a sacrificial anode such as a magnesium rod is inserted in
the tank, corrosive action occurs between the anode and
any exposed metals in the tank. The anode, being higher on the
galvanic scale, is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. In
some instances, anode rods are not installed because they have
a detrimental effect on the tank lining. Figure 20.2 illustrates a
residential gas water heater containing one type of sacrificial
anode. An anode such as this should be replaced as it approaches
decomposition to ensure continued protection of the tank.
One disadvantage of the underfired tank is its propensity for
depositing sediment on the bottom of the tank. The harder the
water, the greater the potential for this problem.
TANK FITTINGS
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections are normally threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe inlet
and outlet connections. A fitting enabling the replacement of the
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 315
DIP TUBES
A dip tube is used on all tank water heaters in which the cold
water inlet is at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
incoming cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent the
mixing of cold and hot water. In all tank water heaters, the water
at the top of the tank, under cycling and intermittent standby
conditions, attains a higher temperature than water at the bot-
tom of the tank. The variation between the two temperatures
depends on heater design and dip tube length. A dip tube that is
too short will cause excessive mixing of the cold and hot water,
which will reduce the tank draw efficiency.
In the past, dip tubes were made of metal, but presently most
dip tubes are made of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-
density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature pre-
vents the tank from being siphoned. Figure 20.4 shows the
operation of the dip tube under normal operating conditions and
under conditionssuch as occur when the cold water supply is
shut off or a line breaksnecessitating anti-siphoning action.
316 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(A)
(B)
Gas Water Heate
Water HeaterrsStorage 317
(C)
(D)
BURNERS
Burner assemblies are designed to ensure that gas and air are
properly mixed for combustion. Burners vary greatly in design
and construction, but all have:
1. An inlet air orifice. Varies with the type of gas and the normal
range of gas pressure.
2. A means of controlling air intake. For primary air burners, air
intake control may be fixed or variable (air shutter).
3. A mixing tube or mixing area. Allows gas and air to mix before
or during burning.
4. Ports. Control the gas flame pattern to improve burning char-
acteristics and distribute the flame in relation to the tank
and/or heat exchanger area.
A few of the more common types of burner found in gas water
heaters are illustrated in Figure 20.5.
320 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Air inlets must cover a range wide enough to allow the air-
gas mixture to be properly adjusted for different gas, pressure,
and altitude conditions. Note: Designers should be sure to con-
sult the manufacturers recommendations for derating burners
as necessitated by high altitudes.
VENTING SYSTEMS
A venting system is required to transfer the products of combustion to
the outside. The venting system of a water heater consists of:
1. Water heater flues.
2. A draft diverter or draft regulator.
3. Vent pipe connections to the outside or chimney.
4. Vent caps.
Proper venting generally is covered by local codes. Improper
venting results from a lack of understanding of how and why a
venting system functions. The basic principle behind venting
appliances is that flue gases rise because they are lighter than
the surrounding ambient air. It is the heat content of the gases
that lightens them and causes them to rise. A venting system
that uses the natural tendency of hot gases to rise could be
essentially a vertical path.
Other considerations include using:
1. Vents of a diameter sufficient to carry the gases.
2. Controlled mixtures of flue gases with dilution air from the
draft diverter to prevent excessive cooling of the gases.
3. Insulation on the vent pipe to maintain sufficient flue gas
temperatures in excessively long or high vents (to avoid con-
densation and maintain draft).
4. Mechanical draft inducers with a double-acting barometric
damper.
Draft Hoods
A draft hood is used with almost every water heater not equipped
with a draft regulator or power vent (positive pressure) system.
The draft hood is designed to minimize the effects of:
1. Updrafts. It prevents excessive updrafts through the burner
compartment.
322 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Vent Connections
The ideal venting system has vent pipe connections that rise
vertically from the draft hood through the roof to the outside and
terminate in a vent cap, which protects the vent from stoppage
and minimizes the effects of downdraft.
21
INTRODUCTION
HEAT PUMP
WATER HEATERS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
326 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
ENERGY SOURCES
Electricity is the primary source of energy for the refrigeration
system components of a heat pump water heater, for instance,
the compressor, pumps, and fans. Air is the heat source for the
heat pump water heater. All integral type and most remote type
heat pump water heaters use a water storage tank equipped with
backup electric resistance elements to meet peak hot water de-
mand. If electricity rates are excessive, the tank can be ahead of
a gas fired water heater.
Heat pump water heaters remove heat from an airstream and
put it, along with heat from the electrical power they consume,
into water. A heat pump water heater can produce the same
amount of hot water as an electric resistance water heater using
only one quarter to one half the electrical power. The heat pump
water heater also provides space cooling and dehumidification
as a result of the water heating, a result that is often beneficial to
the customer.
328 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
APPLICATIONS
The heat pump is an excellent choice for a water heater when
certain conditions are met. The building should have a use for
simultaneous water heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
The concurrence of the water heating and space cooling loads is
important. In a good heat pump water heater application, the
water heating load occurs over a long period of time, giving the
heat pump water heater an extended run time. There should be
a use for the space cooling or refrigeration load throughout the
year, and the temperature of the heat pump water heaters evapo-
rator must be maintained above freezing.
If natural gas is expensive or unavailable locally, the heat
pump water heater may be the most cost-efficient choice for heat-
ing water. A heat pump water heater makes the most economic
sense when natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), oil, and elec-
tric resistance heat are expensive.
A poor heat pump water heater application is one in which
all or some of the above conditions are not met. The customer
has no use or only limited use for the space cooling byproduct.
The building has a water heating load that occurs over a short
period of time, giving the heat pump water heater a limited run
time and requiring that the backup electric elements be ener-
gized during most of the run time. When the backup electric
resistance elements are energized most of the time, the advan-
tages of a heat pump water heater are limited. Also, if low-cost
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Water 331
natural gas, LPG, oil, or electric resistance heat are readily avail-
able, the heat pump water heater loses its relative cost-efficiency.
Possible commercial heat pump/heat recovery water heater
applications are restaurants, grocery stores, and other buildings
with large refrigeration loads and high demands for hot water.
The commercial refrigeration units of such buildings usually have
condensing units, located on the roof or beside the building, that
reject the heat produced by the refrigeration process. In a com-
mercial heat recovery application, the refrigeration hot gas line
has a bypass valve that sends the refrigeration hot gas to the
double-wall heat exchanger in the water storage tank. When the
thermostat in the water storage tank indicates that the water
has reached its set point, the bypass valve sends the hot gas to
the condenser on the roof where the excess heat is rejected.
22
INTRODUCTION
STEAM WATER
HEATERS
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
334 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
FEEDBACK UNITS
A feedback unit is a water heater that controls hot water tem-
perature by sensing hot water in either a tank or exit piping and
feeding back a signal to the steam control device. Such units are
reactive, depending on a change in water temperature for their
control. This need to react to change causes a lag in the control
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 335
FEED-FORWARD UNITS
A feed-forward unit is a water heater that controls hot water
temperature by sensing the difference between the inlet and out-
let water pressures. This differential pressure is an indication of
demand. The greater the differential pressure, the greater the
demand for hot water. Such units are proactive, rather than re-
active, in terms of their control of outgoing water temperature.
There is no lag time associated with this method of control be-
cause with it a unit responds to demand rather than to something
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 337
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The following are system design criteria:
The heat exchanger must be sized on gpm not gph when a
storage tank is not provided. The maximum instantaneous flow,
not the diversified flow, must be used.
The heat exchanger should have the domestic water in the
shell and the steam in the bundle. This will provide for the load/
lag flywheel required to maintain a uniform delivery tempera-
ture.
Heat exchanger selection should include local, state, and fed-
eral code provisions.
Steam Water Heater
Water Heaterss 341
Example 22.1
A hot water system is required for 1110 gph (4202 L/h) of 160F
(71C) water from a 50F (10C) cold water system. The maxi-
mum fixture demand is 43 gpm (2.7 L/sec).
23
INTRODUCTION
EXPANSION
TANKS
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
EXPANSION OF WATER
A pound of water at 140F (60C) has a larger volume than the
same pound of water at 40F (4.4C). To look at it another way,
the specific volume of water increases with an increase in tem-
perature. Specific volume data show the volume of 1 lb (1 kg) of
water for a given temperature and are expressed in ft3/lb (m3/
kg). When the volume of water at each temperature condition is
known, the expansion of water can be calculated.
where
Vs1
W1 =
VSP1
where
Similarly, at T2,
Vs2
W2 =
VSP2
Vs1 = Vs2
VSP1 VSP2
VSP
(23.2) Vew = Vs1 (VSP 1)
2
1
348 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Example 23.1
A domestic hot water system has 1000 gal (3785.4 L) of water.
How much will the 1000 gal (3785.4 L) expand from a tempera-
ture of 40F (4.4C) to a temperature of 140F (60C)?
0.01629
Vew = 1000 ( 0.01602 1
)
Vew = 16.9 gal
0.0010181
[Vew = 3785.4 ( 0.0010013 1)
Vew = 64.0 L]
EXPANSION OF MATERIALS
Does the expansion tank receive all of the water expansion? The
answer is no because not just the water is expanding. The piping
and water heating equipment expand with increased tempera-
ture as well. So any expansion of material results in less of the
water expansion being received by the expansion tank. Another
way of looking at it is as follows:
where
(23.4) = 3
where
Example 23.2
A domestic hot water system has a water heater with a volume of
900 gal (3406.86 L) and is made of steel. It also has 100 ft (304.8
m) of 4 in. (101.6 mm) piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 2 in. (50.8 mm)
piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 1 in. (38.1 mm) piping and 300 ft
(91.44 m) of in. (12.7 mm) piping. All the piping is copper.
Assuming that the initial temperature of water is 40F (4.4C)
and the final temperature of water is 140F (60C), (A) how much
will each material expand, and (B) what is the net expansion of
water that an expansion tank would see?
[Vmat1 = 3406.86 L
BOYLES LAW
We have determined how much water expansion will be seen by
the expansion tank. Now it is time to look at how the cushion of
air in an expansion tank allows us to limit the system pressure.
Boyles Law states that, at a constant temperature, the vol-
ume occupied by a given weight of perfect gas (including, for
practical purposes, atmospheric air) varies inversely as the abso-
lute pressure (gage pressure + atmospheric pressure). It is
expressed by:
P1V1 = P2V2
P2Venet
V1 =
(P2 P1)
where
Example 23.3
Looking further at the domestic hot water system described in
Example 23.2, if the cold water supply pressure is 50 psig (344.5
kPa) and the maximum desired water pressure is 110 psig (757.9
kPa) (the relief valve setting is 125 psig [861.25 kPa]), what size
expansion tank is required?
In example 23.2 we determined that Venet equals 15 gal (56.78
L). Converting the given pressures to absolute and utilizing Equa-
tion 23.8 we can determine the size of expansion tank needed:
15
V1 = = 31 gal
(1 64.7/124.7)
[V1
=
56.78
(1 445.78/859.18)
= 117.3 L]
Note: When selecting the expansion tank, make sure the tanks
diaphragm or bladder can accept 15 gal (56.78 L) of water
(Venet).
354 Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
SUMMARY
Earlier in this chapter the following was established,
Equation 23.2:
VSP
Vew = Vs1 ( VSP 1)
2
1
Equation 23.6:
Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]
1
mat1
1 (T2 T1) +
Venet
(23.8) V1 =
(1 P1/P2)
where
Venet = net expansion of water seen by the expansion
tank, gal (L)
Vmat = volume of each material, gal (L)
VSP = specific volume of water at each condition,
ft3/lb (m3/kg)
= volumetric coefficient of expansion of each
material, gal/galF (L/LC)
T = temperature of water at each condition, F(C)
P = pressure of water at each condition, psia (kPa)
V1 = size of expansion tank required, gal (L)
1-bedroom apartments
retirement homes 157
water demand 26
1 -compartment sinks
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 100 103
108 115 123
hospital sizing example 112
hospital usage factors 79 80
hourly demand 65 87
jailusage 183
kitchen requirements 50 87 151
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples 165 168 171 175
2-bedroom apartments
retirement homes 157
water demand 26
2 -compartment sinks
central sterile supply 95 113
high school usage 55
hospital example 112
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 100 103
106 108 115
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital utility rooms 73
32-bed hospitals
example 93
worksheets 100
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home
example 158
gathering information 161
worksheet example totals 176
worksheets 164
100-ft length criterion 234
300-bed hospital example 111
absolute pressures
equations 352
gases 351
access to equipment 281
ACEEE (American Council for
Energy Efficient Economy) xxi
acidity of water, indirect fired
water heaters and 295
activity rooms in religious
facilities 226
ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) xxi 192
additions to buildings, heat
trace systems and 272
adjustable orifice flow control
valves 248
administration areas
hospitals 77 82 83 93
99
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138 157 163
religious facilities 226
retirement homes 140
sports arenas and stadiums 204
advanced high-efficiency water
heating systems
considerations 17
multifamily buildings
and 30
after-hours at schools 47
after-work crowd at spas and
health clubs 130
afternoon peak demand
multifamily buildings 21
spas and health clubs 130
AGA. See American Gas
Association (AGA)
aggressive fluids, heat ex-changers and 288
air
air intake control in burners 319 321
cushions in expansion
tanks 343 351
entrapped in recirculating
systems 259
as heat source in heat
pumps 327
American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 15
code for fired and unfired
pressure vessels 16
code for relief valves 16
Plumbing Fixture Fittings 261
American Society of Plumbing
Engineers (ASPE) xxi
Cold Water Systems 261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems 262
Insulation 262
Piping Systems 261
Position Paper on Hot
Water Temperature
Limitations 261
Pumps 262
Service Hot Water Systems 57 261
Steam and Condensate
Systems 341
American Water Works Association
Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution Systems 262
Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) xxi 192
ammonia
in indirect fired water
heaters 291
refrigeration 288
anchor department stores 228
base-mounted centrifugal
circulating pumps 258
baseball stadium example 214
batch loads, heat exchangers
and 285
bathing. See also central
bathing areas
compared to showering 37
bathroom groups
hospital example work-sheets 84 86
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 100 107 115
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 173
bathtubs
delivered hot water temperatures 12
faucet flow rates 236
fill times 74 136
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 100 107
115
hydrotherapy 91 94 112
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149 156
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 170 173
obstetrics areas 77 93 95
in patient rooms 73 91
bathtubs (Cont.)
therapy tubs 73
whirlpool baths. See
whirlpool baths
bayonet type U-tube heat
exchangers 335
bedpan washers 73 95 113 135
biological growth on drains 332
biological laboratories. See
laboratories
birthing rooms 77 93
black and white photo pro-
cessing 198
bladder-type expansion
tanks 343
blade immersion elements 300
blocked flues 322
blood removal
hospital laundry example 222
on prison uniforms 188
Bloodborne Pathogen law 188
blowdown valves for fixed
orifices and venturis 245
body showers 128
boilers
combination heating/
DHW boilers 33
steam storage water
heaters 334
booster heaters
controls 306 308
defined 297
dishwashers 48 64
hospital food services 74 112
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 137
prison kitchens 185 187
recovery times and 67
Boyles law 351
bradley wash fountains 211
See also wash fountains
branches in heat trace systems 270
break rooms in sports arenas
and stadiums 209
Breese, James L. xix
bronze pump fittings 258
Btu/h ratings 33
building management
systems in sports arenas 205
building movement 207
building occupants. See
populations
bundle assemblies
approach temperature
and 283
U-tube removable bundles 282
burners for water heaters 319
burns from hot pipes 259
chimneys 324
churches 225
circuit breakers
heat pump systems 332
heat trace systems 267 273
circuit length in heat trace
systems 273 274
circular wash stations 191
circulating pumps
baptistries 226
centrifugal circulating
pumps 258
in circulation systems 239
controls 258
flow rates 257 339
head capacity of 257
in-line centrifugal circulating pumps 258
lack of in heat trace systems 266
return pipes and 257
sizing 249
steam water heater systems 341
for vertical storage tanks 207
circulation rate examples 254
circulation systems. See
recirculating hot water
systems
Cix, J. B. 37
classrooms
religious facilities 226
schools 46 49 52
combination upfeed/down-
feed circulation systems 241
combustion
air requirements 207
thermal efficiency and 4
commercial dishwashers
commercial spray-type dishwashers 12
conveyor dishwashers 50 55 65 67
demand 65
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet examples 84 86 103 119
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 168
recovery and 67
school kitchens 48 50 55
sports arenas and stadiums 211
commercial facilities, circula-
tion systems for 239
commercial heat pump water
heaters 325 326
commercial laundries
gathering information 221
sports arenas and stadiums 208 211
water temperatures 12 206
commercial water heaters
defined 297
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
contamination
cross-contamination in
heat exchangers 284
in nuclear power plants 197
continuous duty systems,
heat exchangers and 285
continuous flow demand 6
contraction
indirect fired water heaters 293
U-tube removable bundles 283
control circuits 306
controls
booster heaters 306 308
coverage in this manual 1
domestic hot water systems 15
electric water heaters 303
heat pump systems 332
recirculating pumps 258
convection
plate-type heat exchangers 285
tank heaters and 283
convenience stores 226 329
convention hotels and motels
average occupancy 61
considerations 70
defined 59
food service example 65
guest room example 62
conventional, iron bodied
pumps 258
corrosion (Cont.)
storage tanks 314
welded plate and frame
exchangers 288
corrugation in plate units 285
costs
delays in hot water and 238
heat exchangers 284 288
heat pumps 328 331
life-cycle costs 278
oversizing and 37
payment for hot water
and demand 25
countercurrent 281
CPVC piping 235 237
critical care units (CCUs) xxi 111
cross-contamination in heat
exchangers 284
crossover bypass systems 69
CT scan rooms 95 114
cupro-nickel components 312
customized sizing for
multi-family buildings 28
demand
commercial laundries 221
delays in hot water and 238
football stadium example 211
heat trace system fixtures 270
high school systems 57
hotel guest rooms 60
monitoring in existing
systems 28
multifamily building determination 24
patterns in multifamily
buildings 19
pay-as-you-go systems
and 25
school calculations 49
special use facilities 35
demographic profiles. See
populations
density of population 23
dental clinics in office build-
ings 229
department stores 228
desk phones in hotels 60
dew points
condensation and 206
gas-fired water heaters
and 15
DeWerth, D. W. 38 57
DHW (domestic hot water) xxi
DHW Modeling 37
differential pressure
diaphragm mixing valves 337
steam feed-forward systems 336
diluting flue gases 321
dip tubes 300 315 316 318
direct fired water heaters 4
dirty work 191 194 196
dishwasher prerinse. See pre-rinse sinks
dishwashers
apartments in retirement
homes 139
delivered hot water temperatures 12
flow rates 236
high schools 54 55
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 103
hospital food services 74 92 112
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and 295
jail usage 182
manufacturers data 64
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 156
prison kitchens 185 187
religious facilities 225
retirement apartments 158
school classrooms 49
school kitchens 47 50 52 53
small hospital example 94
sports arenas and stadiums 209
steam water heaters 333
dishwashers (Cont.)
student dormitories 41
disinfectors 95 113 122
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 106
hospital usage factors 79 80
disposable tableware 48
distances from water heater
to fixtures 233
distributed hot water systems 208
district-supplied steam 334
diverting valves 340
Domestic Hot Water Consumption
in Four Low Income
Apartment Buildings 38
domestic hot water (DSH) xxi
codes and standards 16
controls 15
delivered hot water temperature 12
high altitudes and 4
mixed water temperatures 6
recovery. See recovery
periods
relief valves 15
safety and health concerns 13
specific applications. See
under names of specific applications
(i.e., hospitals, jails, hotels
and motels)
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
downdrafts
draft hoods and 323
gas venting systems and 322
downfeed hot water systems 240 241
draft diverters 321
draft hoods 321
draft regulators 321
drain cocks 298 315
draining tanks 315
drains for heat pump systems 331 332
drawdowns
laundry equipment 68
sinks 66
drawings 273
drilled port burners 320
dry firing 303
DSH. See domestic hot water
PSH)
ductwork for heat pump systems 331
dump loads
indirect fired water heaters 293
showers as 193
dumping water. See water
conservation
duration
shift-end wash-up 192
shower turnaround time 210
showers 62 181 185
Dutt, G. 37
electricity
heat pump usage 327
heat trace systems 267
as heating medium 185 280
elementary schools 45 52
Ellis, L. Richard xix
emergency eyewashes 204 209
emergency medical clinics in
prisons 185
emergency operations in surgical suites 75
emergency rooms (ERs) xxi 95 111 113
emergency showers in sports
arenas 204
end termination 273
energy codes for sports arenas 205
energy conservation
100 ft. length criteria and 234
heat trace systems and 265 266
problems with inadequate
hot water systems 233
steam feedback systems 336
Energy Conservation in New
Building Design 261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems 262
Energy Efficient Design of
New Low Rise Residential
Buildings 261
Energy Use and DHW Consumption
Research Project 37
equations (Cont.)
heat transfer 68
mixed water temperatures 6
piping heat loss 252
probable occupancy rates 31
steady-state heat balance 3
steam water heaters 341
storage tank sizing 183
thermal efficiency (R factor) 4 260
equipment
electric water heaters 297
expansion tanks 343
heat exchangers 279
heat pump water heaters 325
indirect fired water heaters 291
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 311
manufacturers information 231
recirculating domestic
hot water systems 233
self-regulating heat trace
systems 265
steam water heaters 333
sterilization 76 93
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
washers and sterilizers 195
equipment ratings 34
erosion, velocity 244
ERs. See emergency rooms
(ERs)
Estimating Hot Water Use in
Existing Commercial Buildings 37
ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) xxi 286
evaporator coils 332
evening peak demand
multifamily buildings 22
spas and health clubs 130
events at sports arenas 204
examples
32-bed hospital 93
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home 158
300-bed hospital 111
baseball stadium 214
circulation rate 254
continuous flow for electric
water heaters 6
direct gas-fired heat input
rates 5
elementary school 52
expansion tanks 353
football stadium 211
foundry facility 193
high school 54
hospital laundry 222
hotel food service 65
hotel guest room 62
examples (Cont.)
hotel laundry service 68
institutional dormitory 42
jail 181
materials expansion 349
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home 147
prison 184
shower mixed water temperatures 7
special use housing facility 35
steady state heat balance 4
steam water heaters 341
student dormitory 39
traditional multifamily
building 31
water expansion 348
expansion. See also thermal
expansion
expansion joints 206
of schools 49
expansion tanks
Boyles law 351
defined 343
examples 349 353
material expansion 348
types 343
use of 15
water expansion formulas 346
experimental laboratories.
See laboratories
An Experimental Study of
Competing Systemsfor
Maintaining Service Water
Temperature in Residential Buildings 262
external channel flues 313 317
extracurricular activities 48
eyewashes, emergency 204 209
feedback units
steam water heaters 333 334
types 335
Fehrm, Al 262
fertilizer storage rooms 209
fiberglass insulation
heat trace systems 267 269 275
recirculating systems 275
fiberglass insulation thick-nesses 250
fill times for hydrotherapy
tubs 74 91 156
first aid rooms in sports arenas 204 209
first-degree burns 13
fixed orifices in flow balancing 245
fixtures and fixture outlets
apartments in retirement
homes 139
delivered hot water temperatures 12
distances between heater
and 233
flow rates table 236
gathering data for requirements 47
hospital user groups 72 78
kitchens 64
school general purpose 49
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128 130
sports arenas and stadiums 205
temperature at 6 78
usage patterns 72
flow rates
clothes washers 221
daily water patterns in
multifamily buildings 21
dormitory fixtures 40
fixed orifices and venturis 245
fixtures and appliances
table 236
head capacity of circulating
pumps and 257
in heat balance formula 3
hospital user group information 72
recirculation pumps 339
showers 48 51 77 93
158 210
sterilization equipment 76 93
storage volume and 16
therapeutic facilities 128
worksheets 78
flow restrictors in prisons 184
flue gases
condensation and 206
mixture control 321
thermal efficiency and 4
flues
flue routing 207
storage tank gas water
heaters 313
venting systems 321
fluid treatment facilities 190 198
gage pressures
equations 352
gases 351
gases
flame patterns 319 320
flue gases 4
as heating medium 280
volume of 351
gasketed plate units 285 288
gathering information
hospital examples 96 115
hospital food services 74
hospital laundries 75
hospital user groups 72 91
hospital worksheets 78
hotel food service 64
hotel guest rooms 60
hotel laundries 67
jails 181
laundries 221
nursing/intermediate care
facilities 134 156
nursing/intermediate
care facility example 161
obstetrics/nursery areas 77
prisons 185
retirement homes 157
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 127
sports arenas and stadiums 204
general occupancy hotels 60 61
See also hotels and
motels
hand sinks
central sterile supply 113
central sterile supply areas 95
fast-food restaurants 228
grocery stores 227
high demand hospital
areas 73
high schools 55
hospital food service 112
hospital utility rooms 73
kitchens 50 52 53 225
miscellaneous hospital
areas 77
nurses stations 89 94
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135 138
obstetrics areas 90
prisons 184
temperatures 75
hands/elbows/arms tubs 94 112 159
hard water
heat pump systems and 332
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
steam storage water heaters 334
hastelloy 285
HBV (hepatitis B virus) xxi 188
head. See pressure
hospitals (Cont.)
heat trace system plans 276 277
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
kitchen hot water requirements table 87
laundries 222 295
safety and health concerns 71
user group example work-sheets 84
user group totals work-sheets 81
user group worksheets 78
user groups defined 72
hot tubs 61
Hot Water and Energy Usein
Apartment Buildings 38
hot water multiplier
in hospital worksheets 82 83 109 124
in mixed water temperatures 7
in nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 176
hotels and motels
classifications of 59
design considerations 70
food service 64
guest rooms 60
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
heat trace system plans 276
laundry service 67
resorts 60 61 70
steam water heaters 333
hydrotherapy (Cont.)
gathering information 91 96 161
hospital requirements 73
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 136 152 153
school requirements 48
sport arenas and stadiums 209
tub temperature 129
usage factors 79 80 89
worksheet example totals 82 83 109 124
176
worksheet examples 84 86 102 117
167
hydrotherapy tubs
football stadium example 212
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
sports arenas and stadiums 211
worksheet examples 167
hypalon 286
jails
auxiliary equipment 182
design considerations 179
examples 181
gathering information 181
heat trace system plans 276 277
life cycle of 180
janitors closets 46 203
janitors receptors. See floor
receptors
Johnson, Peter J. xix
junior high schools 45
Justin, Lawrence G. xix
kitchen sinks
flow rates 40
hospital user group usage
factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes 142 147 149
sports arenas and stadiums 211
student dormitories 41
user group example work-sheets 84 86
worksheet examples 103 119 168
kitchens
cooling functions of heat
pumps 327
kitchens (Cont.)
demand
hospital requirements
table 87
hospital usage factors 79 80
hotel example 65
jails and prisons 180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 151
prisons 184 187
schools 46 47 50 55
57
small hospital example 94
sports arenas and stadiums 203 205 209
gathering data for requirements 47
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
multiple kitchens 64
multiple systems design 69
residential 42 43
water temperature 206
Kokko, J. P. 37
Konen, Thomas 262
laboratories (Cont.)
pharmaceutical plants 195
sinks 195
testing laboratories 198
user group totals work-sheets 82 83
lag time. See also delays in
hot water
feed-forward systems 336
instantaneous steam
feedback systems 336
steam feedback units 335
large apartment buildings 31
large hospitals 111
lateral runs in vents 324
laundries
delivered hot water temperatures 12
demand
apartment buildings 36
coin-operated 39 40
hospital considerations 75 92 98 295
hospital example 113 222
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheets 84 86
hotels and motels 67
institutional dormitories 42 43
jails 180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 138 157 160
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 176
laundries (Cont.)
prison industrial
laundries 188
prisons 180 184 185 188
retirement apartments 139 155 158 164
174
schools 46
spas and health clubs 130
sports arenas and stadiums 203 208 209
student dormitories 39
gathering information 98 163 221
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and 295
manufacturer specifications 68
multiple systems design 69
recover requirements 222
steam water heaters 333
storage tanks 222
wash cycles 40 75 222
laundry tubs
baseball team locker room examples 214 215 217
flow rates 236
hospital usage factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes 142 147 149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 171 174
sports arenas and stadiums 211
lavatories
delivered hot water temperatures 12
demand 87
baseball team locker
room example 214 215 217
hospital usage factors 79 80
hospital worksheet
examples 107 115
institutional dormitories 42 43
jails and prisons 180 184
kitchens 50 151
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 142 147 149 173
patient areas 88 94
resident areas in care
facilities 135
schools 49 52 54
sport arenas and stadiums 209 211
staff toilets 73
student dormitories 41
user group example
worksheets 84 86
flow rates 40
maximum flow rates 236
steam water heaters 333
leaks
cold leakage 288
copper piping 244
main lines
heat trace systems 270
in heat trace systems 276
maintenance
accessibility of heat exchangers 281
ease of access to equipment 281
fixed orifices and venturis 245
gasketed heat exchangers 287
heat pump systems 332
nursing/intermediate care
systems 163
planning for repairs 40
sports arenas and stadiums 207
storage tank draining and
cleaning 315
therapy room systems 128
maintenance areas
hospitals 77 91 93 96
99
nursing/intermediate
care systems 138 157
retirement homes 140
makeup water for feed-for-ward
steam systems 337
malls 228
management systems for
sports arenas 205
manholes 315
manicures 128 129
manual pump controls 258
multifamily buildings
centralized systems 25
circulation systems for 239
demand determination 24
demographic profiles 23
examples 31 35
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
laundries in 36
LMH factor and 26
patterns of demand 19
peak vs. average demand 26
potential traps 36
retrofitting 28
steam water heaters 333
multifunction full-condensing
equipment 17
multilevel facilities 276
multiple flues 313 3 17
multiple game events 204
multiple stamped ribbon
ports 320
multiple systems
high school considerations 56
hospital user group totals
worksheets 81
hotels 69
schools 47
multiple temperature systems 272
nonambulatory patients
bathing tubs for 137 152 154
central bathing areas 157
nonurban hotels 61
noon-time demand in spas 130
nourishment rooms
hospitals 73
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 135
NR (nitrile rubber) xxi 286
NSF (National Sanitation
Foundation) xxi
nuclear power plants 197
nurseries. See obstetrics/
nursery areas
nurses stations
32-bed hospital example 94
48-bed nursing care facility example 159
300-bed hospital example 111
characteristics 73
gathering information 91 96 156 161
hospital usage factors 89
hospital worksheet examples 82 83 101 109
124
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes 135 152 153 156
159
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples 166 176
OB (obstetrics).
See obstetrics/nursery areas
OBrien, Tim xix
obstetrics/nursery areas
32-bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 113
gathering information 93 99
obstetrics (OB) xxi
pH values (Cont.)
water
pharmaceutical facilities 188 195
phase, electric water heaters
and 207
photographic dark rooms 112 198 204
photography labs 196
physical therapy areas 89 153
physics laboratories. See
laboratories
pilot plants 188
pinhole leaks in copper piping 244
Pipe Sizing (ASHRAE) 261
piping
expansion 259 348 349
heat loss 254
heat pump systems 328 331
heat trace systems 270
heating 235
instantaneous point of
use heaters 243
insulation 250 259
pipe routing in sports arenas 205
steam systems 338 339
surface temperature 251
time delays tables 237
untraced piping 278
vent pipes 323
volumes table 350
weight of 235
pools
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
laundry and food service
demand 130
religious facilities 226
shower rooms 129
populations
by apartment size 26
demographic profiles 23
density of population 23
hotel considerations 70
multifamily buildings 23
schools 47 48
spas and health clubs 130
working tenants in
multi-family buildings 22
ports in gas burners 319 320
Position Paper on Hot Water
Temperature Limitations 261
post-birthing rooms 77 93
postsurgery rooms 111
potable water treatment
plants 190 198
pots and pans sinks 225
pounds per square inch
gauge (PSIG) xxi
power circuits 306
Pumps (Cont.)
with separate tanks 311
recirculation pumps 257 339
refrigeration units 332
steam feedback systems 335
types of circulating
pumps 258
Pumps 262
Pumps and Pump Systems 262
purified water in sterilization 195
pushbutton self-closing control valves. 180
refrigerants (Cont.)
refrigerant-based water
heating systems 17
refrigerant evaporators/
condensers 288
refrigeration heat reclaim systems 329
See also
heat pump water heaters
considerations 17
grocery stores 227
refrigeration pressure/temperature
controls 332
regional plumbing codes 16
relationships in steady-state
heat balance formula 3
relief valves
standards 15
unseating of 343
religious facilities 225
remodeling buildings
heat trace systems and 272
multifamily buildings 28
remote bulb thermostats 305
remote evaporators 327
remote heat pump water
heaters 326 327 331
repairs. See maintenance
resident areas
48-bed nursing facility
example 158 160
scaling (Cont.)
water heaters and 295
lime deposits 294 300
steam storage water heaters 334
schedules. See also hours of
operation
in prisons 185
schools
calculating demand 49
elementary school example 52
expansion 49
gathering information 47
general considerations 47
heat trace maintenance
temperature table 274
high school example 54
kitchens and food services 47 50
population 47 48
showers 48 51
steam water heaters 333
system selection factors 56
types of 45
science rooms 46 49
Scott, J.Joe xviii xx
scraping sinks 112
scrub sinks
emergency rooms 95
hospital example 112
hospital usage factors 79 80
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
showers (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate care facilities 142 147 149 156
157
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets 170 171 173
obstetrics areas 77 90 93 95
patient rooms 73 91 94
prisons 184 185
resident areas in care
facilities 135
schools 46 48 51
shower rooms 129
spas, pools, health
clubs, and athletic
centers 128
sports arenas and
stadium fixtures 204 206 208
staff shower rooms in
hospitals 77
student dormitories 41
surgical suites 75
dump loads 193
duration 62 130 181 185
equations 181
flow rates 40
gathering data for requirements 47
Legionnaires Disease
and 14
steam water heaters 333
Vichy and swiss showers 129
showers (Cont.)
water temperature 206
winter vs. summer demand 20
shutoff valves
in circulation systems 239
for fixed orifices and venturis 247
gas 315 318
isolating portions of systems 244
silverware washers 50
single bedroom apartments.
See 1-bedroom apart-
ments
single compartment sinks.
See 1 -compartment sinks
single-loop immersion elements 300
single people at spas 130
single systems 69
sinks. See also specific types
of sinks (i.e., kitchen
sinks)
classrooms 52
faucet flow rates 236
hospital example work-sheets 84 86 119
hospital food services 74 92
hourly demand 65
initial fills and draw-downs 66
kitchens 48 50
laboratories 195
miscellaneous hospital
areas 77
sinks (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate
care facilities 136 138 156
school general purpose
usage 49
schools 48 50 54
service sinks 49
sport arenas and stadiums 209
surgical suites 95
siphoning, preventing 300 315 319
sitz baths 77
sizing. See also names of spe-
cific systems to be sized
(i.e., laundries, hospitals)
costs and 37
delays in hot water and 238
generator size 30
heat exchangers 340
heat pump systems 331
instantaneous gas heaters
with separate tanks 312
oversizing xvii 25
retrofitting buildings 28
return piping and pumps 249
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
storage tanks 183
systems
baseball team locker
room examples 215 218
systems (Cont.)
concrete processing water tanks 199
dormitory systems 39
hospital systems 71
hotel and motel systems 59
industrial facility systems 189
jail and prison systems 179
laundries 221
miscellaneous facilities 225
multifamily buildings 19 25
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home systems 133
school systems 45
spas, pools, health
clubs, and athletic
center systems 127
sports arenas and
stadium systems 203
Sizing of Sewice Water Heating
Equipment in Commercial and
Institutional Buildings 38
skin damage 14
slaughter houses. See food
product facilities
sleeping quarters in nursing/
intermediate care facilities 135
slotted port burners 320
spas
calculating demand 130
gathering information 127
hot water requirements 128
laundry and food service
demand 130
shower rooms 129
special education rooms 46
special needs in therapy services 128
special use housing facilities 35
specialized tubs
nonambulatory patients 137
worksheet examples 170
specific heat of water 3 4
specific volume of water 346 354
Spielvogel, L. G. 38
spills
flue gas spillage 322
pharmaceutical plants 195
sponge bathing 88
sports arenas
baseball stadium example 214
commercial laundries in 208
demand assumptions 208
design traps 206
football stadium example 211
gathering information 204
sizing systems 210
system design considerations 205
types of systems 207
stainless steel
in heat exchangers 285 288
pump fittings 258
stamped horizontal port
burners 320
stamped mono-port burners 320
standards and codes
heat exchangers 279
listing 16
sports arenas and stadiums 205
state plumbing codes 16
static head in closed systems 258
steady-state heat balance
formula 3
steam
as heating medium 185 280
tank heaters 283
U-tube removable bundles and 282
Steam and Condensate Systems 341
steam generation plants 185
steam mains 338
steam sterilizers 95 112 113
steam water heaters
design considerations 340
example 341
feed-forward units 336
feedback units 334
instantaneous water heaters 333
recirculation system piping
and operation 338
stresses
on indirect fired water
heaters 293
on pipes 259
student dormitories 39
student toilets 46
studio apartments 26
suite hotels 61
summer season water de-mand 20
supermarkets 226 329 330
supplemental water heating
systems 17
supply. See incoming cold
water supply; incoming
hot water supply
supply pipes
check valves and 245
in circulation systems 239
insulation 260
risers in heat trace systems 276
surface-mounted high limit
safety devices 298 303
surface-mounted thermo-stats 298 303
surface temperature of piping 251
surgical patients 72 92
surgical suites
32-bed hospital example 95
300-bed hospital example 112
considerations 75
gathering information 97
tankless systems.
See instan-taneous systems
tanks. See storage tanks
tape in heat trace systems 269
Tarbutton, George B. xx
tax credits 328
Taylor, H. 38
teachers lounges 46
teachers workrooms 46 49
tee/inline splice kits
in heat trace systems 269
plumbing drawing indicators 273
TEMA (Tubular Exchange
Manufacturers Association) xxi 280
temperature
condensation and 15
delivered hot water temperatures 12
differential in heat recovery equations 5
equations 354
at fixture outlet 6 64 78
heat trace systems 266
large differences in 283
lime deposits and 294
mixed water temperatures 6
requirements
concrete 198
gathering requirements 47
heat trace maintenance temperature
table 274
hospital laundries 76 92
temperature (Cont.)
hospital user groups 72 78
hospital worksheets 81 84 86
hydrotherapy 74 92 136 156
jail and prison considerations 179
kitchens 137 187
laundries 76 92 138 222
nursing/intermediate
care laundries 138
prison kitchens 187
showers 210
special therapeutic
needs 128
sports arenas and
stadium fixtures 204 206
scalding 13
sterilization 76 93
system temperature
range 278
worksheets 140
temperature controlled steam
valves 335
temperature cross
defined 281
plate-type heat exchangers and 284
U-tube removable bundles 283
temperature differential
drops in system temperature range 278
in heat recovery equations 5
therapy services
calculating demand 130
hot water requirements 128
spas, pools, health clubs,
and athletic centers 128
sports arenas and stadium fixtures 206
therapy tubs 73 91
Thermal and Water Vapor
Transmission Data 261
thermal efficiency (R factor) 4 260
thermal expansion
allowing for 15
indirect fired water heaters 293
piping 259
refrigerant liquids 326
tank materials 348
U-tube removable bundles 283
thermal expansion tanks. See
expansion tanks
thermal insulation.
See insulation
thermal stress in indirect
fired water heaters 293
thermodynamic properties of
water 347
thermostatic aquastat controls 258
thermostatic capillary systems 336
thermostatic capsules 339
thermostatic mixing valves 74 112 209
thermostats
electric water heaters 303
gas water heaters 316 317
heat pump systems 332
storage tank fittings 315 318
storage tanks 298
thirty mA ground fault equipment 267
Thrasher, W. H. 38 57
threaded nipples 298 314
three-way thermostatic
capsules (diverting valves) 339 340
ticket booths 204 209
time clock controls 259
time-delay sequencers 306
time delays. See delays in hot
water
time length. See duration
time of day, peak flows and 26
time periods for showers 48
time rates for heat transfer 3
time to tap. See delays in hot
water
timed-control valves 180
titanium 285
To Combine or Not to Combine 262
toilets
fast-food restaurants 229
grocery stores 227
industrial facilities 191
prisons 184
toilets (Cont.)
public 42 43
religious facilities 226
shopping malls 228
special school facilities 46
staff toilets 73
training rooms 204 209
trauma rooms 113
travelers hotels 60 61
tray cleaning 227
triple compartment sinks. See
3-compartment sinks
troubleshooting
multifamily building sizing 36
problems with inadequate
hot water systems 233
recirculating hot water
systems 233 243
sports arena design 206
truck tanks, concrete 199
tub rooms 94 111 157
tube failures in heat exchangers 284
tube-in-tube heat exchangers 281 284
tube-on-tube heat exchangers 281
tube velocity 282
tubes, weight of 235
tubs. See bathtubs; hydro-therapy
tubs; laundry tubs
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers
Association (TEMA) xxi 280
turbulence
in heat exchangers 286
instantaneous indirect
water heaters 295
turnaround time for showers 210
two bedroom apartments. See
2-bedroom apartments
vents
gas water heaters 316 317
pipe connections 323
storage tank gas water
heaters 321
venturi flow meters 245
vertical draft hoods 322 323
vertical drilled ports case
burners 320
vertical-to-horizontal draft
hoods 322
vertical water tanks
storage capacity 207
stratification 16
Vichy showers 128 129
Vine, E. 38
visiting team locker rooms 203 217
viton 286
voltage
electric water heaters 207
resistance of elements 302
volumes
of materials 354
of water 346 354
volumetric expansion 349
wards in hospitals 72
warehouses 190 197
warm air sources for heat
pumps 325
warming kitchens 48
wash cycles
averages 222
dormitory laundries 40
loads per hour 75
number per hour 222
wash down activities 227
wash fountains
baseball team locker room
examples 214 215 218
example 193
sports arenas and stadiums 211
wash rooms. See lavatories
wash stations
group wash fountains 192 193
industrial facilities 191
washing disinfectors. See
disinfectors
wasting energy. See energy
conservation
wasting water. See water conservation
water
expansion formulas 348
as heating medium 280
volume of 346
wastage. See water con-servation
water (Cont.)
weight of 3 4 346
water conservation
delays in hot water and 238
energy conservation 234
heat trace systems and 265 266 270
laws 37
wastage tables 271
water expansion formulas 346
water hammer 336
water heaters
applications
baseball team locker
room examples 215 217 218
football stadium example 212
industrial facilities 192
institutional dormitories 43
jail example 183
distances to fixtures 233
expansion 348
types
electric water heaters 297
heat exchangers 279
heat pump water
heaters 325
indirect fired water
heaters 291
instantaneous gas
heaters with
separate tanks 311
work-release programs in
prisons 186
work shifts. See shift changes
workforce clients at spas 130
working tenants in multifamily buildings 22
worksheets
hospitals
32-bed hospital examples 100 109
300-bed examples 115 124
user group examples 84
user group work-sheets 78
worksheet totals 81
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
48-bed examples 164
user group examples 147
worksheet totals 144
worksheets 140
retirement home examples 173
wraparound elements 300