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Algebra II Notes - Fall 2017

1 Chapter 1: Preliminary Results


1.1 Lagranges Theorem
Definition 1. Let G be a group and H G. For any a, b G, a b mod H if ab1 H.

Example 1. Suppose G = Z and H = nZ G, where n 1. If a, b Z and a b mod H,


then a b = kn for some k Z.

Lemma 1. Let H G and let be a relation on G defined as follows: a b if a b


mod H. Then is an equivalence relation on G.

Definition 2. Let H G. A right coset of H in G is a set Ha = {ha : h H}, where


a G.

Lemma 2.

1. For all a G, Ha = {b G : b a mod H}.

2. There is a 1 1 correspondence between any two right cosets of H in G.

Theorem 1 (Lagrange). If H G and |G| < , then |H| | |G|.

Definition 3. The index of a subgroup H G, denoted [G : H], is the number of distinct


right cosets of H in G.

Corollary 1.

1. If G is finite, a G, then |hai| | |G| and a|G| = e.

2. (Euler) If n is a positive integer and (n, a) = 1 then a(n) 1 mod n.

3. (Fermat) If p is a prime and a Z then ap a mod p.

Corollary 2. If G has prime order then G is cyclic.

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1.2 Some Results with two Subgroups
Definition 4. Let H, K G. Define

HK = {hk : h H and k K} .

Lemma 3. Let G be a group and let H, K G. Then

1. H K G,

2. HK G HK = KH,

3. If |G| < then


|H||K|
|HK| = .
|H K|

Lemma 4. Let G be a finite group and let H, K G.

1. If (|H|, |K|) = 1, then H K = {e}.


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2. If |H|, |K| > |G| then H K 6= {e}.

Definition 5. Let H, K G. Define a relation on G as follows: For all a, b G, a 0 b


a = hbk for some h H, k K.

Lemma 5. The relation 0 on G defined in Definition 5 is an equivalence relation on G.

Definition 6. The corresponding equivalence class of a G in (G 0 ) is

HaK = {hak : h H, k K} .

The set HaK is called a double coset of H, K in G.

Lemma 6. Let H, K G and |G| < . Then for any a G,

|H||K|
|HaK| = .
|H aKa1 |

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1.3 Some Important Subgroups
Definition 7. Let X G. The centralizer of X in G is defined as

CG (X) = {g G : gx = xg for all x X} .

The center of G is Z(G) := CG (G).

Definition 8. Let X G. The normalizer of X in G is defined as

NG (X) = g G : g 1 Xg = X .


If X = {a} for some a G then clearly, NG (X) = CG (X). In this case, we more
commonly talk of the normalizer of a and denote it N (a).

Lemma 7. The following statements hold:

1. CG (X) NG (X) G for any X G.

2. If X G then X NG (X).

3. Z(G) = G G is abelian.

4. N (a) = G a Z(G).

Definition 9. Let X G. We define X b to be the smallest subgroup of G containing X


(intersection of all subgroups of G containing X).

**Note in particular that every element of X


b can be written as a product of elements
from X.

Definition
 1 110. The commutator
subgroup of G, denoted G0 , is given by G0 = X,
b where
X = x y xy : x, y G .

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1.4 The Symmetric Group and Representing Permutations

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2 Chapter 2: Normal Structure
2.1 Normal Subgroups
Definition 11. A subgroup N G is normal in G if g 1 N g = N holds for all g G,
i.e., if G = NG (N ) (also equivalent to g 1 N g N since the other inclusion always holds by
Lemma 7 (2)). We denote this by N  G.

Remark 1. Any subgroup of an abelian group is normal. If G is abelian and N G then


g 1 ng = g 1 gn = n for all g G and for all n N . Thus, g 1 N g = N for all g G.
Any group G has two normal subgroups, namely the trivial subgroups {e} and G.
Note that it is not necessarily true that if H  N  G then H  G (smallest example may
be D8 , the Dihedral Group of Order 8).

Lemma 8. Let G be a group and H, N G.


1. If N  G then N H G.

2. If N  G and H  G then N H  G.

Remark 2. The only abelian simple groups are those of prime order.
The smallest non-abelian simple group is the alternating group A5 .

Lemma 9. N  G every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in G.

Definition 12. Suppose that N  G. Let G/N denote the set of right cosets of N in G.
That is, G/N = {N g : g G}. Note that by Lemma 9, the set G/N is also the set of left
coset of N .
There are certain operations we can do on G/N . We justify them below.
Lemma 10. Let N  G. Then for any a, b G we have
1. N e = N and N aN e = N eN a = N a (identity),

2. N aN b = N ab (closure),

3. N aN a1 = N aa1 = N e = N (inverse),

4. (N aN b)N c = N a(N bN c) (associativity).


Note that Lemma 10 confirms that if N  G then G/N forms a group.
Corollary 3. Let N  G. Then G/N forms a group, called the quotient (or factor) group of
G by N .

Lemma 11. If G is finite and N  G then

|G/N | = [G : N ] = |G|/|N |.

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Lemma 12. The following statements hold:

1. If H G then H  NG (H).

2. Let H K G. Then H  K if and only if K NG (H).

3. Z(G)  N (a) for all a G.

4. If H Z(G) then H  G. In particular, Z(G)  G.

5. If G/Z(G) is cyclic then G is abelian.

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3 Chapter 3: Group Actions
3.1 Basic Definitions
Definition 13. Let G be a group and let X 6= be a set. A group action of G on X is a
map : X G X, defined by (x, g) 7 x g (for fixed g G, we think of the map x g as
a permutation on X), which satisfies
(i) x e = x for all x X,
(ii) (x g1 ) g2 = x g1 g2 for all x X, g1 , g2 G.
Sometimes (G, X) is referred to as a permutation group.

Example 2. Let X be some non-empty set and suppose G A(X), that is, G is a subgroup
of the set of permutations on X. Then we can define the action of G on X to simply be
evaluation: x g = g(x) for all x X.
Remark 3. You can have groups acting on groups (or parts thereof) - the motivation being
that you want to determine structure on the acting group.

Important examples of groups acting on groups:


Example 3. G acting on itself.
(a) Regular Action: For g1 , g2 G define the action by g1 g2 = g1 g2 .
(b) Conjugate Action: For g1 , g2 G define the action by g1 g2 = g21 g1 g2 .
Example 4. G acting on sets related to G.
(a) Let X be the set of all non-empty subsets of G. Define the action of G on X by
S g = Sg = {sg : s S} , g G, S X.

(b) Let X be as before. Define S g = g 1 Sg for all g G, for all S X.


(c) Let Y be the set of right cosets of some fixed subgroup H of G. Define the action of G
on Y by Ha g = Hag for all a G, g G.

Definition 14. Let G act on the set X. The kernel of the action is defined as
Ker = {g G : x g = x x X} .
A faithful action is one in which Ker = {e}.

Remark 4. Effectively, faithfulness means no two elements of G are acting the same on
X. That is, if the action is faithful, then
x g = x h x X x gh1 = x x X gh1 Ker = {e} g = h.
Q: What is the kernel of each of the previous actions mentioned?

Definition 15. Let G act on X. For any x X we define the stabilizer is x, denoted Gx ,
to be Gx = {g G : x g = x}.

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Throughout the rest of these notes, we will assume that G is a group acting on some set
X 6= .

Lemma 13. The following statements hold:

1. Let G act on itself by conjugation. That is, g1 g2 = g21 g1 g2 for all g1 , g2 G. Then
Gg = N (g) for all g G.

2. If G acts on its set of non-empty subsets by conjugation then GS = NG (S) for all
S G, S 6= .

3. Let H G. If G acts on the right cosets of H in G by right multiplication, then

GHa = a1 Ha

for all a G.

Remark 5. Let H G. We can talk of the restrictions of the action of G on a set X to H,


which is to say, H inherits the action of G on X. Thus, for h H, x X, x h is defined by
the action of G.

Lemma 14. Let H G and let H inherit the action of G to a set X. Then for any x X
we have
Hx = Gx H.

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3.2 Embeddings in A(X) and Cayleys Theorem
Theorem 2. For each g G define a mapping g : X X by

g (x) = x g.

Then g A(X) and the map : G A(X) given by (g) = g is a homomorphism with
ker() equal to the kernel of the action.

Corollary 4. Let K = Ker be the kernel of some group action of G on X. Then K  G and
G/K is isomorphic to a subgroup of A(X).

Corollary 5 (Cayleys Theorem, 1878). Any group G is isomorphic to permutation group


(indeed, it can be embedded in A(G)).

Corollary 6. For any group G, Inn(G)


= G/Z(G), where Inn(G) is the automorphism
group of G.

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3.3 Orbits
Definition 16. For any x X the orbit containing x is the set x = {x g : g G}.

Lemma 15. Define a relation on X by x y if and only if x and y lie in the same orbit.
Then is an equivalence relation with equivalence classes equal to the orbits of the action.
In particular, the orbits of the action partition X.

Remark 6. When the action is conjugation, we call orbits conjugacy classes.

Theorem 3 (Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem). Suppose G is a group acting on a set X. Then for


any x X,
|x| = [G : Gx ].
If G is finite, then |x| = |G|/|Gx |.

Two corollaries are usually given to emphasize the immediate utility of the Orbit-Stabilizer
Theorem.

Corollary 7. If G acts on the set of all subsets of itself by conjugation, then for any S G,

|S| = [G : NG (S)].

Corollary 8. For any g G the conjugacy class of g (see Remark 6) satisfies

|g| = [G : N (g)].

Theorem 4 (Burnsides Lemma/Cauchy-Frobenius Theorem). Suppose G is a finite group


and that G acts on X. Let n be the number of orbits of the action. Then
1 X
n= (g),
|G|
gG

where (g) = | {x X : x g = x} |, which is known as the permutation character.

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3.4 Symmetric Group Revisited
Suppose X is a finite set. Consider any g A(X). We can view g acting on X in the usual
way, by applying g to X. Note that the cycle structure of G is closely connected to the orbits
of G = hgi. Indeed, the orbit of x X is given by the set

x = {x h : h G} = x g i : 0 i < |g| ,


while the cycle of g containing x is given by

(x, x g, x g 2 , . . . , x g k1 ),

where k is the smallest positive integer for Q which x g k = x (Note: k may not be |g|, as k
depends on the action itself.) Thus, if g = ci , where the c0i s are disjoint cycles, then ci =
(x1 , . . . , xm ) = (x1 , x1 g, . . . x1 g m1 ) (this 2
 is ibecause x1 7 x1 g = x2 , x2 7 x2 g = x1 g ,
etc) if and only if x = {x h : h G} = x g : 0 i < |g| .

This leads us to the following theorem:

Theorem 5. Any g A(X) can be written as a product of disjoint cycles, where each cycle
consists of an ordering of each distinct orbit of G = hgi acting on X. This representation is
unique up to the order in which the disjoint cycles are written.

Corollary 9. For any g A(X), |g| is the least common multiple of the lengths of the
disjoint cycles in its unique decomposition.

Lemma 16. Let g A(X) be an m-cycle, so g = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ). If h A(X) then


h1 gh = (x1 h, . . . , xm h). In particular, any conjugate of an m-cycle is an m-cycle.

Theorem 6.

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3.5 On Normal Subgroups
Theorem 7. Let H G with [G : H] = n. Then there exists an N  G with N H and
[G : N ] | n!.

Theorem 8. Let G be a finite group and suppose that H G. If |G| - [G : H]! then H
contains a non-trivial normal subgroup of G.

Corollary 10. Let p be the smallest prime divisor of |G|. Any subgroup of index p in G is
normal in G. Let G act on the right cosets of H by right multiplication and let N be the
kernel of this action.

Corollary 11. There are only two groups of order 6, namely C6 and S3 .

Theorem 9. Let G act on X. Suppose that g G induces an odd permutation under the
action of G on X. Then G contains an index 2 subgroup.

Corollary 12. If |G| = 2m, where m > 1 is odd, then G contains an index 2 subgroup.

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3.6 Normal Subgroup Structure of Sn
Theorem 10.

Lemma 17.

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4 Sylow Theory
4.1 Class Equations
Definition 17. For a, b Gwe say that a is a conjugate of b if there exists a g G such
that a = g 1 bg.

Lemma 18. Define a relation on G as follows: a b g G such that a = g 1 bg. The


relation is an equivalence relation on G.

Theorem 11. If G is a finite group then the number of elements conjugate to a G is


[G : N (a)].

Corollary 13 (The Class Equation of G). For any finite group G,


X |G|
|G| = ,
a
|N (a)|

where the sum runs over one a from each conjugacy class.

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4.2 Cauchys Theorem
Cauchys Theorem is a landmark result in group theory - it guarantees the existence of
subgroups of a finite group G of a certain order.

Theorem 12 (Cauchy, 1844). Suppose G is a finite group. If p | |G|, where p is prime, then
G contains an element of order p.

Corollary 14. If |G| = pq, where p and q are prime then G is not simple, i.e., G has another
normal subgroup other than {e} and itself.

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4.3 p-Groups
Definition 18. A p-group is any group of order a power of p, where p is prime.

Theorem 13. If G is a p-group then Z(G) 6= {e}.

Corollary 15. Any group of order p2 is abelian.

Lemma 19. Let |G| = pn . Then G contains a subgroup of order pt for all 0 t n.

Corollary 16. Any p-group contains a normal subgroup of index p.

Definition 19. Let G act on X. We define the fixed subset of X under G by

FixX (G) = {x X : x g = x g G} .

These are the elements of X which are fixed by all of the elements of G.

Lemma 20. Let G be a p-group acting on a finite set X. Then

| FixX (G)| |X| mod p.

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