ENUGU STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY(ESUT) ENUGU

45 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
BY

ADIELE GODSTIME OBUMNEME WITH THE

REGISTRATION NUMBER

ESUT/M.ENG/2014/13984

COURSE CODE: MEC 752

 COURSE TITLE: ADVANCED
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.

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 1. Centrifugal casting (industrial)

Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled
cylinders. It is used to cast such materials as metal, glass, and concrete. It is noted for the high quality of
the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most
other casting techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used to manufacture stock materials in standard
sizes for further machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to a particular end-use.

2. Electrical discharge machining

Electrical discharge machining (EDM), also known as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die
sinking, wire burning or wire erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained
by using electrical discharges (sparks).[1] Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly
recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject to an
electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool-electrode, or simply the "tool" or "electrode,"
while the other is called the workpiece-electrode, or "workpiece." The process depends upon the tool and
workpiece not making actual contact.When the voltage between the two electrodes is increased, the
intensity of the electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of
the dielectric (at least in some places), which breaks down, allowing current to flow between the two
electrodes. This phenomenon is the same as the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser) (see

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also breakdown voltage). As a result, material is removed from the electrodes. Once the current stops (or
is stopped, depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually conveyed into the inter-
electrode volume, enabling the solid particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating properties of
the dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly
referred to as "flushing." Also, after a current flow, the difference of potential between the electrodes is
restored to what it was before the breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur.

3. Die Casting

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure
into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been
machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings are
made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-
based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process
to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only
four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for a large quantity

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of small- to medium-sized castings, which is why die casting produces more castings than any other
casting process.[1] Die castings are characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and
dimensional consistency.

Two variants are pore-free die casting, which is used to eliminate gas porosity defects; and direct
injection die casting, which is used with zinc castings to reduce scrap and increase yield.

4. Continuous Casting

Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the process whereby molten metal is solidified into a
"semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing mills. Prior to the introduction
of continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into stationary molds to form ingots. Since then,
"continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency. It
allows lower-cost production of metal sections with better quality, due to the inherently lower costs of
continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing increased control over the process
through automation. This process is used most frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage
cast). Aluminium and copper are also continuously cast.

Sir Henry Bessemer, of Bessemer converter fame, received a patent in 1857 for casting metal between
two counter-rotating rollers. The basic outline of this system has recently been implemented today in the
casting of steel strip.

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Continuous casting. 1: Ladle. 2: Stopper. 3: Tundish. 4: Shroud. 5: Mold. 6: Roll support. 7: Turning
zone. 8: Shroud. 9: Bath level. 10: Meniscus. 11: Withdrawal unit. 12: Slab. A: Liquid metal. B:
Solidified metal. C: Slag. D: Water-cooled copper plates. E: Refractory material.

5. Investment Casting

Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known metal-
forming techniques.[1] The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment casting processes.

Investment casting has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years. In its earliest forms, beeswax
was used to form patterns necessary for the casting process. Today, more advanced waxes, refractory
materials and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting is valued for its
ability to produce components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals
and high-performance alloys.

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The fragile wax patterns must withstand forces encountered during the mold making. Much of the wax
used in investment casting can be reclaimed and reused.[2] Lost-foam casting is a modern form of
investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the process.

Investment casting derives its name from the pattern being invested (surrounded) with a refractory
material. Many materials are suitable for investment casting; examples are stainless steel alloys, brass,
aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The material is poured into a cavity in a refractory material that is an
exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting
can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary
machine processes.[3]

The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several
hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but per-unit costs decrease
with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or
impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities and
low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining required.

6. Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent molds"),
usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas pressure

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or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting,
produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other
materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds.[1][2]

Typical products are components such as gears, splines, wheels, gear housings, pipe fittings, fuel
injectionhousings, and automotive engine pistons.

7. Sand Casting

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand
as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting
process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal
castings are produced via sand casting process.[1]

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In
addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture
is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop the strength and
plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a

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system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by
compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or carved directly into the sand.

8. Shell Molding

Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting,[1] is an expendable mold casting process that uses
a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional
accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts
that require high precision.[2] Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that
molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-
walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the
shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher
production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting
requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron,
carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-to-

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medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and
lever arms.

The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:

Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron
or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or graphite for
casting reactive materials.

Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 C (350-700 F) and coated with a lubricant
to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand
and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The
heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each pattern half
and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.

Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the complete
shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold is then
placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the
gating system and fills the mold cavity.

Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of
the final casting.

Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting removed.
Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed system and any
sand from the mold.

Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting rods. It is also used
to make high-precision molding cores.

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 9. Vacuum molding

Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous
metals,[6] in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a vacuum. The pattern is specially vented so
that a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008 in (0.076 to
0.203 mm)) of plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (200 to 400 mmHg (27 to
53 kPa)). A special vacuum forming flask is placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-
flowing sand. The sand is vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the
cope. Another sheet of plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn
through the special flask; this hardens and strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released on
the pattern and the cope is removed. The drag is made in the same way (without the sprue and pouring
cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is closed. The molten metal is poured while the cope and
drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic vaporizes but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand
while the metal solidifies. When the metal has solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out
freely, releasing the casting.[7][8]

The V-process is known for not requiring a draft because the plastic film has a certain degree of lubricity
and it expands slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The process has high dimensional
accuracy, with a tolerance of 0.010 in for the first inch and 0.002 in/in thereafter. Cross-sections as
small as 0.090 in (2.3 mm) are possible. The surface finish is very good, usually between 150 and
125 rms. Other advantages include no moisture related defects, no cost for binders, excellent sand
permeability, and no toxic fumes from burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not wear out because

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the sand does not touch it. The main disadvantage is that the process is slower than traditional sand
casting so it is only suitable for low to medium production volumes; approximately 10 to 15,000 pieces a
year. However, this makes it perfect for prototype work, because the pattern can be easily modified as it is
made from plastic

A schematic of vacuum molding

10. Laser Engraving

Laser engraving, which is a subset of laser marking,[1] is the practice of using lasers to engrave an
object. Laser marking, on the other hand, is a broader category of methods to leave marks on an object,
which also includes color change due to chemical/molecular alteration, charring, foaming, melting,
ablation, and more. The technique does not involve the use of inks, nor does it involve tool bits which
contact the engraving surface and wear out, giving it an advantage over alternative engraving or marking
technologies where inks or bit heads have to be replaced regularly.

The impact of laser marking has been more pronounced for specially designed "laserable" materials and
also for some paints. These include laser-sensitive polymers and novel metal alloys.

The term laser marking is also used as a generic term covering a broad spectrum of surfacing techniques
including printing, hot-branding and laser bonding. The machines for laser engraving and laser marking

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are the same, so that the two terms are sometimes confused by those without knowledge or experience in
the practice.

11. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc
welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is
protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler
metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-
current welding power supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a
column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such
as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the
weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing
for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to
master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related

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process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc
and as a result is often automated.

12. Plasma Torch

A plasma torch (also known as a plasma arc, plasma gun, or plasma cutter) is a device for generating
a directed flow of plasma.[1] The plasma jet can be used for applications including plasma cutting, plasma
arc welding, plasma spraying, and plasma gasification for waste disposal.

Types of thermal plasma torches

Thermal plasmas are generated in plasma torches by direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), radio-
frequency (RF) and other discharges. DC torches are the most commonly used and researched, because
when compared to AC: there is less flicker generation and noise, a more stable operation, better control,
a minimum of two electrodes, lower electrode consumption, slightly lower refractory [heat] wear and
lower power consumption.[2]

Thermal plasma DC torches, non-transferred arc, based on hot cathode

In a DC torch, the electric arc is formed between the electrodes (which can be made of
copper, tungsten, graphite, molybdenum, silver etc.), and the thermal plasma is formed from the continual
input of carrier/working gas, projecting outward as a plasma jet/flame (as can be seen on the right). In DC

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torches, the carrier gas can be, for example, either oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, air, hydrogen; [2] and
although termed as such, it does not have to be a gas (thus, better termed a carrier fluid).

For example, a research plasma torch at the Institute of Plasma Physics (IPP) in Prague, Czech Republic,
functions with an H2O vortex (as well as a small addition of argon to ignite the arc), and produces a high
temperature/velocity plasma flame.[3] In fact, early studies of arc stabilization employed a water-
vortex.[4] Overall, the electrode materials and carrier fluids have to be specifically matched to avoid
excessive electrode corrosion or oxidation (and contamination of materials to be treated), while
maintaining ample power and function.

Furthermore, the flow-rate of the carrier gas can be raised to promote a larger, more projecting plasma jet,
provided that the arc current is sufficiently increased; and vice versa.

The plasma flame of a real plasma torch is a few inches long at most; it is to be distinguished
from fictional long-range plasma weapons.

Transferred vs. non-transferred

It is important to note that there are two types of DC torches: non-transferred and transferred. In non-
transferred DC torches, the electrodes are inside the body/housing of the torch itself (creating the arc
there). Whereas in transferred one electrode is outside (and is usually the conductive material to be
treated), allowing the arc to form outside of the torch over a larger distance.

A benefit of transferred DC torches is that the plasma arc is formed outside the water-cooled body,
preventing heat loss as is the case with non-transferred torches, where their electrical-to-thermal
efficiency can be as low as 50%, but the hot water can itself be utilized.[3] Furthermore, transferred DC
torches can be used in a twin-torch setup, where one torch is cathodic and the other anodic, which has the
earlier benefit of a regular transferred single-torch system, but allows their use with non-
conductive materials, as there is no need for it to form the other electrode.[2] The electrodes of non-
transferred torches are larger, because they suffer more wear by the plasma arc.

The quality of plasma produced is a function of density (pressure), temperature and torch power (the
greater the better). With regards to the efficiency of the torch itself this can vary among manufacturers
and torch technology; though for example, Leal-Quirs reports that for Westinghouse Plasma Corp.
torches a thermal efficiency of 90% is easily possible; the efficiency represents the percentage of arc

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power that exits the torch and enters the process

13. Oxy-fuel welding

Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the U.S.)
and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals, respectively.
French engineers Edmond Fouch and Charles Picard became the first to develop oxygen-
acetylene welding in 1903.[1] Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to increase the flame temperature to
allow localized melting of the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common
propane/air flame burns at about 2,250 K (1,980 C; 3,590 F),[2] a propane/oxygen flame burns at about
2,526 K (2,253 C; 4,087 F),[3] an oxyhydrogen flame burns at 3,073 K (2,800 C; 5,072 F), and an
acetylene/oxygen flame burns at about 3,773 K (3,500 C; 6,332 F).[4]

Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes, besides forge welding. In recent decades it has been
obsolesced in almost all industrial uses due to various arc welding methods offering more consistent
mechanical weld properties and faster application. Gas welding is still used for metal-based artwork and
in smaller home based shops, as well as situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via an extension cord
or portable generator) would present difficulties.

In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are
heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally
supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.

In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. A stream of oxygen is then
trained on the metal, burning it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as slag.[5]

Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not considered oxy-
fuel torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (oxy-fuel cutting requires two isolated

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supplies, fuel and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted with a single-tank torch. Consequently, single-
tank torches are typically suitable for soldering and brazing but not for welding.

14. Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert
gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc
forms between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece
metal(s), causing them to melt and join.

Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process
from contaminants in the air. The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct
current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well
as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called
globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and
corresponding advantages and limitations.

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Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was
soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other welding processes. The
cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such
as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process
more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most
common industrial welding process, preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting
the process to robotic automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such
as shielded metal arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A related
process, flux cored arc welding, often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode wire
that is hollow and filled with flux.

GMAW torch nozzle cutaway image. (1) Torch handle, (2) Molded phenolic dielectric (shown in white)
and threaded metal nut insert (yellow), (3) Shielding gas diffuser, (4) Contact tip, (5) Nozzle output face

15. Shielded Metal Arc Welding

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Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc
welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding[1] or informally as stick welding, is a
manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld.

An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power
supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. The workpiece
and the electrode melts forming a pool of molten metal (weld pool) that cools to form a joint. As the weld
is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and
providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.

Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal
arc welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding
processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in
popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of heavy steel structures and in
industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel)
but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

16. Submerged Arc Welding

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Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. The first patent on the submerged-arc
welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated
flux. Originally developed and patented by Jones, Kennedy and Rothermund, the process requires a
continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode.[1] The molten weld and the arc zone
are protected from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible
flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten,
the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick
layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing
the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
process.

SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held)
SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to
the flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove position welds have been done
with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have
been reported this compares to ~5 kg/h (10 lb/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Although currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly utilized,[2] currents of up to 5000 A have
also been used (multiple arcs).

Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat
strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be used, and combinations of DC
and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant voltage welding power supplies are most
commonly used; however, constant current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.

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 17. Flash Welding

Flash welding is a type of resistance welding that does not use any filler metals. The pieces of metal to be
welded are set apart at a predetermined distance based on material thickness, material composition, and
desired properties of the finished weld. Current is applied to the metal, and the gap between the two
pieces creates resistance and produces the arc required to melt the metal. Once the pieces of metal reach
the proper temperature, they are pressed together, effectively forge welding them together.

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 18. Upset Welding

Upset welding (UW)/resistance butt welding is a welding technique that produces coalescence
simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or progressively along a joint, by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current through the area where those surfaces are in contact.[1] .
Pressure is applied before heating is started and is maintained throughout the heating period. The
equipment used for upset welding is very similar to that used for flash welding. It can be used only if the
parts to be welded are equal in cross-sectional area. The abutting surfaces must be very carefully prepared
to provide for proper heating. The difference from flash welding is that the parts are clamped in the
welding machine and force is applied bringing them tightly together. High-amperage current is then
passed through the joint, which heats the abutting surfaces. When they have been heated to a suitable
forging temperature an upsetting force is applied and the current is stopped. The high temperature of the

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work at the abutting surfaces plus the high pressure causes coalescence to take place. After cooling, the
force is released and the weld is completed.

19. Hemming and seaming

Hemming and seaming are two similar metalworking processes in which a sheet metal edge is rolled
over onto itself. Hemming is the process in which the edge is rolled flush to itself, while a seam joins the
edges of two materials.[1]

Hems are commonly used to reinforce an edge, hide burrs and rough edges, and improve appearance.
There are two types of hemmed edges: closed hems and open hems. Closed hems are completely flush
while open hems have an air pocket in the bend. The major difference is that the tonnage required for a
closed hem is much greater than that for an open hem.

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 20. Seaming

Seams are commonly used in the food industry on canned goods, on amusement park cars, and in the
automotive industry. The process for both hemming and seaming are the same, except that the tonnage
requirement is greater for seaming. The process starts by bending the edge to an acute angle. A flattening
die is then used to flatten the hem

21. Spot Welding

Resistance spot welding (RSW)[1] is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current.

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Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to
3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to
concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a
large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot
welding is that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10100
milliseconds).[2] That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the
sheet.

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the electrodes
and the magnitude and duration of the current.[3] The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's
material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy will not melt the metal
or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and
make a hole rather than a weld.[4] Another feature of spot welding is that the energy delivered to the spot
can be controlled to produce reliable welds.

Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is localized by means of
raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the
projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer spacing of welds. The projections
can also serve as a means of positioning the workpieces. Projection welding is often used to weld studs,
nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used to join crossed wires and
bars. This is another high-production process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable
designing and jigging.

22. Friction Welding

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Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process that generates heat through
mechanical friction between workpieces in relative motion to one another, with the addition of a lateral
force called "upset" to plastically displace and fuse the materials. Because no melting occurs, friction
welding is not a fusion welding process in the traditional sense, but more of a forge welding technique.
Friction welding is used with metals and thermoplastics in a wide variety of aviation and automotive
applications.

23. Electron Beam Welding

Electron beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity electrons is
applied to two materials to be joined. The workpieces melt and flow together as the kinetic energy of the
electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. EBW is often performed under vacuum conditions to
prevent dissipation of the electron beam.

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 24. Laser Beam Welding

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use
of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high
welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications using automation, such as in the
automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode welding.

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 25. Thermite

Thermite (/rmat/)[1] is a pyrotechnic composition of metal powder, fuel and metal oxide. When
ignited by heat, thermite undergoes an exothermic reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction. Most varieties are
not explosive but can create brief bursts of high temperature in a small area. Its form of action is similar
to that of other fuel-oxidizer mixtures, such as black powder.

Thermites have diverse compositions. Fuels include aluminium, magnesium, titanium, zinc, silicon,
and boron. Aluminium is common because of its high boiling point and low cost. Oxidizers
include bismuth(III) oxide, boron(III) oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, chromium(III) oxide, manganese(IV)
oxide, iron(III) oxide, iron(II,III) oxide, copper(II) oxide, and lead(II,IV) oxide.[2]

The reaction, also called the Goldschmidt process, is used for thermite welding, often used to join rail
tracks. Thermites have also been used in metal refining, demolition of munitions, and in incendiary
weapons. Some thermite-like mixtures are used as pyrotechnic initiators in fireworks.

26. Milling (Machining)

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material[1] from a work piece by
advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool.[2][3] It covers a wide variety of
different operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling
operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for
machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.

Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original class of machine tools for milling
was the milling machine (often called a mill). After the advent of computer numerical control (CNC),
milling machines evolved into machining centers (milling machines with automatic tool changers, tool

26
magazines or carousels, CNC control, coolant systems, and enclosures), generally classified as vertical
machining centers (VMCs) and horizontal machining centers (HMCs). The integration of milling
into turning environments and of turning into milling environments, begun with live tooling for lathes and
the occasional use of mills for turning operations, led to a new class of machine tools, multitasking
machines (MTMs), which are purpose-built to provide for a default machining strategy of using any
combination of milling and turning within the same work envelope.

Face milling process (cutter rotation axis is vertical)

27. Turning (Machining)

Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-rotary tool bit, describes
a helix toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the workpiece rotates. The tool's axes of movement
may be literally a straight line, or they may be along some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially
linear (in the non mathematical sense). Usually the term "turning" is reserved for the generation
of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential cutting action when applied
to internal surfaces (that is, holes, of one kind or another) is called "boring". Thus the phrase "turning and
boring" categorizes the larger family of (essentially similar) processes. The cutting of faces on the
workpiece (that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis), whether with a turning or boring tool, is
called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset.

Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires continuous
supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today the most common type
of such automation is computer numerical control, better known as CNC. (CNC is also commonly used
with many other types of machining besides turning.)

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When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material (such as wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated and
a cutting tool is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths.
Turning can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce
tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be used to
produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids; although since the advent of CNC it has
become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for this purpose.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the oldest machine tools, and
can be of four different types such as straight turning, taper turning, profiling or external grooving.
Those types of turning processes can produce various shapes of materials such
as straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses simple single-point
cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of tools angles which have been
developed through the years.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips (North America), or swarf (Britain).
In some areas they may be known as turnings.

28. Drilling

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials.
The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and

28
rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against
the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion, though the bit is usually
rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated
short movements. The hammering action can be performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or
within the hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are called drifter drills.

In rare cases, specially-shaped bits are used to cut holes of non-circular cross-section; a square cross-
section is possible.

29. Reamer

A reamer is a type of rotary cutting tool used in metalworking. Precision reamers are designed to enlarge
the size of a previously formed hole by a small amount but with a high degree of accuracy to leave
smooth sides. There are also non-precision reamers which are used for more basic enlargement of holes or
for removing burrs. The process of enlarging the hole is called reaming. There are many different types
of reamer and they may be designed for use as a hand tool or in a machine tool, such as a milling
machine or drill press.

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 30. Countersink

A countersink (symbol: ) is a conical hole cut into a manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such
a hole. A common use is to allow the head of a countersunk bolt or screw, when placed in the hole, to sit
flush with or below the surface of the surrounding material (by comparison, a counterbore makes a flat-
bottomed hole that might be used with a socket-head capscrew). A countersink may also be used to
remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation thereby improving the finish of the product and
removing any hazardous sharp edges.

The basic geometry of a countersink (cutter) inherently can be applied to the plunging applications
described above (axial feed only) and also to other milling applications (sideways traversal). Therefore,
countersinks overlap in form, function, and sometimes name with chamfering endmills (endmills with
angled tips). Regardless of the name given to the cutter, the surface being generated may be a conical
chamfer (plunging applications) or a beveled corner for the intersection of two planes (traversing
applications).

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Cross-sections of countersunk holes of various chamfer angles

31. Tap and Die

Taps and dies are tools used to create screw threads, which is called threading. Many are cutting tools;
others are forming tools. A tap is used to cut or form the female portion of the mating pair (e.g., a nut). A
die is used to cut or form the male portion of the mating pair (e.g., a bolt). The process of cutting or
forming threads using a tap is called tapping, whereas the process using a die is called threading.

Both tools can be used to clean up a thread, which is called chasing. However, using an ordinary tap or
die to clean threads will generally result in the removal of some material, which will result in looser and
weaker threads. Because of this, threads are typically cleaned using special taps and dies made for this
purpose, which are known as "chasers". Chasers are made of softer materials and are not capable of
cutting new threads, however they are still tighter fitting than actual fasteners and are fluted like regular
taps and dies (to provide a means for debris like dirt and rust to escape). One particularly common use is
for automotive spark plug threads, which often suffer from corrosion and a buildup of carbon.

Bottoming, plug and taper taps, from top to bottom, respectively.

32. Saw

A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge. It is used
to cut through material, very often wood. The cut is made by placing the toothed edge against the material
and moving it forcefully forth and less forcefully back or continuously forward. This force may be

31
applied by hand, or powered by steam, water, electricity or other power source. An abrasive saw has a
powered circular blade designed to cut through metal.

33. Broaching (Metalwork)

Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are
two main types of broaching: linear and rotary. In linear broaching, which is the more common process,
the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in
a broaching machine, which is also sometimes shortened to broach. In rotary broaching, the broach is
rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape. A rotary broach is used in
a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it
very efficient.

Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined
surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical workpieces
include small to medium-sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though
broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high-quantity
production runs.[1]

Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool.
Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and

32
the final one for finishing. Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into
the tool. The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise
per tooth (RPT), also known as the step or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material removed and
the size of the chip. The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa. Because all of the
features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it.[2] A broach is
effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its cut
is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.

34. Planing (Shaping)

Planing is a manufacturing process of material removal in which the workpiece reciprocates against a
stationary cutting tool producing a plane or sculpted surface. Planing is analogous to shaping. The main
difference between these two processes is that in shaping the tool reciprocates across the stationary
workpiece. Planing motion is the opposite of shaping. Both planing and shaping are rapidly being
replaced by milling.

The mechanism used for this process is known as a planer. The size of the planer is determined by the
largest workpiece that can be machined on it. The cutting tools are usually carbide tipped or made of high
speed steel and resemble those used in facing and turning.

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 35. Sharpening

Sharpening is the process of creating or refining a sharp edge of appropriate shape on a tool or
implement designed for cutting. Sharpening is done by grinding away material on the implement with
an abrasive substance harder than the material of the implement, followed sometimes by processes to
polish the sharp surface to increase smoothness and to correct small mechanical deformations without
regrinding.

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 36. Blanking and Piercing

Blanking and piercing are shearing processes in which a punch and die are used to modify webs. The
tooling and processes are the same between the two, only the terminology is different: in blanking the
punched out piece is used and called a blank; in piercing the punched out piece is scrap.[1] The process for
parts manufactured simultaneously with both techniques is often termed "pierce and blank." An
alternative name of piercing is punching.

37. Cutting

Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an
acutely directed force.

Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science
the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has
a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even
liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).

35
A glass cutter, showing hardened steel cutting wheel (far left), notches for snapping, and ball (on end of
handle) for tapping

38. Notching

Notching is a metal-cutting process used on sheetmetal or thin barstock, sometimes on angle sections or
tube. A shearing or punching process is used in a press, so as to cut vertically down and perpendicular to
the surface, working from the edge of a workpiece. Sometimes the goal is merely the notch itself, but
usually this is a precursor to some other process: such as bending a corner in sheet or joining two tubes at
a tee joint, notching one to fit closely to the other.

Notching is a low-cost process, particularly for its low tooling costs with a small range of standard
punches. The capital cost of the punch press can be expensive though, so small fabrication shops often
out-source their notching work to a press shop or notching specialist. Notching of large or heavy sections,
particularly for large tube fabrication or HVAC, is increasingly carried out by plasma cutting rather than
punch tools.

The accuracy of punch notching is good, depending on the care with which it's carried out. For manual
folding work, prior notching can often improve resultant accuracy of the folding itself.

The speed of notching is usually limited by manual handling when loading the workpieces into the press.
Pieces some feet long may be manually loaded into a single-stroke press. Smaller pieces are still generally
hand-fed, limiting speeds to perhaps 100 strokes / minute.

Almost any workable metal can be notched. It's particularly suitable where the metal is otherwise
awkward to drill, such as stainless steels, titanium or previously heat-treated aluminium alloys. It is an
operation of removing a small part of metal sheet of desired shape from edge of metal sheet

Vee-notched tube, bent for assembly of a mitred joint

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 39. Plastic Extrusion

Plastics extrusion is a high-volume manufacturing process in which raw plastic is melted and formed
into a continuous profile. Extrusion produces items such as pipe/tubing, weatherstripping, fencing, deck
railings, window frames, plastic films and sheeting, thermoplastic coatings, and wire insulation.

This process starts by feeding plastic material (pellets, granules, flakes or powders) from a hopper into the
barrel of the extruder. The material is gradually melted by the mechanical energy generated by turning
screws and by heaters arranged along the barrel. The molten polymer is then forced into a die, which
shapes the polymer into a pipe that hardens during cooling.

40. Rotational molding

Rotational Molding (BrE moulding) involves a heated hollow mold which is filled with a charge or shot
weight of material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes) causing the softened
material to disperse and stick to the walls of the mold. In order to maintain even thickness throughout the
part, the mold continues to rotate at all times during the heating phase and to avoid sagging or
deformation also during the cooling phase. The process was applied to plastics in the 1940s but in the
early years was little used because it was a slow process restricted to a small number of plastics. Over the

37
past two decades, improvements in process control and developments with plastic powders have resulted
in a significant increase in usage.

Rotocasting (also known as rotacasting), by comparison, uses self-curing resins in an unheated mould, but
shares slow rotational speeds in common with rotational molding. Spin casting should not be confused
with either, utilizing self-curing resins or white metal in a high-speed centrifugal casting machine.

Rotational Molding Process

41. Cold rolling

Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room temperature),
which increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. It also improves the surface finish and holds
tighter tolerances. Commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products
are usually smaller than the same products that are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the

38
workpieces and their greater strength, as compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are
used.[2] Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass.

Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: full-hard, half-hard, quarter-hard, and skin-
rolled. Full-hard rolling reduces the thickness by 50%, while the others involve less of a reduction. Skin-
rolling, also known as a skin-pass, involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5-1%. It is used to produce a
smooth surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the yield point phenomenon (by preventing Lders
bands from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at the surface and thereby reduces the
possibility of formation of Lders bands. To avoid the formation of Lders bands it is necessary to create
substantial density of unpinned dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also used to break up the spangles in
galvanized steel. Skin-rolled stock is usually used in subsequent cold-working processes where good
ductility is required.

Other shapes can be cold-rolled if the cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse dimension is
relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations, usually along the lines of
sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing.

If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon encapsulated in
the steel makes it easier to process, but at the cost of being more expensive.[19]

Typical uses for cold-rolled steel include metal furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables, chairs, motorcycle
exhaust pipes, computer cabinets and hardware, home appliances and components, shelving, lighting
fixtures, hinges, tubing, steel drums, lawn mowers, electronic cabinetry, water heaters, metal containers,
fan blades, frying pans, wall and ceiling mount kits, and a variety of construction-related products.

39
 42. Hot Rolling

Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature of the material.
After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains
an equiaxed microstructure and prevents the metal from work hardening. The starting material is usually
large pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting products, such as slabs, blooms, and billets. If these
products came from a continuous casting operation the products are usually fed directly into the rolling
mills at the proper temperature. In smaller operations the material starts at room temperature and must be
heated. This is done in a gas- or oil-fired soaking pit for larger workpieces and for smaller
workpieces induction heating is used. As the material is worked the temperature must be monitored to
make sure it remains above the recrystallization temperature. To maintain a safety factor a finishing
temperature is defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 C (90 to 180 F)
above the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature does drop below this temperature the material
must be re-heated before more hot rolling.[9]

Hot rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties and deformation
induced residual stresses. However, in certain instances non-metallic inclusions will impart some
directionality and workpieces less than 20 mm (0.79 in) thick often have some directional properties.
Also, non-uniform cooling will induce a lot of residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have
a non-uniform cross-section, such as I-beams. While the finished product is of good quality, the surface is
covered in mill scale, which is an oxide that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed
via pickling or the smooth clean surface process, which reveals a smooth surface.[10] Dimensional
tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of the overall dimension.[11]

Hot rolled mild steel seems to have a wider tolerance for amount of included carbon than does cold rolled
steel, and is therefore more difficult for a blacksmith to use. Also for similar metals, hot rolled products
seem to be less costly than cold-rolled ones.[12]

Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross sections, such as rail tracks. Other
typical uses for hot rolled metal includes truck frames, automotive wheels, pipe and tubular, water
heaters, agriculture equipment, strappings, stampings, compressor shells, railcar components, wheel rims,
metal buildings, railroad hopper cars, doors, shelving, discs, guard rails, automotive clutch plates.[13]

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A coil of hot-rolled steel

43. Blow Molding

Blow molding ( BrE moulding ) is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It
is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion
blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process
begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection
stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end
through which compressed air can pass.

The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is blown into it. The air pressure then pushes the plastic
out to match the mold. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the part is
ejected.

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The blow molding process

44. Electron Beam Machining

Electron-beam machining (EBM) is a process where high-velocity electrons concentrated into a narrow
beam are directed toward the work piece, creating heat and vaporizing the material. EBM can be used for
very accurate cutting or boring of a wide variety of metals. Surface finish is better and kerf width is
narrower than those for other thermal cutting processes.

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 45. Laser cutting

Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut materials, and is typically used for industrial
manufacturing applications, but is also starting to be used by schools, small businesses, and hobbyists.
Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser most commonly through optics. The
laser optics and CNC (computer numerical control) are used to direct the material or the laser beam
generated. A typical commercial laser for cutting materials would involve a motion control system to
follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern to be cut onto the material. The focused laser beam is directed at
the material, which then either melts, burns, vaporizes away, or is blown away by a jet of gas,[1]leaving an
edge with a high-quality surface finish. Industrial laser cutters are used to cut flat-sheet material as well as
structural and piping materials.

Diagram of a laser cutter

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